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[ "Einsteins discovery of the law of equivalence of mass and energy is expressed in his famous equation E = mc2, which expresses the colossal energies locked up in the atom. This is the source of all the concentrated energy in the universe. The symbol e represents energy (in ergs), m stands for mass (in grams) and c is the speed of light (in centimetres per second). The actual value of c2 is 900 billion billion. That is to say, the conversion of one gram of energy locked up in matter will produce a staggering 900 billion billion ergs. To give a concrete example of what this means, the energy contained in a single gram of matter is equivalent to the energy produced by burning 2,000 tons of petrol.", "E = mc2 is a formula that shows, in mathematical terms, the relationship between energy and mass. In this formula, E is energy, m is mass, and c is the speed of light. The number 2 to the upper right of the c means that c is squared, or multiplied by itself.", "E=mc2 is Einstein's most famous equation, and it establishes a correlation between mass and energy (c is the speed of light) for the first time -- later practically exemplified in the splitting of the atom and the inauguration of the exploration of atomic (nuclear) energy.", "The equation developed by Albert Einstein, which is usually given as E = mc2, showing that, when the energy of a body changes by an amount E (no matter what form the energy takes), the mass (m) of the body will change by an amount equal to E/c2. The factor c squared, the speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 10 to the eighth power), may be regarded as the conversion factor relating units of mass and energy. The equation predicted the possibility of releasing enormous amounts of energy by the conversion of mass to energy. It is also called the Einstein equation.", "Define the variables of the equation. The first step to understanding any equation is to know what each variable stands for. In this case, E is the energy of an object at rest, m is the object's mass, and c is the speed of light in vacuum.", "The mass-to-energy conversion is described by Einstein's famous equation: E = mc2, or, in words, energy equals mass times the square of the velocity of light. Because the velocity of light is a very large number, this equation says that lots of energy can be gained from using up a modest amount of mass.", "Now we're getting to the c² part of the equation, which serves the same purpose as the star-on and star-off machines in \"The Sneetches.\" The c stands for the speed of light, a universal constant, so the whole equation breaks down to this: Energy is equal to matter multiplied by the speed of light squared.", "where the symbol \\(\\massenergy\\) (cursive “E”) stands for mass-energy. The point of using the new symbol is simply to remind ourselves that we're talking about relativity, so an object at rest has \\(\\massenergy=mc^2\\), not \\(E=0\\) as we'd assume in classical physics.", "Einstein’s publications of 1905 revealed connections in natural phenomena where others saw nothing. His remarkable insights forever associated his name with genius. Yet, given the counter-intuitive nature of his equation, it is sometimes surprising to consider how widely recognized it has become. The notation E = mc2 is visually simple and elegantly meaningful. It is capable of powering the production of energy and of causing great devastation, a conflicted dimension that physicists have had to confront ever since.", "In a later statement explaining the ideas expressed by this equation, Einstein summarized: \"It followed from the special theory of relativity that mass and energy are both but different manifestations of the same thing — a somewhat unfamiliar conception for the average mind. Furthermore, the equation E = mc², in which energy is put equal to mass, multiplied by the square of the velocity of light, showed that very small amounts of mass may be converted into a very large amount of energy and vice versa. The mass and energy were in fact equivalent, according to the formula mentioned before. This was demonstrated by Cockcroft and Walton in 1932, experimentally.\"", "One commonly hears some misinterpretations of \\(E=mc^2\\), one being that the equation tells us how much kinetic energy an object would have if it was moving at the speed of light. This wouldn't make much sense, both because the equation for kinetic energy has \\(1/2\\) in it, \\(KE=(1/2)mv^2\\), and because a material object can't be made to move at the speed of light. However, this naturally leads to the question of just how much mass-energy a moving object has. We know that when the object is at rest, it has no kinetic energy, so its mass-energy is simply equal to the energy-equivalent of its mass, \\(mc^2\\),", "Without doubt E = mc² is the world’s most famous equation. This page explains what E = mc² means in simple terms and some of its consequences. The equation is derived directly from Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity  and other pages in this series  deal with the mathematical and logical derivation. Here though, we will examine the equation as it stands and keep the mathematics to a minimum.", "Which leaves us with the letter “c” on the right side of the second two equations. This is a constant with a value of about 300,000 kilometres per second, which just happens to be the speed of light.", "where \"C\" and \"H\" are used to represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C = 2, then H = 6.", "The equation for the size of the shells and particles was derived from Einstein's E = mc", "where θD is the Debye temperature and h is the Planck constant. Values of c range from 0.15–0.3 for most materials.Nelson, D. R., (2002), [http://books.google.com/books?id", "Einstein speaking about the equation E = mc 2   (211kB, .MP3 file) From the soundtrack of the film Atomic Physics Copyright © J. Arthur Rank  Organisation, Ltd., 1948.", "C is known as molar specific heat capacity of the substance. Like s, C is independent of the amount of substance. C depends on the nature of the substance, its temperature and the conditions under which heat is supplied. The unit of C is J mo1–1 K–1. As we shall see later (in connection with specific heat capacity of gases), additional conditions may be needed to define C or s. The idea in defining C is that simple predictions can be made in regard to molar specific heat capacities. Table 12.1 lists measured specific and molar heat capacities of solids at atmospheric pressure and ordinary room temperature. We will see in Chapter 13 that predictions of specific heats of gases generally agree with experiment. We can use the same law of equipartition of energy that we use there to predict molar specific heat capacities of solids. Consider a solid of N atoms, each vibrating about its mean position. An oscillator in one dimension has average energy of 2 × ½ kBT = kBT. In three dimensions, the average energy is 3 kBT. For a mole of a solid, the total energy is U = 3 kBT × NA = 3 RT Now, at constant pressure, ΔQ = ΔU + P ΔV ≅ ΔU, since for a solid ΔV is negligible. Therefore, C=", "Model of a vitamin C molecule. Black is carbon, red is Oxygen and white is Hydrogen", "Multiply both sides of the equation by c and subtract from the previous equation. This gives,", "Converting volts to joules per coulomb, then joules to newton-meters, then cancelling the meter, you get $$\\mathrm{ 1\\:\\frac{N}{C} = 1\\:\\frac{V}{m} = 1\\:\\frac{J}{C \\, m} = 1\\:\\frac{N \\, m}{C \\, m} = 1\\:\\frac{N}{C}. }$$", "E��=t� ٲ��d��O �R?���w�^7~ڪ����+�[�F��Z�i܈��b�� �W��?�R\"�=��j�C�% b{�Z����vK�\"���,1��j^�tr ~7D�y�Ќ�[lqR�MѴ��G��.��GwЩ�+`)�zpA,y���ݵ�G��/�d� )�3��Z��h���o ���Ǥ��� �:ep��-���� �x�H�e.���uj�v�V�<ó*D��)�✢Y�s�J�́�m.� J:d8�K��ыt�=�:,�I��D� [.H�n���D ���.�-� kI��qI f��{���W{w��������M\\��`��|��#p���w���gJ�d�P������),���|v�p���_x ���o��J� ����k�@�'�E]q�7ܖl4�����YkՁV�L.L ��B&ν����i�M��ۂ�n �8�.�)Ւ�!J\"0n����x �� ��u@�8�n����&v�K�d�4��m�ܧj�gk�-�u3�߿nV��d��ʺ�����݈M}>�H�(<����}x��O0�a�za�x�kF�U�tl&�/�K�Ƣݛd됽�����XL�N�4\\����lٙs�_'���H�GrM\"a � p��u[QI0d�mi�R���P>�?5t>?�� CQ�ٟ�LEa.3!�#�����b+ʶ�:�>ne�5�'�gW�{`� M�Z�^y-�A���'L����®c�z���?~�K\\�l6̤�'����Lcنl�U�F=D�+>����ȃ���aef�.#�%0p������P/d1e��ݚ4%�8���9����� ݼ�9E��;��%Zk%���$z�^}Q��`�\"�\\ � �T", "c = [k] when it appears before a, o and u, and [s] when in front of e, i, y, ä and ö", "\\(\\triangleright\\) We are only calculating the number of electrons that flow, so we can ignore the positive and negative signs. Solving for \\(\\Delta q= I \\Delta t\\) gives a charge of 1.0 C flowing in this time interval. The number of electrons is", "\\[\\begin{align*} \\Delta PE_{elec} &= q \\Delta V \\\\ &= (6.5\\times10^3\\ \\text{C})(1.2\\ \\text{V}) \\\\ &= 7.8\\ \\text{kJ} \\end{align*}\\]", "In electrical engineering and other fields, signals that vary periodically over time are often described as a combination of sine and cosine functions (see Fourier analysis ), and these are more conveniently expressed as the real part of exponential functions with imaginary exponents, using Euler's formula. Also, phasor analysis of circuits can include Euler's formula to represent the impedance of a capacitor or an inductor.", "Similarly the X and Y coordinates of point c are R * Cos(t2) and R * Sin(t2). For notational convenience, let these values be Cx and Cy.", "; ç > - ? Ó ⁄ ° ≈ * Y Ø0 ~ ± t n Ÿ", "Substituting the above 2 results (for E and J respectively) into the continuum form shown at the beginning of this section:", " c_2 = \\frac{ h_2 - h_1(\\bold {n}_1 \\cdot \\bold {n}_2) }{ 1 - (\\bold {n}_1 \\cdot \\bold {n}_2)^2 } .", "= 3.46 s This is just half of the decay period for amplitude. This is not suprising, because, according to Eqs. (14.33) and (14.35), energy depends on the square of the amplitude. Notice that there is a factor of 2 in the exponents of the two exponentials. 14.10 FORCED OSCILLATIONS RESONANCE", "When Q on the terminal side of A in standard position has coordinates (x, y), it has coordinates (−y, x) and (y, −x) on the terminal side of A + 90 and A − 90 in standard position, respectively. Consequently, six formulas follow which display that a function of the complement of A is equal to the corresponding cofunction of A." ]

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[ "1. (Electronics) a coil of wire, usually cylindrical, in which a magnetic field is set up by passing a current through it", "A coil of wire, usually cylindrical, partially surrounding a movable iron core. When a current flows in the coil, a magnetic field is produced which makes the core move. A solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, as in operating a switch or circuit breaker. A solenoid is a loop of wire, often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a magnetic field when an electric…", "When a electric current is passed though a solenoid, it produces a magnetic field around it. Its magnetic field pattern is shown in the figure.", "Can some one please explain to me why electricity flowing though a copper coil generates a magnetic field or where I could possibly find that information? Are there other materials that produce a magnetic field when a current is run through them in a different shape? Thanks!", "The connections between magnetism and electricity were discovered in the early part of the 19th cent. In 1820 H. C. Oersted found that a wire carrying an electrical current deflects the needle of a magnetic compass because a magnetic field is created by the moving electric charges constituting the current. It was found that the lines of induction of the magnetic field surrounding the wire (or any other conductor) are circular. If the wire is bent into a coil, called a solenoid, the magnetic fields of the individual loops combine to produce a strong field through the core of the coil. This field can be increased manyfold by inserting a piece of soft iron or other ferromagnetic material into the core; the resulting arrangement constitutes an electromagnet electromagnet,", "When electricity passes through a wire it creates a moving magnetic field around the wire. The typical unit of measure is Henrys.", "Electromagnet    A device that produces a magnetic field as the result of current flow through a coil of wire.", "Can some one please explain to me why electricity flowing though a copper coil generates a magnetic field or where I could possibly find that information?", "# An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding circumferential magnetic field outside the wire. Its direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) depends on the direction of the current in the wire.", "Turns of wire used to create inductance for use in an electrical circuit, or to create a magnetic flux when current is passed through it, or to respond to a changing magnetic field. An electrical impedance of a coil increases with frequency. See also Inductance, Inductor, Voice Coil", "Fig. 7. Magnetic field around a conductor that has electric current running through it. Here I is the electric current and B — the vector for magnetic induction.", "Self-induction – The magnetic fields in each coil of wire join and compound together to create a magnetic field that resists changes in the current, which can be likened to the current having inertia.", "When the electric current in a loop of wire changes, the changing current creates a changing magnetic field. A second wire in reach of this magnetic field will experience this change in magnetic field as a change in its coupled magnetic flux, d ΦB / d t. Therefore, an electromotive force is set up in the second loop called the induced EMF or transformer EMF. If the two ends of this loop are connected through an electrical load, current will flow.", "The magnetic field created by charge flowing through a straight wire is equal to a constant, , multiplied by the current flowing through the wire and divide by the distance from the wire.", "The direction of the flux lines created around a current conductor with our hand as shown in the figure, then the thumb will indicate the direction of current whereas four other fingers of this hand will indicate the direction of flux lines surrounding the conductor. Magnetic flux surrounds the whole length of the current carrying conductor. The flux pattern extends outwards in concentric circles up to infinity. Since, the magnetic field strength at a point in space, is inversely proportional to its perpendicular distance from the axis of the conductor, the field diminishes very rapidly with the distance. When a straight current carrying conductor forms a coil, it produces the flux pattern like a bar magnet. This is which we call a solenoid. The first figure shows the flux patterns produced by adjacent turns of the coil. However, since lines of flux will not intersect, the flux distorts to form complete loops around the whole coil as shown in second figure.", "Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated soft iron magnetic core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current.", "If the wire is then wound into a coil, the magnetic field is greatly intensified producing a static magnetic field around itself forming the shape of a bar magnet giving a distinct North and South pole.", "device in which magnetism is produced by an electric current. Any electric current produces a magnetic field, but the field near an ordinary straight conductor is rarely strong enough to be of practical use.", "A magnet consisting of wire wound around a soft iron core. It becomes an active magnet when current is passed through the wire, and it ceases to be a magnet when the current stops. See: Magnet", "An electromagnet consists of a coil of insulated wire, usually wound around a soft iron core. Its strength depends upon the electrical current animation, number of turns of wire and type of core.", "If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength.", "Electromagnets are coils that generate a magnetic field for some external use, often to exert a mechanical force on something. A few specific types: ", "ELECTROMAGNET – A magnet of variable strength produced by passing current through conductors around a soft iron core.", "The magnet may be replaced by a coil of N turns carrying a current, i, wound over a piece of iron, or ferromagnetic material, in the form of a ring of uniform cross section. The flux linking each turn of the coil, and each turn of a secondary coil wound separately from the first, is then approximately the same, giving the same induced emf per turn [according to Eq. (1)] when the supply current, i, and hence the flux, &PHgr;, changes in time. The arrangement is typical of many different devices. It provides, for example, an electrical transformer whose input and output voltages are directly proportional to the numbers of turns in the windings. Emf's also appear within the iron, and tend to produce circulating currents and losses. These are commonly reduced by dividing the material into thin laminations. See Eddy current", "A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a magnet, with a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to IA.", "See schematic diagram. An induction coil consists of two coils of insulated copper wire wound around a common iron core (M). One coil, called the primary winding (P), is made from relatively few (tens or hundreds) turns of coarse wire. The other coil, the secondary winding, (S) typically consists of many (thousands) turns of fine wire.", "In everyday life, magnetic fields are most often encountered as a force created by permanent magnets, which pull on ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, or nickel, and attract or repel other magnets. Magnetic fields are widely used throughout modern technology, particularly in electrical engineering and electromechanics. The Earth produces its own magnetic field, which is important in navigation, and it shields the Earth's atmosphere from solar wind. Rotating magnetic fields are used in both electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits.", "These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to electric signals, and vice versa. A few types:", "Inductance: The characteristic of coil or wire to cause the current to lag the voltage in time phase. The current reaches its peak after the voltage does.", "A Tesla coil is a type of resonant transformer circuit invented by Nikola Tesla around 1891. Nikola Tesla used these coils to conduct innovative experiments in electrical lighting, phosphorescence, x-ray generation, high frequency alternating current phenomena, electrotherapy, and the transmission of electrical energy without wires for point-to-point telecommunications, broadcasting, and the transmission of electrical power.", "where B0 denotes μ0H, and μr is the relative permeability [Eqs. (7) and (11)]. The same flux, B, is obtained by replacing the material by a coil in which the current in amperes per unit length", "Imagine that an inductor of 200mH connected across a supply of 9V is passing a current of 2amperes. When the current is switched off, it collapses to zero in 10ms, what would be the back emf generated across the coil?" ]

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[ "Allotropy The occurrence of certain chemical elements in two or more forms; the formsare called allotropes. Allotropes generally differ in physical properties, such as colour andhardness; they may also differ in molecular structure or in chemical activity but areusually alike in most chemical properties. Diamond and Graphite are two allotropes of theelement Carbon.", "Mercury and water are not the only substances capable of existing in three distinct states of matter. In fact, all of the elements, of which mercury is one, may exist in solid, liquid, or gas forms. Additionally, many substances exhibit more than one solid form, often with very different properties. For example, both graphite and diamond are composed of carbon, but the arrange of carbon atoms within the solid is different.", "In organic chemistry, there can be more than one chemical compound with the same composition and molecular weight. Generally, these are called isomers. Isomers usually have substantially different chemical properties, may be isolated and do not spontaneously convert to each other. A common example is glucose vs. fructose. The former is an aldehyde, the latter is a ketone. Their interconversion requires either enzymatic or acid-base catalysis. However, there are also tautomers, where isomerization occurs spontaneously, such that a pure substance cannot be isolated into its tautomers. A common example is glucose, which has open-chain and ring forms. One cannot manufacture pure open-chain glucose because glucose spontaneously cyclizes to the hemiacetal form.", "There are two types of property of matter. Physical properties describe the material as it is. Chemical properties describe how a material reacts, with what it reacts, the amount of heat it produces as it reacts, or any other measurable trait that has to do with the combining power of the material. Properties might describe a comparative trait (denser than gold) or a measured trait (17.7 g/cc), a relative trait (17.7 specific gravity), or an entire table of measurements in a table or graph form (the density of the material through a range of temperatures).", "In chemistry, compounded of the same elements in the same proportion by weight, but differing in one or more properties.", "[Gr.,=other form]. A chemical element is said to exhibit allotropy when it occurs in two or more forms in the same physical state; the forms are called allotropes.", "The special properties of matter, on the other hand, depend on internal structure and thus differ from one form of matter, i.e., one substance, to another. Such properties include ductility ductility,", "forms of matter differing in several properties because of differences in the motions and forces of the molecules (or atoms, ions, or elementary particles) of which they are composed.", "Atom - The smallest unit of matter that can exist of an element. Compound - A molecule containing two or more different atoms bound together. Element - A fundamental substance that has a unique atomic number on the periodic table. Gas - A form of matter that has mass but no definite shape, and can be either compressed or expanded to fill an infinite volume. Isotope - A different form of an element that varies by the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Liquid - A form of matter which has mass, occupies a volume, and flows to adopt the shape of its container. Solid - A form of matter which has a definite shape and volume.", " A phase is a form of matter that has a relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (such as density, specific heat, refractive index, and so forth). These phases include the three familiar ones (solids, liquids, and gases), as well as more exotic states of matter (such as plasmas, superfluids, supersolids, Bose–Einstein condensates, ...). A fluid may be a liquid, gas or plasma. There are also paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called phase transitions, and are studied in the field of thermodynamics. In nanomaterials, the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume results in matter that can exhibit properties entirely different from those of bulk material, and not well described by any bulk phase (see nanomaterials for more details).", "A substance with a variable composition, meaning that it is composed of molecules or atoms of differing types and in variable proportions.", "An element can also refer to a substance which cannot be further broken down into another compound with different chemical properties.", "4 : a solid material which is composed of two or more substances having different physical characteristics and in which each substance retains its identity while contributing desirable properties to the whole; especially : a structural material made of plastic within which a fibrous material (as silicon carbide) is embedded", "What is the name given to a compound with the same formula but different properties to another?", "In chemistry , a chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. It cannot be separated into components without breaking chemical bonds . Chemical substances can be solids , liquids , gases, or plasma . Changes in temperature or pressure can cause substances to shift between the different phases of matter.", "In some configurations, one or more elements comprise a cargo element, while in other configurations they comprise multiple elements, of one or more types. In some configurations, one or more or each of the elements and or cargo elements is a metal, and or may include one or more metals. Alternatively, each of the elements and or cargo elements is or includes non-metal elements. In other embodiments, elements and or cargo elements are exclusively non-metal elements that may include gases, as well as other elements like biological elements, drugs, optics, polymers, etc. In another embodiment, one or more elements and or additional elements comprise one or more types of material forms, including a solid, gas, vapor, crystal, and the like. In another embodiment one or more invention and or non-invention elements, in one or more combinations, comprise one or more types of isolated, synthetic and or recombinant elements.", ", wherein one or more elements are comprised of one or more types of inorganic and or organic molecular compositions of one or more forms or phases.", "A chemical substance (also called a pure substance) may well be defined as \"any material with a definite chemical composition\" in an introductory general chemistry textbook. According to this definition a chemical substance can either be a pure chemical element or a pure chemical compound. But, there are exceptions to this definition; a pure substance can also be defined as a form of matter that has both definite composition and distinct properties. The chemical substance index published by CAS also includes several alloys of uncertain composition. Non-stoichiometric compounds are a special case (in inorganic chemistry) that violates the law of constant composition, and for them, it is sometimes difficult to draw the line between a mixture and a compound, as in the case of palladium hydride. Broader definitions of chemicals or chemical substances can be found, for example: \"the term 'chemical substance' means any organic or inorganic substance of a particular molecular identity, including – (i) any combination of such substances occurring in whole or in part as a result of a chemical reaction or occurring in nature\" ", "Chemical substances are often called 'pure' to set them apart from mixtures. A common example of a chemical substance is pure water; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory. Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond (carbon), gold, table salt (sodium chloride) and refined sugar (sucrose). However, in practice, no substance is entirely pure, and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical.", "Matter can be classified in various ways according to its structure, behaviours and physical and chemical properties.", "A state of matter is a description of the type of physical structure that a material substance manifests, with properties that describe how the material holds together (or doesn't). There are five states of matter , though only the first three of them are usually included in the way we think about states of matter:", "1. a fluid substance with the ability to expand indefinitely, as opposed to a solid or a liquid.", "The properties of a compound are unique are greatly differ from the elements that make up the compound.", "1. a substance, situation, or environment in which something has its origin, takes form, or is enclosed", "The term \"matter\" is used throughout physics in a bewildering variety of contexts: for example, one refers to \"condensed matter physics\",", "50143 In one embodiment, one or more elements may additionally have located on and or in them one or more cargo elements of one or more types, formed from one or more types of molecules.", "Nevertheless, the very factors that would seem to make an equation of state for liquids and solids impossibly complicated also give rise to new effects that are easily observed, and which ultimately define the distinguishing characteristics of the gaseous, liquid, and solid states of matter. In this unit, we will try to learn something about these distinctions, and how they are affected by the chemical constitution of a substance.", "Materials may also comprise other entities such as polymers. These may be inorganic or organic and sometimes a combination of inorganic and organic.", "Chemistry. a constituent of a substance, especially one giving to it some distinctive quality or effect.", "Examples of models of physical bodies include, but are not limited to a particle, several interacting smaller bodies (particles or other), and continuous media.", "Scientists consider “wax” to be a generic term for classifying materials that have the following characteristics:", "non-metallic compounds that result from a chemical reaction, and are molded or formed into rigid or pliable structural material." ]

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[ "Unified field theory, in particle physics , an attempt to describe all fundamental forces and the relationships between elementary particles in terms of a single theoretical framework. In physics, forces can be described by fields that mediate interactions between separate objects. In the mid-19th century James Clerk Maxwell formulated the first field theory in his theory of electromagnetism . Then, in the early part of the 20th century, Albert Einstein developed general relativity , a field theory of gravitation . Later, Einstein and others attempted to construct a unified field theory in which electromagnetism and gravity would emerge as different aspects of a single fundamental field. They failed, and to this day gravity remains beyond attempts at a unified field theory.", "His work at the Institute for Advanced Study focused on the unification of the laws of physics, which he referred to as the Unified Field Theory. He attempted to construct a model which would describe all of the fundamental forces as different manifestations of a single force. His attempt was hindered because the strong and weak nuclear forces were not understood independently until around 1970, fifteen years after Einstein's death. Einstein's goal of unifying the laws of physics under a single model survives in the current drive for unification of the forces, embodied most notably by string theory.", "Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his \" unified field theory \" in a Scientific American article entitled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\". Template:Sfnp Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces , which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory , where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.", "The first successful classical unified field theory was developed by James Clerk Maxwell. In 1820 Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that electric currents exerted forces on magnets, while in 1831, Michael Faraday made the observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric currents. Until then, electricity and magnetism had been thought of as unrelated phenomena. In 1864, Maxwell published his famous paper on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field. This was the first example of a theory that was able to encompass previously separate field theories (namely electricity and magnetism) to provide a unifying theory of electromagnetism. By 1905, Albert Einstein had used the constancy of the speed of light in Maxwell's theory to unify our notions of space and time into an entity we now call spacetime and in 1915 he expanded this theory of special relativity to a description of gravity, General Relativity, using a field to describe the curving geometry of four-dimensional spacetime.", "Einstein's research efforts after developing the theory of general relativity consisted primarily of a long series of attempts to generalize his theory of gravitation in order to unify and simplify the fundamental laws of physics , particularly gravitation and electromagnetism. In 1950 he described this work, which he referred to as the Unified Field Theory , in a Scientific American article. Einstein was guided by a belief in a single origin for the entire set of physical laws.", "In 1950, he published his unified field theory, which was quietly criticized as a failure. A unified explanation of gravitation, subatomic phenomena, and electromagnetism remains elusive today. Albert Einstein, one of the most creative minds in human history, died in Princeton in 1955.", "Gravity is negligible in many areas of particle physics, so that unification between general relativity and quantum mechanics is not an urgent issue in those particular applications. However, the lack of a correct theory of quantum gravity is an important issue in cosmology and the search by physicists for an elegant \"Theory of Everything\" (TOE). Consequently, resolving the inconsistencies between both theories has been a major goal of 20th and 21st century physics. Many prominent physicists, including Stephen Hawking, have labored for many years in the attempt to discover a theory underlying everything. This TOE would combine not only the different models of subatomic physics, but also derive the four fundamental forces of nature - the strong force, electromagnetism, the weak force, and gravity - from a single force or phenomenon. While Stephen Hawking was initially a believer in the Theory of Everything, after considering Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem, he has concluded that one is not obtainable, and has stated so publicly in his lecture \"Gödel and the End of Physics\" (2002). ", "Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have also been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics , and describes the interactions of subnuclear particles such as quarks and gluons . The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory (known as electroweak theory ), by the physicists Abdus Salam , Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg . These three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for this work. [28]", "The true story behind The Theory of Everything reveals that the movie's title refers to Hawking's tireless search to find a single universal equation for all existence. More specifically, it is a theory in physics that unites the four fundamental forces of nature: the strong force, the weak force, gravity and the electromagnetic force.", "Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research on a generalized theory of gravitation and his attempts were ultimately unsuccessful. In particular, his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces ignored work in the physics community at large (and vice versa), most notably the discovery of the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not understood independently until around 1970, fifteen years after Einstein's death. Einstein's goal of unifying the laws of physics under a single model survives in the current drive for unification of the forces.", "Despite the enormous advances in the field of particle research, the present situation is confused. Hundreds of new particles have been discovered, but as yet there is no satisfactory general theory capable of introducing some order, as Mendeleyev did in the field of chemistry. At present, there is an attempt to unify the fundamental forces of nature by grouping them under four headings: gravity, electromagnetism, and the \"weak\" and \"strong\" nuclear forces, each of which functions at a different level.", "In his 1687 theory, Isaac Newton postulated space as an infinite and unalterable physical structure existing before, within, and around all objects while their states and relations unfold at a constant pace everywhere, thus absolute space and time. Inferring that all objects bearing mass approach at a constant rate, but collide by impact proportional to their masses, Newton inferred that matter exhibits an attractive force. His law of universal gravitation mathematically stated it to span the entire universe instantly (despite absolute time), or, if not actually a force, to be instant interaction among all objects (despite absolute space.) As conventionally interpreted, Newton's theory of motion modelled a central force without a communicating medium. Thus Newton's theory violated the first principle of mechanical philosophy, as stated by Descartes, No action at a distance. Conversely, during the 1820s, when explaining magnetism, Michael Faraday inferred a field filling space and transmitting that force. Faraday conjectured that ultimately, all forces unified into one.", "Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have been developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics , and describes the interactions of the subnuclear particles: quarks and gluons . The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory known as electroweak theory , by the physicists Abdus Salam , Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg .", "Einstein postulated a four-dimensional space-time continuum expressed in axioms represented by five component vectors. Particles appear in his research as a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high. Einstein treated subatomic particles as objects embedded in the unified field, influencing it and existing as an essential constituent of the unified field but not of it. Einstein also investigated a natural generalization of symmetrical tensor fields, treating the combination of two parts of the field as being a natural procedure of the total field and not the symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts separately. He researched a way to delineate the equations and systems to be derived from a variational principle.", "Particle physicists study matter made from fundamental particles whose interactions are mediated by exchange particles - gauge bosons - acting as force carriers. At the beginning of the 1960s a number of these particles had been discovered or proposed, along with theories suggesting how they relate to each other, some of which had already been reformulated as field theories in which the objects of study are not particles and forces, but quantum fields and their symmetries.:150 However, attempts to unify known fundamental forces such as the electromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force were known to be incomplete. One known omission was that gauge invariant approaches, including non-abelian models such as Yang–Mills theory (1954), which held great promise for unified theories, also seemed to predict known massive particles as massless. Goldstone's theorem, relating to continuous symmetries within some theories, also appeared to rule out many obvious solutions, since it appeared to show that zero-mass particles would have to also exist that were \"simply not seen\". According to Guralnik, physicists had \"no understanding\" how these problems could be overcome.", "c)   This type of theory, the dream of theoretical physicists, would unify all four fundamental forces, including gravity.", "Among his contributions to Physics was the “eightfold way” scheme that brought order out of the chaos created by the discovery of some 100 kinds of particles in collisions involving atomic nuclei. Gell-Mann subsequently found that all of those particles, including the neutron and proton, are composed of fundamental building blocks that he named “quarks,” with very unusual properties. That idea has since been fully confirmed by experiment. The quarks are permanently confined by forces coming from the exchange of “gluons.” He and others later constructed the quantum field theory of quarks and gluons, called “quantum chromodynamics,” which seems to account for all the nuclear particles and their strong interactions.", "In later life, Eddington (like Einstein , Dirac and others) continued to pursue what he called a \"fundamental theory\" which might unify quantum theory , relativity and gravitation . Although he never completed this research before his death, some of his tentative or abandoned theories underlie many modern attempts at a grand unified theory , and many of his more intuitive, exploratory theories were later borne out by empirical observations.", "Theories which describe the behavior of the single force that results from unification of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces in the early universe.", "According to the current understanding of physics, forces are not transmitted directly between interacting objects, but instead are described by intermediary entities called fields. All four of the known fundamental forces are mediated by fields, which in the Standard Model of particle physics result from exchange of gauge bosons. Specifically the four fundamental interactions to be unified are:", "During the 1970s a similar quantum field theory for the strong force, called quantum chromodynamics (QCD), was developed. In QCD, quarks interact through the exchange of particles called gluons. The aim of researchers now is to discover whether the strong force can be unified with the electroweak force in a grand unified theory (GUT). There is evidence that the strengths of the different forces vary with energy in such a way that they converge at high energies. However, the energies involved are extremely high, more than a million million times as great as the energy scale of electroweak unification, which has already been verified by many experiments.", "While grand unified theories attempt to describe three of the four known interactions of nature - the weak, strong, and electromagnetic interactions - in a unified way, the fourth interaction, gravity, is omitted. Theories which attempt to include gravity as well, such as superstrings, are called superunified. [G97] Superunified Theory", "Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) are proposals to show that all of the fundamental interactions, other than gravity, arise from a single interaction with symmetries that break down at low energy levels. GUTs predict relationships among constants of nature that are unrelated in the SM. GUTs also predict gauge coupling unification for the relative strengths of the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces, a prediction verified at the Large Electron–Positron Collider in 1991 for supersymmetric theories.", "\"The basic Oneness of the Universe is not only the central characteristic of the mystical experience, but it is one of the most important revelations of modern physics. It becomes apparent at the atomic level and manifests itself more and more as one penetrates deeper into matter, down into the realm of sub-atomic particles. The unity of all things and events is the recurring theme throughout our comparison of modern physics and Eastern thought.\" The Tao of Physics, by Fritjof Capra, p.132.", "Grand unified theories:  theories being developed that unify the stronger and electroweak forces into one force.", "At subatomic distances, fields are described by quantum field theories, which apply the ideas of quantum mechanics to the fundamental field. In the 1940s quantum electrodynamics (QED), the quantum field theory of electromagnetism, became fully developed. In QED, charged particles interact as they emit and absorb photons (minute packets of electromagnetic radiation), in effect exchanging the photons in a game of subatomic “catch.” This theory works so well that it has become the prototype for theories of the other forces.", "Example: The Grand Unified Theory of particle physics seeks to define the nexus of the universe's physical forces in one simple equation.", "Murray Gell-Mann developed the theory of quarks, the fundamental particles that constitute the atomic core. Here is an excerpt of his biography from the Nobel prize website .", "A Theory of Everything would unify all the fundamental interactions of nature: gravitation, strong interaction, weak interaction, and electromagnetism. Because the weak interaction can transform elementary particles from one kind into another, the ToE should also yield a deep understanding of the various different kinds of possible particles. The usual assumed path of theories is given in the following graph, where each unification step leads one level up:", "The quark-gluon plasma of the early universe is still theoretical and is thought to be possible because of a theory called Quantum Chromodynamics. American physicist Murray Gell-Mann was among the first to formulate this theory.", "United Nature Theory unifies the general theory of relativity with electromagnetism , hoping to recover an approximation for quantum theory . \" theory of everything \" is closely", "Attempts have been made to unify not only the electromagnetic and weak interactions but also the strong interactions. The starting point for such attempts is the hypothesis of the unified nature of all the interactions of elementary particles except the gravitational. The observed considerable differences between the interactions are attributed to strong violation of symmetry. These attempts have not yet been adequately developed and serious difficulties have arisen, especially in explaining the differences in the properties of quarks and leptons." ]

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[ "Diverging light rays are made parallel by a convex lens. But when the parallel light rays pass through a concave lens, they diverge (spread out) again.", "Concave, or diverging, lenses have the exact opposite effect. The outer surface curves inward, making parallel light rays diverge. Nearsighted people wear glasses with concave lenses. TV projectors also spread light rays using this type of lens.", "A concave lens is exactly the opposite with the outer surfaces curving inward, so it makes parallel light rays curve outward or diverge. That's why concave lenses are sometimes called diverging lenses. (One easy way to remember the difference between concave and convex lenses is to think of concave lenses caving inwards.)", "A corrective lens that diverges light rays before they enter the eye (i.e., a concave lens) will allow the myopic eye to focus the image of a distant object on the retina.", "Diverging lens:  lens that causes light rays to spread apart or diverge; usually a concave lens.", "A device which produces converging or diverging light rays due to refraction is known as a lens. Thin lenses produce focal points on either side that can be modelled using the lensmaker's equation . [43] In general, two types of lenses exist: convex lenses , which cause parallel light rays to converge, and concave lenses , which cause parallel light rays to diverge. The detailed prediction of how images are produced by these lenses can be made using ray-tracing similar to curved mirrors. Similarly to curved mirrors, thin lenses follow a simple equation that determines the location of the images given a particular focal length (<math>f</math>) and object distance (<math>S_1</math>):", "In a lens with a curved surface, parallel rays bend at different angles depending on the angle of the surface where the rays enter the lens. Parallel rays entering a convex lens converge on a point on the other side of the lens. However, when parallel rays enter a concave lens, they diverge, or spread out, on the other side of the lens. They are said to have a \"virtual focal point\" at the spot where the diverging rays would meet if they were extended backward to the near side of the lens. ", "All rays of light passing through a lens are refracted (bent) except those that pass directly through a point called the optical center. Lenses are classified according to the way in which they bend the rays of light entering them. Parallel rays of light passing through converging lenses are bent toward one another; these lenses are thicker at the center than at the edges. Examples are the double convex lens (both surfaces curved outward as in the simple magnifying glass), the plano-convex (one flat and one convex surface), and the concavo-convex (one surface concave, the other convex). Diverging lenses bend parallel rays away from one another; they are thicker at the edges than at the center. Examples are the double concave lens (both surfaces curved inward), the plano-concave (one surface flat, the other concave), and the convexo-concave (one surface convex, the other concave).", "Diverging (spreading) light rays are made parallel by the first convex lens. The second convex lens angles the parallel rays so that they converge—meet or focus—at a certain point, called the focal point.", "Parallel rays of light that strike a concave (parabolic) mirror will reflect off so as to be gathered at the focal point of the mirror. Conversely, light originating from a point source located at the focal point of the concave mirror will reflect off the mirror in parallel rays. That is how search lights are set up (also the bat signal).", "A concave lens can take parallel light rays and bend them apart, as shown in the final picture. Again, each light ray is bent away from the surface in the way into the glass and toward the surface on the way back out.", "A convex lens acts a lot like a concave mirror. Both converge parallel rays to a focal point, have positive focal lengths, and form images with similar characteristics.", "Converging lenses often have two convex surfaces and so are sometimes called convex lenses. Diverging lenses often have two concave surfaces and so are called concave lenses. However, both types can have one convex surface and one concave so this terminology can be slightly misleading.", "Describes a lens with one concave surface and one convex surface. Most spectacle lenses have this shape. Concavo-convex lenses can be converging or diverging. They are sometimes called meniscus lenses. [DC99] Condensed Matter Physics", "Convex surfaces reflect rays so that their backwards extension passes through the focus of the curve. Convex surfaces are called diverging surfaces as they reflect the rays so that they travel further apart. This makes them useful in rear vision mirrors or driveway mirrors to give drivers and oncoming traffic a wider view of the area behind them or around a corner respectively.", "A type of reflecting telescope. Light from the concave mirror is reflected back onto a convex mirror, then onto a plane mirror at an angle to the axis, and into the eyepiece. (see also Reflector) [DC99] Coulomb", "A concave mirror which is a small segment of a sphere behaves approximately like a parabolic mirror, focusing parallel light to a point which is midway between the centre and the surface of the sphere.", "The light rays emanating from a point source take divergent paths that enter a biconvex lens at different points along the lens surface. The lens refracts the light rays bringing them together at the focal point some distance from the lens.", "If a piece of glass or other transparent material takes on the appropriate shape, it is possible that parallel incident rays would either converge to a point or appear to be diverging from a point. A piece of glass that has such a shape is referred to as a lens.", "The concave tertiary mirror is positioned exactly twice as far to the side of the entering beam as was the convex secondary, and its own radius of curvature distant from the secondary. Because the tertiary mirror receives parallel light from the secondary, it forms an image at its focus.", "Curving inward, away from the viewpoint. A concave mirror is one with a concave reflecting surface. A concave lens is either a biconcave or a plano-concave lens. [DC99] Concavo-Convex", "In the case above, the focal point is farther from the lens, because the incident rays were diverging as they came to the lens.", "In the image above, note how the light rays, after they pass through the lens, converge on a single point. Below is a schematic drawing of the above situation.", "A. In transparent bodies (like glass) all the rays of light emerge on the opposite side.", "converging lens (convex lens) one curved like the exterior of a hollow sphere; it brings light to a focus.", "If a lens were perfect and the object were a single point of monochromatic light, then, as noted above, the light wave emerging from the lens would be a portion of a sphere centred about the ideal image point, lying in the paraxial image plane at a height above the axis given by the Lagrange theorem. In practice, however, this condition is most unlikely to occur; it is much more probable that the emerging wave will depart slightly from a perfect sphere, the departure varying from point to point over the lens aperture. This departure is extremely small, being of the order of the wavelength of light that is only half a micron, so it would be impossible to show this departure on a drawing. It can be represented mathematically, however, in the following way: The coordinates of a point in the exit-pupil aperture will be represented by x0 and y0, the y0 coordinate lying in the meridian plane containing the object point and the lens axis. The departure of the wave from the ideal sphere is generally called OPD, meaning optical path difference. It can be shown that OPD is related to x0 and y0 by five constants S1 through S5, and the quantity h′o,", "For example, this occurs with a uniformly accelerated particle. A space-time diagram of this situation is shown in the figure to the right. As the particle accelerates, it approaches, but never reaches, the speed of light with respect to its original reference frame. On the space-time diagram, its path is a hyperbola, which asymptotically approaches a 45 degree line (the path of a light ray). An event whose light cone's edge is this asymptote or is farther away than this asymptote can never be observed by the accelerating particle. In the particle's reference frame, there appears to be a boundary behind it from which no signals can escape (an apparent horizon).", "*Pale, pinkish or reddish rays that radiate from below the horizon. These are often mistaken for light pillars.", "There is an important point to be noted in these diagrams of the rectangular plot of grass and rectangular block of glass. Notice that the direction of the original incident ray is the same as the direction of the final refracted ray. Put another way, the direction at which the light is traveling when entering the rectangular block of glass is the same as the direction that the light travels after exiting the rectangular block of glass. There is no ultimate change in the direction that the light is traveling. This small detail will only be the case under two conditions:", "From this analogy and the diagram above, we see that the refracted ray (in red) is further away from the normal then the incident ray (in blue). In such an instance as this, we would say that the path of the students has bent away from the normal. We can once more extend this analogy to light and conclude that:", "The next thing to note is that it is possible to have situations where no possible angle for the refracted ray can satisfy Snell's law. Solving Snell's law for \\(\\theta_2\\), we find", "What would happen if the rays were already converging as they hit the lens? Where would we find the focal length in that case?" ]

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[ "The total number of vibrational cycle or the oscillations that are made per second by the particles is called frequency of the wave. or The total number of distinct cycles that are completed in unit time.", "Frequency: The number of cycles of vibration in a given unit of time. The number of cycles in a second is one Hertz (Hz), after the German physicist. Therefore 1Hz equals one cycle per second.", "In physics, number of periodic oscillations, vibrations, or waves occurring per unit of time. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), one hertz being equivalent to one cycle per second. Frequency is related to wavelength and velocity by the equation: f = v/λ where f is frequency, v is velocity, and λ is wavelength. Frequency is the reciprocal of the periodT: f = 1/T", "The number of times a signal vibrates each second as expressed in cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz). (Sound)", "at a rate of 2 cycles/second. The third coil, being attached to the second coil, would vibrate at a rate of 2 cycles/second. In fact, every coil of the slinky would vibrate at this rate of 2 cycles/second. This rate of 2 cycles/second is referred to as the frequency of the wave. The frequency of a wave refers to how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes through the medium. Frequency is a part of our common, everyday language. For example, it is not uncommon to hear a question like \"How frequently do you mow the lawn during the summer months?\" Of course the question is an inquiry about how often the lawn is mowed and the answer is usually given in the form of \"1 time per week.\" In mathematical terms, the frequency is the number of complete vibrational cycles of a medium per a given amount of time. Given this definition, it is reasonable that the quantity frequency would have units of cycles/second, waves/second, vibrations/second, or something/second. Another unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz) where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second. If a coil of slinky makes 2 vibrational cycles in one second, then the frequency is 2 Hz. If a coil of slinky makes 3 vibrational cycles in one second, then the frequency is 3 Hz. And if a coil makes 8 vibrational cycles in 4 seconds, then the frequency is 2 Hz (8 cycles/4 s = 2 cycles/s).", "Notice how the pressure rises and falls in a regular cycle. The frequency of a wave describes how many cycles of the wave occur per unit time. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz), which is the number of cycles per second. Figure 2, below, shows examples of sound waves of two different frequencies (Henderson, 2004).", "The number of oscillations, or cycles, within one second. Frequency refers to anything that exhibits the properties of a wave. For example, sound waves are produced when a piano or guitar string vibrates; when this happens at a frequency of 440 times per second, we hear the specific musical note middle C. Likewise, a \"vibrating\" electron emits electromagnetic waves. When the electron vibrates about 600 thousand billion times in one second, it emits green light.", "creates the disturbance could be the vocal cords of a person, the vibrating string and sound board of a guitar or violin, the vibrating tines of a tuning fork, or the vibrating diaphragm of a radio speaker. Regardless of what vibrating object is creating the sound wave, the particles of the medium through which the sound moves is vibrating in a back and forth motion at a given frequency. The frequency of a wave refers to how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes through the medium. The frequency of a wave is measured as the number of complete back-and-forth vibrations of a particle of the medium per unit of time. If a particle of air undergoes 1000 longitudinal vibrations in 2 seconds, then the frequency of the wave would be 500 vibrations per second. A commonly used unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz), where", "3. (Mathematics) physics the number of times that a periodic function or vibration repeats itself in a specified time, often 1 second. It is usually measured in hertz. Symbol: ν or f", "The frequency f is the number or waves (or cycles) that pass by in a given time. The units are cycles per second, called Hertz (Hz), or s-1", "an international standard of measurement for the frequency of a vibrating entity. An equal temperament tuned piano playing at concert A produces a fundamental vibration of 440 cycles per second, or 440 Hertz . Of course, the sounded note is producing overtones as well that vibrate at 880 hertz and higher frequencies that are a multiple of 440.", "Unit of frequency; a periodic oscillation has a frequency of n hertz if in 1 second it goes through n cycles. Also known as cycle per second (cps). Symbolized Hz.", "frequency – the rate of oscillation (vibration). Audio and radio wave frequencies are measured in Hertz. (cycles per second)         ", "Frequency is a measurement of how many cycles can happen in a certain amount of time… cycles per second.", "The hertz is the SI unit of frequency. One hertz is equal to one cycle per second.", "1. Physics The number of complete cycles of a wave, such as a radio wave, that occur per second. See more at wave .", "the derived SI unit of frequency; the frequency of a periodic phenomenon that has a periodic time of 1 second; 1 cycle per second.", "Frequency: the number of cycles per second that passes by a given location. Each cycle includes one condensation and one rarefaction.", "Oscillation is the repetitive variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. Familiar examples include a swinging pendulum and alternating current power. The term vibration is sometimes used more narrowly to mean a mechanical oscillation but is sometimes used as a synonym of \"oscillation\". Oscillations occur not only in mechanical systems but also in dynamic systems in virtually every area of science: for example the beating human heart, business cycles in economics, predator-prey population cycles in ecology, geothermal geysers in geology, vibrating strings in musical instruments, periodic firing of nerve cells in the brain, and the periodic swelling of Cepheid variable stars in astronomy.", "the standard unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), equal to one cycle per second.", "Frequency of oscillation (f) (or just frequency): the number of times the wave pattern repeats itself in one secon hertz (Hz) In sound, f tells us the pitch. The inverse of frequecy is the period of oscillation. Period of oscillation (T) (or just period): duration of time between one wave and the next one passing the same", "The musical sound of C produces 528 vibrations per second; D 616, and so on. The octave above has double the number of vibrations of the lower note. It will thus be understood why discord in music is not pleasant to the ear, as the vibrations are not in the proper multiples.", "When you hear the first sound the membrane in your speaker makes 440 vibrations per second, and when you hear the second sound it makes 220 vibrations per second. The frequency is measured in Hz. (1Hz = one vibration per second)", "Ocean waves also have frequencies that you can measure by counting the number of times a floating buoy bobs up and down. With a stop-watch, count the bobs for one minute (one \"bob\" = one cycle), then divide by 60 to calculate the frequency of the buoy in bobs per second (cycles per second).", "The cycle repeats at a frequency relative to how long it takes a wave to travel to the first open hole and back twice (i.e. four times the length of the pipe). For example: when all the holes bar the very top one are open (i.e. the trill 'B' key is pressed), the note A4 (440 Hz) is produced. This represents a repeat of the cycle 440 times per second. ", "1 2 gt for upward motion, 2 with different values of u in each case. These are examples of periodic motion. Thus, a motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.", "What happens here is that the higher resonances (2f, 3f, 4f etc) combine to help the lips establish a nonlinear vibration at the frequency of the missing fundamental f. (Technically, this is the process that physicists and engineers call mode locking, and is an effect characteristic of nonlinear oscillators. When oscillations at two frequencies f1 and f2 are input to an non-linear system, they produce what we call sum and difference terms: vibration components with a range of frequencies including f1 + f2 and f1 − f2. In the pedal note vibration, there are lots of vibration components whose difference is f: any two adjacent resonances have that difference.)", "Cymatics is the study of visible sound and vibration. Typically the surface of a plate, diaphragm, or membrane is vibrated, and regions of maximum and minimum displacement are made visible in a thin coating of particles, paste, or liquid. ", "Simple harmonic motion The vibratory motion that occurs when there is a restoring force opposite to and proportional to a displacement", "Suppose two neighboring objects have the same natural frequency. One of the objects is made to vibrate. Its sound waves reach the second object and strike against it. Because the frequency of the sound waves is the same as the natural frequency of the second object, the waves start the second object vibrating. Both produce the same note. The second object is in sympathetic vibration with the first.", "Identify the length of a cycle in situations exhibiting periodic behavior and use it to make predictions.", "For an example of how resonance occurs, think of a child sitting on a swing. You give the swing a push, and it starts moving in an arc. If you continue giving a small push each time the swing is at its highest point, the swing soon moves through a wide arc. Although each push is small, you have timed the pushes so that their effect adds up, producing the large back-and-forth motion." ]

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[ "Also called linear momentum. Mechanics. a quantity expressing the motion of a body or system, equal to the product of the mass of a body and its velocity, and for a system equal to the vector sum of the products of mass and velocity of each particle in the system.", "In classical mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum (pl. momenta; SI unit kg m/s, or equivalently, newton-second) is the product of the mass and velocity of an object. For example, a heavy truck moving rapidly has a large momentum—it takes a large or prolonged force to get the truck up to this speed, and it takes a large or prolonged force to bring it to a stop afterwards. If the truck were lighter, or moving more slowly, then it would have less momentum.", "In physics, what is defined as the product of an object's mass and velocity? | eNotes", "1. (General Physics) physics the product of a body's mass and its velocity. Symbol: p See also angular momentum", "An object which is moving has momentum. The amount of momentum (p) possessed by the moving object is the product of mass (m) and velocity (v). In equation form:", "Thirdly, the entire vis viva of the system or, as it is now called, the energy, which is obtained by multiplying the mass of each body into half the square of its velocity, is equal to the sum of the quotients formed by dividing the product of every pair of the masses, taken two and two, by their distance apart, with the addition of a constant depending on the original conditions of the system. In the language of algebra putting m1, m2, m3, &c. for the masses of the bodies, r1.2, r1.3, r2.3, &c. for their mutual distances apart; v1, v2, v3, &c., for the velocities with which they are moving at any moment; these quantities will continually satisfy the equation", "is the angular momentum, sometimes called, as here, the moment of momentum of the particle versus that particular center point. The equation Lrmv combines a moment (a mass m turning moment arm r) with a linear (straight-line equivalent) speed v. Linear speed referred to the central point is simply the product of the distance r and the angular speed \\omega versus the point: v", "With m being an object's rest mass, v and v its velocity and speed, and c the speed of light in vacuum, we use the expression for linear momentum \\mathbf{p}m\\gamma \\mathbf{v}, where \\gamma ", "In classical mechanics, moment of inertia, also called mass moment, rotational inertia, polar moment of inertia of mass, or the angular mass, (SI units kg·m²) is a measure of an object's resistance to changes to its rotation. It is the inertia of a rotating body with respect to its rotation. The moment of inertia plays much the same role in rotational dynamics as mass does in linear dynamics, describing the relationship between angular momentum and angular velocity, torque and angular acceleration, and several other quantities. The symbols I and J are usually used to refer to the moment of inertia or polar moment of inertia.", "Linear momentum, also known as force, is the quantity of mass associated with a body that moves along a straight path. An outside object, with its own force, can change the trajectory of an object with a linear momentum. For example, if you are running forward and a dog runs into you by accident, your trajectory will be changed, and you may fall; however, you should not be hurt too badly because the momentum of the dog was similar to yours. However, if you get hit by a truck, which has a higher linear momentum because if its high weight, you will be lucky to survive. That is because the truck's force is higher than yours. The study of linear momentum also used to understand and predict how things change trajectory when they collide with another object, such as billiard balls do when hit by the cue ball.", "where m is the mass and v is the velocity. The equation illustrates that momentum is directly proportional to an object's mass and directly proportional to the object's velocity.", "{\\displaystyle F_{c}={\\frac {m\\ v^{2}}{r}}} F_{c}=\\frac{m\\ v^2}{r} with m the mass of the object, v the velocity and r the radius.", "and solving this we get vf= 7 m/s. Note that the velocity of one of the masses increases, while the other slows down, showing how momentum is exchanged to produce the final velocity.", "Note that a body’s momentum is always in the same direction as its velocity vector. The units of momentum are kg · m/s.", "If the velocity is kept constant, then the momentum of an object is directly proportional to its mass. In the example at the left, the velocity is kept constant at a value of 3.0 m/s.", "This equation represents one of two primary principles to be used in the analysis of collisions during this unit. To truly understand the equation, it is important to understand its meaning in words. In words, it could be said that the force times the time equals the mass times the change in velocity. In physics, the quantity Force • time is known as impulse. And since the quantity m•v is the momentum, the quantity m•Δv must be the change in momentum. The equation really says that the", "3 In mechanics what name is given to the mass of an object multiplied by its speed ?", "The mass of an object is a fundamental property of the object; a numerical measure of its inertia; a fundamental measure of the amount of matter in the object. Definitions of mass often seem circular because it is such a fundamental quantity that it is hard to define in terms of something else. All mechanical quantities can be defined in terms of mass, length, and time. The usual symbol for mass is m and its SI unit is the kilogram. While the mass is normally considered to be an unchanging property of an object, at speeds approaching the speed of light one must consider the increase in the relativistic mass .", "The trick in using any equation like this is to be sure to use the correct units. In SI, the units are meters, kilograms, and seconds, so that mass m must be in kilograms and velocity V must be in meters/second.", "Example #1: Collision between two identical masses, one initially at rest. We can investigate this using the following movie of a collision where two identical masses, one initially at rest, collide and bump off each other. Note the mass of each object is 2 kg. The initial velocity of Mass #1 is 1.0 m/s to the right. This gives Mass #1 a momentum of (2kg)x(1.0 m/s) or 2 kgm/s to the right. The second mass isn't moving initially so it has zero momentum. The total momentum of the \"system\" (the two carts) is sum of the two momenta, namely 2 kgm/s to the right.", "In the case where a small mass collides with a much larger mass, the large mass hardly moves and the small mass rebounds with a velocity similar to its entry velocity. Looking at equation (4) this can be seen mA-mB~-mB and mA+mB~mB therefore, vA~-1 uA.", "A bicycle wheel has a diameter of 78 cm. If the wheel revolves at a rate of 120 revolutions per minute, what is the linear velocity of the bike, in kilometers per hour? Round your answer to one decimal place.", "As we showed here , the mathematical idea of the limit of a function can be used for finding the value of that function at places where such as things as division by zero occur. So what we would like to do is to define a function that gives the average speed of the mass by the usual method of dividing the distance travelled by the time interval, and then take the limit of that function as the time interval approaches zero. Hopefully, this limit will yield a finite value that we can interpret as the velocity at a specific time.", "in the equation is the particle’s apparent mass, which depends on its speed relative to the observer. If a particle is at rest relative to the observer, then", "In this equation, we are multiplying two vectors using the dot product (·) , 4 which means that only the velocity component in the direction of the force counts.", "When the ratio of velocity to the speed of light is low, then the mass term is constant. When it is near to the speed of light, the denominator approaches zero and the momentum explodes because effective inertial mass explodes.", "Linear momentum being used in an elastic collision: Both objects travel toward each other at the same speed. Upon collision, more force is exerted by the larger object, causing the smaller object to bounce off with greater velocity.", "Example:  Object 1 (mass is 6 kg), moving along with a velocity of 10 m/s, collides with Object 2 (mass is 3 kg), moving along with a velocity of 5 m/s.  If object 1�s velocity is decreased to 4 m/s by the collision, what will object 2�s velocity be after the collision?", "In the early history of relativity, the expressions \\gamma^3 m and \\gamma m were called longitudinal and transverse mass. Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object approaches the speed of light. Note that \\gamma is undefined for an object with a non-zero rest mass at the speed of light, and the theory yields no prediction at that speed.", "The second problem is inertia. In the Newtonian mainstream model there is inertia and this inertia is the equivalent to some 1000mph at the equator.", "After the collision: the masses are the same, but v(1)! = 4 m/s and v(2)! = ?", "To see why not, we have to back up a little and think about where this speed-doubling result comes from. For any collision, there is a special frame of reference, the center-of-mass frame, in which the two colliding objects approach each other, collide, and rebound with their velocities reversed. In the center-of-mass frame, the total momentum of the objects is zero both before and after the collision." ]

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[ "Q8 In mathematics, what is the name given to a quantity which has both magnitude and direction?", "Momentum has a direction as well as magnitude. Quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction are known as vector quantities. Because momentum has a direction, it can be used to predict the resulting direction of objects after they collide, as well as their speeds. Below, the basic properties of momentum are described in one dimension. The vector equations are almost identical to the scalar equations (see multiple dimensions).", "A vector is any quantity that has both magnitude and direction, whereas a scalar has only magnitude.", "A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction. Vector quantities are important in the study of motion. Some examples of vector quantities include force, velocity, acceleration, displacement, and momentum.", "A study of motion will involve the introduction of a variety of quantities that are used to describe the physical world. Examples of such quantities include distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration, force, mass, momentum, energy, work, power, etc. All these quantities can by divided into two categories - vectors and scalars . A vector quantity is a quantity that is fully described by both magnitude and direction. On the other hand, a scalar quantity is a quantity that is fully described by its magnitude. The emphasis of this unit is to understand some fundamentals about vectors and to apply the fundamentals in order to understand motion and forces that occur in two dimensions.", "This is a vector as it has both direction and magnitude. We also know that acceleration is a vector quantity.", "The force, acceleration, velocity, and momentum have both a magnitude and a direction associated with them. Scientists and mathematicians call this a vector quantity . The equations shown here are actually vector equations and can be applied in each of the component directions .", "quantity having both magnitude and direction; it may be represented by a directed line segment. Many physical quantities are vectors, e.g., force, velocity, and momentum.", "The following quantities have both a magnitude and a direction associated with them, and therefore are vectors:", "Vector quantities have two characteristics, a magnitude and a direction. Scalar quantities have only a magnitude. When comparing two vector quantities of the same type, you have to compare both the magnitude and the direction. For scalars, you only have to compare the magnitude. When doing any mathematical operation on a vector quantity (like adding, subtracting, multiplying ..) you have to consider both the magnitude and the direction. This makes dealing with vector quantities a little more complicated than scalars.", "Although it's common to report velocity as a simple value, remember it's a vector and has direction as well as magnitude. Usually, moving upward is indicated with a positive sign, and down carries a negative sign.", "A vector has magnitude and direction, and is often written in bold, so we know it is not a scalar:", "vector: a physical quantity having magnitude and direction, represented by a directed arrow indicating its orientation in space", "By contrast to a vector, an ordinary quantity having magnitude but not direction is known as a scalar . In printed works vectors are often represented by boldface letters such as A or X, and scalars are represented by lightface letters, A or X. The magnitude of a vector, denoted|A|, is itself a scalar—i.e.,|A|= A.", "where F is the force applied to the mass m, and a is the acceleration, or rate of change of the velocity of the object. As written here the formula does not directly show it, but the force and acceleration are vectors, meaning that they have both magnitude and direction. In this case, since they are the only vectors in the equation, they must have the same direction -- that is, the change of velocity must be in the direction of the force, as stated above.", "Examples of vector quantities that have been previously discussed include displacement , velocity , acceleration , and force . Each of these quantities are unique in that a full description of the quantity demands that both a magnitude and a direction are listed. For example, suppose your teacher tells you \"A bag of gold is located outside the classroom. To find it, displace yourself 20 meters.\" This statement may provide yourself enough information to pique your interest; yet, there is not enough information included in the statement to find the bag of gold. The displacement required to find the bag of gold has not been fully described. On the other hand, suppose your teacher tells you \"A bag of gold is located outside the classroom. To find it, displace yourself from the center of the classroom door 20 meters in a direction 30 degrees to the west of north.\" This statement now provides a complete description of the displacement vector - it lists both magnitude (20 meters) and direction (30 degrees to the west of north) relative to a reference or starting position (the center of the classroom door). Vector quantities are not fully described unless both magnitude and direction are listed.", "In Newtonian mechanics, quantities which have magnitude and direction are mathematically described as 3d vectors in Euclidean space, and in general they are parametrized by time. In special relativity, this notion is extended by adding the appropriate timelike quantity to a spacelike vector quantity, and we have 4d vectors, or \"four vectors\", in Minkowski spacetime. The components of vectors are written using tensor index notation, as this has numerous advantages. The notation makes it clear the equations are manifestly covariant under the Poincaré group, thus bypassing the tedious calculations to check this fact. In constructing such equations, we often find that equations previously thought to be unrelated are, in fact, closely connected being part of the same tensor equation. Recognizing other physical quantities as tensors simplifies their transformation laws. Throughout, upper indices (superscripts) are contravariant indices rather than exponents except when they indicate a square (this is should be clear from the context), and lower indices (subscripts) are covariant indices. For simplicity and consistency with the earlier equations, Cartesian coordinates will be used.", "An arrow whose length represents the magnitude of a quantity, and whose direction represents the direction of the quantity.", "The magnitude of the radial velocity is the dot product of the velocity vector and the unit vector in the direction of the displacement.", "where \\mathbf{r} is a vector directed from the centre of the circle and equal in magnitude to the radius. The negative shows that the acceleration vector is directed towards the centre of the circle (opposite to the radius).", "Force is a vector quantity, its direction being important to the effect of a force on a body.", "Real motion has both direction and velocity and must be represented by a vector. In a coordinate system with axes, velocity has components in the direction, in the direction, in the direction. The vector is represented by a boldface symbol:", "   The coherent SI unit of plane angle is the number one; thus the SI units of the quantities of angle, angular velocity, and angular acceleration are, respectively, 1, 1/s, and 1/s2.  However, it is often convenient to use the special name �radian� (rad), instead of the number 1 when expressing the values of these quantities.  Thus, for clarity, the unit rad, rad/s, and rad/s2 are usually used, as shown in Table 6.  Similar comments apply to solid angle; its coherent SI unit is also the number 1, which has the special name �steradian� (sr).  ", "The magnitude of a vector is denoted by . The dot product of a vector with itself is", "The direction of the vector is North East or diagonally up and right (Short of measuring the angle with a protractor, we cannot be more exact with this picture)", "This figure shows a positive general angle A, as well as a negative general angle A'. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.", "where the sign in the denominator is negative if the reference direction \\theta = 0 points towards the center (as illustrated on the right), and positive if that direction points away from the center.", "The above problem is a one dimensional problem, so the object is moving along a straight line. In situations like this the momentum is usually stated to be positive to the right, and negative to the left.", "* \\mathbf{r}_0 represents the position of the point/particle with respect to the reference point of the body in terms of the local coordinate system L (the rigidity of the body means that this does not depend on time)", "quaternions: a number system that extends complex numbers to four dimensions (so that an object is described by a real number and three complex numbers, all mutually perpendicular to each other), which can be used to represent a three-dimensional rotation by just an angle and a vector", "This is just a generic version of the above equation, using the variable d to represent some displacement in normal, three-dimensional space.  This is also measured in units of distance.  The sign of this number simply denotes whether the displacement was away from (positive) or toward (negative) the origin of measurement.", "Further inspection of Figure 9 shows that Equations (18) and (19) give the correct value of the rectilinear coordinates of a' (x' and y'). In this case, however, the value of x' is negative which indicates that dart 30 is located in either the first sector 54 or the fourth sector 60 of dart board 28. In this example, the value of y' is positive because the dart is located in the first sector 54 of dart board 28. The values of a' and 6 may be calculated from Equations (20) and (21) as before to give the exact locations of dart 30 in the first sector 54 of dart board 28." ]

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[ "The SI unit of magnetic flux density Named after the Croatian-born American electrical engineer Tesla. The magnetic flux density when 1 [Wb] of magnetic flux passes through a surface with an area of 1 [m2] is 1 [T]. 1 [T] = 10-4[G], the CGS unit for magnetic flux density.", "The SI unit for magnetic flux density is called the tesla, which is symbolized by the letter T. One tesla is defined as the field intensity of 1 newton of force per ampere. One tesla is equivalent to 1 weber per square meter.", "The tesla is the SI unit of magnetic flux density. One tesla is defined as the field intensity generating one newton of force per ampere of current per meter of conductor.", "the SI unit of flux density (or field intensity) for magnetic fields (also called the magnetic induction). The intensity of a magnetic field can be measured by placing a current-carrying conductor in the field. The magnetic field exerts a force on the conductor, a force which depends on the amount of the current and on the length of the conductor. One tesla is defined as the field intensity generating one newton of force per ampere of current per meter of conductor. Equivalently, one tesla represents a magnetic flux density of one weber per square meter of area. A field of one tesla is quite strong: the strongest fields available in laboratories are about 20 teslas, and the Earth's magnetic flux density, at its surface, is about 50 microteslas (µT). One tesla equals 10 000 gauss . The tesla, defined in 1958, honors the Serbian-American electrical engineer Nikola Tesla (1856-1943), whose work in electromagnetic induction led to the first practical generators and motors using alternating current.", "The flux density is called induction. The SI magnetic induction unit B is tesla (T): 1 T = 1 Wb/m2 = 1 Vs/m2. Mathematically, magnetic field with density of 1 T generates one newton of force per ampere of current per meter of conductor.", "The SI derived unit of magnetic flux density, equal to the magnitude of the magnetic field vector necessary to produce a force of one newton on a charge of one coulomb moving perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field vector with a velocity of one meter per second. It is equivalent to one weber per square meter.", "a unit of magnetic flux density equal to 0.001 gauss , 0.1 micro tesla , or 100 nanoteslas. The magnetic fields generated by power lines and electronic equipment are often measured in milligauss.", "where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field (the magnetic flux density) having the unit of Wb/m2 (tesla), S is the area of the surface, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field lines and the normal (perpendicular) to S. For a varying magnetic field, we first consider the magnetic flux through an infinitesimal area element dS, where we may consider the field to be constant: ", "The SI (metric) unit for magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). Where does this come from? What kind of magnetic strength does 1 weber represent?", "a CGS unit of magnetic flux, equal to 10-8 weber . In a magnetic field of strength one gauss , one maxwell is the total flux across a surface of one square centimeter perpendicular to the field. This unit was formerly called the line [2]. The newer name honors the British physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), who presented the unified theory of electromagnetism in 1864.", "A unit of magnetic flux in the International System of Units equal to the product of one tesla and one square meter.", "[for W. E. Weber], abbr. Wb, unit of magnetic flux in the mks system of weights and measures; 1 Wb is equal to 1 volt-second. The weber per square meter, called the tesla [for Nikola Tesla], abbr.", "The tesla is an SI unit for measuring the strength of a magnetic field. Its symbol is T. The unit is named after the famous inventor Nikola Tesla, who discovered the alternating current, among hundreds of other phenomena. A magnetic field of one tesla is about 30,000 times as powerful as the Earth's magnetic field. However, because the quantity of teslas is computed by dividing the total magnetic flux (power) by area, magnetic fields of high tesla can be achieved by concentrating them in a small space.", "The e.m.u. and e.s.u. subsystems described above are not adopted in their pure forms. Instead a composite system is devised called Gaussian Units. This takes a 'pick and mix' selection from the e.m.u. and the e.s.u. . From the former it takes the 'magnetic units' of field strength, flux, flux density, magnetization etc.. From the latter it takes the 'electric units' charge, current, permittivity etc.. See table USS below.", ", Unicode symbol U+2127 (℧). The term siemens, as it is an SI unit, is used universally in science and primarily in electrical applications, while mho is still used primarily in electronic applications. The upside down ohm symbol, while not an official SI unit, has the advantage of being less likely to be confused with a variable than the letter S when doing algebraic calculations by hand, where the usual typographical distinctions (such as italic for variables and roman for unit names) are difficult to maintain. Furthermore, in some industries (like electronics ) it is common to incorrectly write the symbol for second[ [3] ] as S instead of s, causing potential confusion.", "A CGS unit of magnetic flux, equal to 10-8 weber . In a magnetic field of strength one gauss, one maxwell is the total flux across a surface of one square centimetre perpendicular to the field. This unit was named after the British physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879).", "When electricity passes through a wire it creates a moving magnetic field around the wire. The typical unit of measure is Henrys.", "For example, the total flux per unit length traversing the equator of a cylinder with an inner radius of 1.455 cm and an outer radius of 1.902 cm and comprised of material with Br equal to 12 kG when the inner interior cavity is filled with iron riddled with copper is 17.7 kMx in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, radial magnetic orientation, and 28.0 kMx for the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, \"magic\" ring magnetic orientation. This is a substantial increase. Additionally, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, the flux is uniformly distributed, while in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, the magnetic flux is heavily weighted toward the equator where many of the copper conducting wires are not cut by the magnetic flux.", "the SI unit of magnetic field strength. One ampere per meter is equal to pi/250 oersteds (12.566 371 millioersteds) in CGS units. The ampere per meter is also the SI unit of \"magnetization\" in the sense of magnetic dipole moment per unit volume; in this context 1 A/m = 0.001 emu per cubic centimeter.", "# The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter (A-turn/m). The turns appear because when H is produced by a current-carrying wire, its value is proportional to the number of turns of that wire. In CGS, the unit of H is the oersted (Oe). One A-turn/m equals 4π×10−3 Oe.", "The ampere (SI unit symbol: A), often shortened to \"amp\",SI supports only the use of symbols and deprecates the use of abbreviations for units. is the SI unit of electric current (dimension symbol: I) and is one of the seven SI base units. It is named after André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics.", "The henry (symbol: H) is the SI unit of inductance. It is named after Joseph Henry (1797-1878), the American scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction independently of and at about the same time as Michael Faraday (1791-1867) in England. The magnetic permeability of the vacuum is 4π×10−7 H/m (henry per metre).", "If you were wondering why the constant is 2×10-7 then the short answer is that this definition of the amp is compatible with earlier definitions of it. The ampere was in use long before the SI. However, you also have a field strength ( H ) of one ampere per metre at the centre of a circular loop of wire of diameter one metre when it carries one ampere of current. See the Biot-Savart page for more details. Anyway, the runner up, Monsieur Coulomb, has to define his unit of electric charge via Equation USQ and then equation USJ gives the electrostatic force constant -", "The SI derived unit of magnetic inductance; a circuit with an inductance of one henry gives rise to an EMF of one volt when the rate of change of current in the circuit is 1 A.s^-1.", "The SI derived unit of electric conductance is the siemens, which was previously referred to by the term mho. That term came from spelling ohm backwards and was written with an upside-down capital Greek letter Omega. The term siemens, as it is an SI unit, is used universally in science and primarily in electrical applications, while mho is still used primarily in electronic applications.", "Mho is an alternative name of the same unit, the reciprocal of one ohm. Mho is derived from spelling ohm backwards and is written with an upside-down capital Greek letter Omega: \\mho, Unicode symbol U+2127 (℧). According to Maver the term mho was suggested by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). The mho was officially renamed to the siemens, replacing the old meaning of the \"siemens unit\", at a conference in 1881. ", "The henry (symbolized H) is the Standard International ( SI ) unit of inductance . Reduced to base SI units, one henry is the equivalent of one kilogram meter squared per second squared per ampere squared (kg m 2 s -2 A -2 ).", "A watt balance is an instrument for comparing two powers, one of which is measured in SI watts and the other of which is measured in conventional electrical units. From the definition of the conventional watt W90, this gives a measure of the product KJ2RK in SI units, where RK is the von Klitzing constant which appears in the quantum Hall effect. If the theoretical treatments of the Josephson effect and the quantum Hall effect are valid, and in particular assuming that RK = h/e2, the measurement of KJ2RK is a direct determination of the Planck constant.", "the MKS unit of \"magnetomotive force.\" Electric current passing through a coil of wire generates a magnetic field. This field-generating ability is called magnetomotive force; it is equal to the product of the current, in amperes, and the number of turns of wire in the coil. One ampere turn equals 4pi/10 = 1.256 637 gilberts (Gb).", "a unit of electric current equal to one million amperes . This unit is used in plasma physics and fusion research.", "The SI unit of electric potential difference, defined as the potential difference across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power.", "Serbian-American physicist, inventor and engineer best known for alternating current supply systems and rotating magnetic fields." ]

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[ "Cryogenics is the study of the production of extremely cold temperatures. This field of science also looks at what happens to a wide variety of materials from metals to gases when they are exposed to these temperatures. Cryogenics has a wide number of potential and actual applications, ranging from tempering metals so that they will be more durable to improving the tone of musical instruments. There are a number of research opportunities in this field of science, for people who are interested in the study of very low temperatures.", "In physics, cryogenics is the study of the production and behaviour of materials at very low temperatures (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123 K). Cryogenics is the science of extreme cold. Research in this field aims to understand how to produce and maintain temperatures below 123 degrees Kelvin, or minus-150 degrees Celsius (minus-238 degrees Fahrenheit), and to study the effects of these freezing environments on various different physical, chemical and biological processes. Heat is generated by the random movement of molecules, and as the temperature drops they start to slow down. According to the laws of thermodynamics this cannot continue indefinitely – there must be a bottom, a point at which molecular motion stops completely.", "Etymologically speaking, cryogenics is literally the study of “things that produce incredibly cold temperatures.” There are a number of branches of this field, including the study of the impact of freezing on electrical components, and the study of the effect that deep freezing has on biological material like animals or plants. Some scientists focus purely on finding new ways to produce and maintain extremely cold temperatures, allowing others to build on their work in various offshoots of this field of study.", "cryogenics is the study of the production and behavior of materials at very low temperatures . Someone who studies this field of expertise is known as a cryogenicist. cryogenics is implemented in many ways that may or may not affect our lives. Scientists are trying to implement cryogenics into their studies to improve their experiments. Some ways cryogenics can be used are to preserve human tissues, bacteria and even foods. When it comes to humans, cryogenics is able to preserve the human organs and tissues until one day scientists are able to figure out a way to bring the patients back to life.", "cryogenics , cryogeny - the branch of physics that studies the phenomena that occur at very low temperatures", "Cryogenics is a study that is of great importance to the human race and has been a major project for engineers for the last 100 years. Cryogenics, which is derived ...", "A person who studies elements that have been subjected to extremely cold temperatures is called a cryogenicist.", "The word cryogenics means \"the production of freezing cold\"; however the term is used today as a synonym for the low-temperature state. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins. The workers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology at Boulder, Colorado have chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below –180 °C (93.15 K). This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air) lie below -180 °C while the Freon refrigerants, hydrogen sulfide, and other common refrigerants have boiling points above -180 °C. ", "The origin of cryogenics as a scientific discipline coincided with the discovery by nineteenth-century scientists that the permanent gases can be liquefied at exceedingly low temperatures. Consequently, the term \"cryogenic\" applies to temperatures from approximately −100°C (−148°F) down to absolute zero (the coldest point a material could reach).", "One aspect of cryogenics involves the development of methods for producing and maintaining very low temperatures. Another aspect includes the study of the properties of materials at cryogenic temperatures. The mechanical and electrical properties of many materials change very dramatically when cooled to 100 K or lower. For example, rubber, most plastics, and some metals become exceedingly brittle. Also many metals and ceramics lose all resistance to the flow of electricity, a phenomenon called superconductivity. In addition, helium that is cooled to very nearly absolute zero (2.2 K) changes to a state known as superfluidity. In this state, helium can flow through exceedingly narrow passages with no friction.", "..... Click the link for more information. ). Low-temperature physics is also known as cryogenics, from the Greek meaning \"producing cold.\" Low temperatures are achieved by removing energy from a substance. This may be done in various ways. The simplest way to cool a substance is to bring it into contact with another substance that is already at a low temperature. Ordinary ice, dry ice (solid carbon dioxide), and liquid air liquid air,", "The temperature ranges used in cryogenics vary. Many people consider the study of any temperatures below -190 degrees Fahrenheit (-123 degrees Celsius) to be cryogenics. These temperatures are well below the freezing point, and they can have a dramatic impact on materials introduced to these very cold environments. There are a number of ways to produce temperatures this cold, ranging from specialized deep freezers to the use of liquefied gases like nitrogen which will control temperatures under the right pressure conditions.", "\"Although the heat transfer theory is well known for ordinary conditions [1] and a huge number of studies and applications may be found, there is still a lack of experimental data and theoretical solutions for the problem of the heat transfer in cryogenic systems. Taking into account the continuous development of the cryogenic techniques [2] and their applications especially in superconductor systems, it becomes more and more important to minimize the heat transfer flux and hence the loss of cryogenic liquids in such installations. There are two processes that enable the heat transfer to a liquid helium cryostat built as a Dewar flask :conduction and radiation.Infigure 1 we present a possible structure of the cryostat, and one may see that the conduction process appears due to the sustaining elements of the inner flask. \"", "Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points, which makes them useful as cryogenic refrigerants. In particular, liquid helium, which boils at , is used for superconducting magnets, such as those needed in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance. Liquid neon, although it does not reach temperatures as low as liquid helium, also finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity than liquid helium and over three times more than liquid hydrogen.", "The cryogenic temperature range has been defined as from −150 °C (−238 °F) to absolute zero (−273 °C or −460 °F), the temperature at which molecular motion comes as close as theoretically possible to ceasing completely. Cryogenic temperatures are usually described in the absolute or Kelvin scale, in which absolute zero is written as 0 K , without a degree sign. Conversion from the Celsius to the Kelvin scale can be done by adding 273 to the Celsius scale.", "Low-temperature environments are maintained with cryogens (liquefied gases) or with cryogenic refrigerators. The temperature afforded by a cryogen ranges from its triple point to slightly below its critical point. Commonly used cryogens are liquid helium-4 (down to 1 K), liquid hydrogen, and liquid nitrogen. Less commonly used because of their expense are liquid helium-3 (down to 0.3 K) and neon. The pressure maintained over a particular cryogen controls its temperature. Heat input—both the thermal load and the heat leak due to imperfect insulation—boils away the cryogen, which must be replenished. See Thermodynamic processes", "Recognizing the significance of experimental work on noise thermometry performed in the NBS Boulder cryogenics laboratory during the late 1960s, Bob spent nearly twenty years applying the technique to the NBS low-temperature program. In this work, Bob collaborated with William Fogle and Jack Colwell, who were creating a composite temperature scale that involved the melting curve of 3He and the temperature dependence of paramagnetic salt susceptibility. The trio described their work in a pair of papers during a 1992 international temperature conference: “A new cryogenic temperature scale from 0.0063 K to 0.65 K” and “A decade of absolute noise thermometry at NIST using a resistive SQUID”.", "[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: An accurate analysis of the conduction heat transfer in a cryogenic flask is made and some useful formulae are derived. Taking into account the temperature dependence of conductivity and tensile strength of the supporting rods for a helium cryostat, these formulae may provide more exact results than the the formulae based on simpler models. This allows the design of the supporting elements of a liquid helium cryostat with minimum cross-section (for minimizing the heat transfer)and proper mechanical resistance. Some examples of numerical results and tables are also presented.", "Bill's own important research and writings concentrated on low temperature physics, specifically properties of He3 and He4.  These activities are covered in the obituary published in “Cold Facts”, the magazine of the Cryogenic Society of America (CSA), and also in the Brief History of the Condensed Matter and Thermal Physics Group at LANL through 2006 , to which we refer our readers.", "* Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)NMR is one of the most common methods to determine the physical and chemical properties of atoms by detecting the radio frequency absorbed and subsequent relaxation of nuclei in a magnetic field. This is one of the most commonly used characterization techniques and has applications in numerous fields. Primarily, the strong magnetic fields are generated by supercooling electromagnets, although there are spectrometers that do not require cryogens. In traditional superconducting solenoids, liquid helium is used to cool the inner coils because it has a boiling point of around 4 K at ambient pressure. Cheap metallic superconductors can be used for the coil wiring. So-called high-temperature superconducting compounds can be made to super conduct with the use of liquid nitrogen which boils at around 77 K.", "All cryogenic processing equipment is comprised of a thermally insulated container and some means of extracting the latent heat of the payload to reach the desired low temperature. In most cases the insulation is a solid material that contains small closed cells of trapped still air. The thermal conductivity of such insulation is essentially that of still, non-convecting air, assuming that the solid material that encloses the air pockets is of thin cross-section and low conductivity. Examples are polyurethane foam, aerogel, and expanded glass foam. Six inches of any of these will conduct approximately 15 BTU/hr.ft2 across a temperature differential of 400ºF, which exists between the interior of a refrigerator at –320ºF and an ambient temperature of +80ºF.", "A branch of physics that is concerned with processes and phenomena at temperatures approaching absolute zero.", "investigationsof the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, among other things, to the production of liquid helium", "Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, Russian physicist, was a corecipient of the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for his basic strong magnetic field inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics. He discovered that helium II (the stable form of liquid helium below 2.174 K, or -270.976 C) has almost no viscosity (i.e., resistance to flow). Late in the 1940's Kapitza changed his focus, inventing high power microwave generators - planotron and nigotron (1950-1955) and discovered a new kind of continuous high pressure plasma discharge with electron temperatures over a million K.", "Laser cooling was combined with evaporative cooling in the 1990s to produce the world's first Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), an exotic state of matter first predicted by Albert Einstein and the Indian physicist Satyendra Bose in the 1920s. Get atoms cold enough, they reasoned, to a few billionths of a degree above absolute zero, and they will be packed so densely that they'll coordinate themselves like one big \"superatom.\" It took 70 years, but by gum, physicists succeeded. The work earned Carl Wieman, Eric Cornell, and Wolfgang Ketterle the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001 , and the honor was justly deserved. But BECs to date have only been achievable with specific kinds of gases, like rubidium or cesium. That's why Raizen and Prize's method was so intriguing. Not only would this enable physicists to study even more exotic states of matter, it might also give us new types of atomic clocks (which currently use cesium atoms, mostly, for keeping time).", "According to classical physics, at absolute zero the energy of thermal (random) motion of molecules and atoms in a substance is equal to zero. According to quantum mechanics, however, at absolute zero the atoms or molecules at sites in a crystalline lattice are not completely at rest but undergo “zero” vibrations and have so-called zero energy. If the atomic mass and the interaction energy between atoms are very small, the zero vibrations may hinder the formation of a crystalline lattice. This is the case in the helium isotopes 3He and 4He, which remain liquid right down to the lowest attainable temperatures.", "As we just learned, helium is the product of the sun’s nuclear fusion. But it’s a loooooong trip down the thermometer (way past Coleridge’s ice storm) before you get from the heat of the sun’s core – (millions of degrees, whether Fahrenheit or Celsius!) to the temperature at which helium will finally cease being a gas and turn into a liquid. That point is just a wee bit above absolute zero – the absolute coldest possible temperature. (Scientists, by the way, tend not to talk in terms of cold, but in terms of heat and the lack thereof; cold is simply the relative absence of energy in the form of heat. At absolute zero, there is absolutely no heat.)", "Another fascinating discovery was that helium does not freeze but changes at about 2 K from an ordinary liquid, He I, to the superfluid He II, which has no viscosity and has a thermal conductivity about 1000 times greater than silver. Films of He II can creep up the walls of their containing vessels and He II can readily permeate some materials like platinum. No fully satisfactory theory is yet available for this behavior.", "Commun. no.139f (28 Febr. 1914) \"\"Further experiments with liquid helium: The Appearance of resistance in supraconductors, which are brought into a magnetic field, at a threshold value of the field\".", "Selected references on the discovery, science and technology of superconductivity written for historians and scholars with some technical background:", "* Vibrational frequency of levitated drops: The natural frequency of vibrational oscillations of magnetically levitated drops has been used to measure the surface tension of superfluid 4He. This value is estimated to be 0.375 dyn/cm at T = 0 K. ", "Close, except for one little detail . It's not that the lubrication would freeze, it's that it would flash evaporate. Hard vacuum does strange things to liquids, which is why NASA and other space agencies use specialized lubrication designed to work in hard vacuum for equipment that would be exposed to said vacuum." ]

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[ "Bamboo is the favorite food of Giant Panda bears. It is grown all over the Panda's habitat. But it also can and is grown in many other parts of the world. In th U.S., many varieties have been imported and flourish in home gardens. They are popular in home gardens where Japanese or asian setting are desired. For others, they just like the challenge of growing something different.", "Bamboo is the giant panda's favorite food and adults will spend 10 to 16 hours a day finding and eating it. They eat different parts of the plant depending on the time of year. In the summer and autumn, pandas munch mostly on leaves and winter means a season of stems. Spring is the time for tender, young bamboo shoots.", "\"big bear cat\"), [1] also known as panda bear or simply panda, is a bear [2] native to south central China . [3] It is easily recognized by the large, distinctive black patches around its eyes, over the ears, and across its round body. The name \"giant panda\" is sometimes used to distinguish it from the unrelated red panda . Though it belongs to the order Carnivora , the giant panda's diet is over 99% bamboo . [4] Giant pandas in the wild will occasionally eat other grasses, wild tubers, or even meat in the form of birds, rodents or carrion. In captivity, they may receive honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves , oranges, or bananas along with specially prepared food. [5] [6]", "The giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca, lit. \"black and white cat-foot\"; , lit. \"big bear cat\"), also known as panda bear or simply panda, is a bear native to south central China. It is easily recognized by the large, distinctive black patches around its eyes, over the ears, and across its round body. The name \"giant panda\" is sometimes used to distinguish it from the unrelated red panda. Though it belongs to the order Carnivora, the giant panda's diet is over 99% bamboo. Giant pandas in the wild will occasionally eat other grasses, wild tubers, or even meat in the form of birds, rodents or carrion. In captivity, they may receive honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves, oranges, or bananas along with specially prepared food. ", "The giant panda is unusual in the extreme specialisation of its diet, which consists almost entirely of bamboo. As a member of the bear family, the giant panda has the digestive system of a carnivore and so is only able to digest a small proportion of its bamboo food (2) (3) . An adult giant panda therefore needs to spend most of its waking hours feeding and must consume between 10 and 18 kilograms of food daily in order to meet its energy requirements (3) (8) . It alternates periods of feeding and resting throughout the day and night (3) (7) .", "A member of the order Carnivora, Giant Pandas have evolved to specialize on a diet of bamboo (Schaller et al. 1985). Bamboo is a poor food source, low in protein and high in lignin and cellulose, and wild Giant Pandas can only digest an average of 17% of dry matter and about 27% of hemi-cellulose (Dierenfeld et al. 1982, Schaller et al. 1985). Thus, to meet their daily energy requirement, Giant Pandas must consume a large amount of bamboo, up to 12.5 kg per day, and defecate more than 100 times daily (Schaller et al. 1985). Pandas have large, muscular jaws with skeletal features to accommodate the musculature and its famous “pseudothumb” used to hold and manipulate bamboo for processing. However, compared with other herbivores, the Panda has very low digestive efficiency because its digestive tract still resembles that of its carnivorous ancestors. The Panda’s feeding strategy emphasizes volume, requiring it to allocate much of its time to foraging (approximately 14 hours daily).", "Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth, and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements. ", "Because of the synchronous flowering, death, and regeneration of all bamboo within a species, the giant panda must have at least two different species available in its range to avoid starvation. While primarily herbivorous, the giant panda still retains decidedly ursine teeth, and will eat meat, fish, and eggs when available. In captivity, zoos typically maintain the giant panda's bamboo diet, though some will provide specially formulated biscuits or other dietary supplements. [56]", "A giant panda's appetite for bamboo is insatiable. They eat bamboo 12 hours a day. That adds up to 28 lbs. (12.5 kg) of bamboo each day, according to  National Geographic . But one reason they eat so much is that bamboo is low in nutrients, according to the San Diego Zoo. Giant pandas also eat rodents, fish, insects and birds. Eating both vegetation and meat makes these pandas omnivores. ", "Ninety-nine per cent of a Giant panda’s diet consists of different types of bamboo. Pandas will also eat eggs, meat, grasses and vegetables if these are available. Adult Giant Pandas are largely solitary but they do communicate through calls and scent marking and do occasionally meet outside of the mating season.", "Where do pandas live always involves a forest sodden with torrential rains, dense mists, and heavy cloud cover. The giant panda has lived in bamboo forests for several million years and is a highly specialized animal, with unique adaptations and specifications. Bamboo comprises 99 % of its diet. Other foods consist of grasses and occasional small rodents or musk deer fawns. In zoos, giant pandas eat bamboo, sugar cane, rice gruel, a special high-fiber biscuit, carrots, apples, and sweet potatoes.", "Because it originally evolved as a carnivore, the giant panda is now a meat-eater surviving by ingesting plants. The giant panda spends most of its waking hours eating bamboo, often in a fully reclined position.", "Bamboo shortages: When bamboo plants reach maturity, they flower and produce seeds before the mature plant dies. The seeds grow slowly into plants large enough for pandas to eat. Giant pandas can eat 25 different types of bamboo, but they usually eat only the 4 or 5 kinds that grow in their home range. The unusual thing about bamboo is that all of the plants of one species growing in an area bloom and die at the same time. When those plants die, pandas must move to another area. This is why good panda habitat should have several different species of bamboo.", "The panda dines almost exclusively on one type of plant material, bamboo, which makes up over 95% of its diet. On rare occasions pandas will consume other types of plants, small animals, or insects, but the bamboo diet is so dominant, and has been consumed by the panda for so many thousands of years, that it has evolved into a bamboo eating machine, and has even evolved special paws with bony \"pseudo thumbs\" for handling bamboo shoots.", "The giant panda is a terrestrial animal and primarily spends its life roaming and feeding in the bamboo forests", "Feeding giant pandas can be challenging. It seems easy - they eat bamboo, right? Bamboo grows all over the place here in Georgia. Unfortunately, it's not as easy as that. Pandas don't eat every type of bamboo. There are only a few specific species that our pandas will eat. Even within those species, not every piece will be appetizing to the pandas. Each piece they eat has to be the right age, the right species, and have the right nutritional requirements, all of which the pandas can detect by smell. It takes a whole team here at the Zoo to feed the pandas. We keepers work closely with the bamboo harvesting team to decide which bamboos to offer every day based on what the bears are eating. We are lucky to have bamboo growing so close to the zoo and can choose among 6-7 species in hopes to keep the pandas happy and well-fed. However, it is not an easy task to feed such finicky eaters.", "Pandas, which typically live in coniferous forests, do primarily eat bamboo, but may supplement their diet with foods such as grasses and the occasional small rodent or musk deer fawn. However, pandas who are kept in the zoo instead of the wild have a bit of a different diet. Pandas in zoos have a diet that usually consists of bamboo, carrots, apples, sugar cane and sweet potatoes.", "Red pandas differ from giant pandas in their manner of eating bamboo. Red pandas are selective about the parts of bamboo they eat, only going for the newest and softest foliage and stalks. Giant pandas consume the entirety of the plants, other than the roots. Red pandas are also diligent chewers, while giant pandas are not.", "Diet: Pandas have a very specific diet consisting almost entirely of leaves, stems, and shoots of various bamboo species. They spend between 10 and 12 hours eating bamboo every day. An adult can consume between 26 and 33 pounds (11-14 kg) per day. Although they are too slow to catch most animals, they have been known to eat meat when the opportunity arises.", "As already indicated in the Bare Facts section, bamboo is a low-calorie food source  that has had a defining influence on both the physical appearance of the panda as well as on its behaviour. The bamboo diet has obviously determined the panda's habitat and it must live within easy access to bamboo forests.", "A panda eats bamboo g in Chengdu, the capital of China's southwestern province of Sichuan in November 2011. Two giant pandas are set to arrive at Edinburgh Zoo in Scotland on Sunday on a eagerly anticipated ten-year loan from China, agreed after years of high-level political and diplomatic negotiations.", "A giant panda is bear-like in shape. It has black fur on ears, eye patches, muzzle, legs, and shoulders. The rest of the animal's coat is white. Although scientists do not know why these unusual bears are black and white, some speculate that the bold coloring provides effective camouflage into their shade-dappled snowy and rocky surroundings. The panda's thick, wooly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat. Giant pandas have large molar teeth and strong jaw muscles for crushing tough bamboo. Many people find these chunky, lumbering animals to be cute, but giant pandas can be as dangerous as any other bear.", "The Giant Panda is a species of bear that is found in the mountains of central and western China . One of the most famous and easily identifiable animals in the world, the Giant Panda is also one of the rarest and is under immense threat in it's natural environment , primarily from habitat loss. The Giant Panda is unique among bears as they do not hibernate, have very small babies at birth and survive on a diet that is almost entirely vegetarian. Since the Giant Panda was first discovered by a French naturalist in 1869, it has become a global symbol for conservation with the World Wildlife Fund using it as their logo. The Chinese people also see the Giant Panda as a symbol of peace and numerous efforts have been made to try and protect the remaining populations in their native habitats .", "The giant panda has a body shape typical of bears. It has black fur on its ears, eye patches, muzzle, legs, arms and shoulders. The rest of the animal’s coat is white. Although scientists do not know why these unusual bears are black and white, speculation suggests that the bold coloring provides effective camouflage in their shade-dappled snowy and rocky habitat. [18]  The giant panda’s thick, wooly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat. [18]  The panda’s skull shape is typical of  durophagous  carnivorans. It has evolved from previous ancestors to exhibit larger molars with increased complexity and expanded temporal fossa. [19] [20]", "Pandas eat 20 or so bamboo species. A research centre for endangered animals in the western province of Shaanxi has carried out tests aimed at helping pandas to broaden their eating habits.", "Features: Pandas look a lot like other bears in terms of general shape and body structure. Because they chew tough bamboo stalks for nourishment, they have highly developed muscles around their jaw and large crushing molars, giving the head a round appearance. Panda forepaws are very flexible and have an enlarged wrist bone that acts as a unique ‘sixth digit,’ which works sort of like a human thumb, for handling bamboo. Unlike other bears, pandas do not have heel pads on their hind feet, but they can still move around the dense forest silently and easily. Pandas have an extremely thick esophagus for swallowing large splinters of bamboo.", "The red panda, is a small arboreal mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China. It is the only species of the genus Ailurus. Slightly larger than a domestic cat, it has reddish-brown fur, a long, shaggy tail, and a waddling gait due to its shorter front legs. It feeds mainly on bamboo, but is omnivorous and may also eat eggs, birds, insects, and small mammals. It is a solitary animal, mainly active from dusk to dawn, and is largely sedentary during the day.", "Native to the mountain forests of southwest China, the giant panda is one of the most beloved animals in the world.", "The giant panda is among the world's most adored and protected rare animals, and is one of the few in the world whose natural inhabitant status was able to gain a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation. The Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, located in the southwest Sichuan province and covering seven natural reserves, were inscribed onto the World Heritage List in 2006. ", "The giant panda has a body typical of bears. Pandas have black fur on their ears, eye patches, muzzles, legs and shoulders. The rest of the pandas coat is white. The pandas thick, wooly coat keeps it warm in the cool forests of its habitat.", "One of the friendliest bears in the world, the giant panda is also one of the rarest, with fewer than 2,000 in the wild today.", "to fufill it's nutritional needs. The panda is well prepared for this, with strong teeth and" ]

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[ "Marmoset (family Callitrichidae), any of numerous species of small long-tailed South American monkeys . Similar in appearance to squirrels, marmosets are tree-dwelling primates that move in a quick, jerky manner. Claws on all the digits except the big toe aid them in scampering along branches, where they primarily eat insects in addition to fruit , tree sap, and other small animals. Marmosets are active during the day and live in small groups. The gestation period is four to six months, depending on species; twins are the norm, with single births being about as common as triplets. Marmosets have been kept as pets since the early 17th century, but they require knowledgeable care to remain healthy.", "Marmosets are the 22 New World monkey species of the genera Callithrix, Cebuella, Callibella, and Mico. All four genera are part of the biological family Callitrichidae. The term marmoset is also used in reference to the Goeldi's Monkey, Callimico goeldii, which is closely related. Most marmosets are about 20 centimetres (8 in) long. Relative to other monkeys, they show some apparently primitive features: they have claws rather than nails, and tactile hairs on their wrists. They lack wisdom teeth, and their brain layout seems to be relatively primitive. Their body temperature is unusually variable, changing by up to 4 �C (7 �F) in a day. According to recent research, marmosets exhibit germline chimerism, which is not known to occur in nature in any other primate.", "The common marmoset is one of the most commonly found callithrichid species kept in captivity. It is also one of the smallest species of monkey. Their name ‘marmoset’ comes from the French word ‘marmouset’ meaning ‘dwarf’, or ‘little’.", "Common marmosets are small-bodied New World monkeys that are brown, grey, and yellowish in color with white ear tufts and long, banded tails. They have pale skin on their faces, which darkens with exposure to sun, and a blaze of white on their foreheads. Infants are born with a brown and yellow coat and develop the white ear tufts and forehead blaze as they age. Males and females are about the same size, with males measuring, on average, 188 mm (7.40 in) and females having an average height of 185 mm (7.28 in). Males have slightly higher average weights than females at 256 g (9.03 oz) and 236 g (8.32 oz), respectively. Members of the genus Callithrix, common marmosets have a few adaptations unique to this group and necessary for their diet and arboreal lifestyle. On all but the hallux (big toe), they have claw-like nails called tegulae instead of the characteristic flat nails (ungulae) of other primates, including humans. The presence of claw-like nails instead of true nails helps common marmosets in their squirrel-like locomotion patterns. They cling vertically to trees, run quadrupedally across branches, and move between trees by leaping. Other rare traits exhibited by callitrichines are their enlarged, chisel-shaped incisors and specialized cecum (part of the large intestine) which are adaptations for a very specialized diet. Finally, members of this group have a tendency to give birth to non-identical twins, which is unusual for primates. Common marmosets are endemic to Brazil.", "The marmosets () are 22 New World monkey species of the genera Callithrix, Cebuella, Callibella, and Mico. All four genera are part of the biological family Callitrichidae. The term marmoset is also used in reference to the Goeldi's marmoset, Callimico goeldii, which is closely related.", "Pygmy marmoset is a type of primate that is best known as the smallest monkey in the world. It can be found in Brazil, Peru, Columbia and Ecuador. Pygmy marmosets live in dense, tropical rainforests, lowland forests and areas that are flooded for more than three months during the year. Number of pygmy marmosets in the wild is still stable. Luckily, these animals are not severely affected by habitat loss (which is the major threat for most animals). Other than habitat loss, normal behavior of pygmy marmosets in the wild is disturbed by tourist expeditions. Pet trade is another factor that affects number of pygmy marmosets.", "The pygmy marmoset is a tiny primate that is exclusively found in the jungles of South America. The pygmy marmoset is known to be the smallest known species of monkey in the world.", "Pygmy marmosets are diurnal animals (active during the day). They spend most of their lifetime in trees, where they can find food and hide from the predators.", "The common marmoset is an exudativore and insectivore. This means that their diet consists mainly of exudates, material that oozes out of a plant such as gum, sap, resin, and latex, and also insects.  They spend around 20 to 70% of their time feeding on exudates, and around 20 to 30% feeding on insects. Their diet consists of these foods much more than any other marmoset or tamarin species, which means there is little competition for food.", "The diminutive pygmy marmoset is the smallest monkey in the world. Its tiny body has greyish, black mixed with buff... More 13 Images 4 Videos", "Most marmosets are about 20 cm long. Relative to other monkeys, they show some apparently primitive features: they have claws rather than nails, and tactile hairs on their wrists. They lack wisdom teeth, and their brain layout seems to be relatively primitive. Their body temperature is unusually variable, changing by up to 4 °C (7 °F) in a day. Marmosets are native to South America and have been found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay and Peru. They have also been spotted in Central America and Mexico. They are also raised in captivity as pets.", "Geoffrey's marmoset is an exceptionally distinctive monkey, most readily recognised for its conspicuous white cheeks, forehead and... More 11 Images 1 Video", "Callitrichidae (Marmosets and lion tarmasins: 21 species). These small monkeys, have clawed tails on all fingers but the big toe; they do not utilize the tail for clinging. They all have diurnal habits. Examples are the Goeldi’s Marmoset ( Callimico goeldii ), 21 cm long, with a tail of 31 cm; it lives in the Upper Amazonia. It is black, with a hood of long hair. Other example is the Common Marmoset ( Callithrix jacchus ) living in the tropical and subtropical Brazilian and Bolivian forests.", "The common marmoset is entirely arboreal (tree dwelling) and prefers secondary or disturbed forests and edge habitat.", "This adorable monkey is also the world's smallest, weighing less than a soda can and measuring just under 6 inches on average—not including its tail, which tends to be twice as long as its body. Pygmy marmosets primarily live in the tropical rainforests of South America and southern and eastern Africa. Given its swift speeds and preference for living right under the canopy layer of massive trees, the marmoset has proven to be difficult to study in the wild. Photo: Asia Images/Getty Images", "Native to the Amazon rainforest, pygmy marmoset monkeys grow only to about 6″ in size, excluding their tail. They are also known colloquially in Brazil as mono de bolsillos, or “pocket monkeys.”", "These mini monkeys communicate by chattering and trilling in high-pitched voices. They also make faces to show surprise, fear, or just feeling fine. Because they are so small and cute, people often want to have one at home, even though monkeys do not make good pets. They are messy eaters, and they bite when scared, angry, or frustrated. And nothing in your home would be safe when a small but mighty marmoset starts monkeying around!", "Because they are so small, pygmy marmosets can become prey for cats, harpy eagles, hawks, and snakes. That is why they dash from one safe spot to the next. Their neck is flexible, and they can turn their head backward to spot predators. They are deliberate about their movements to avoid drawing the attention of predators. But when they need to move, pygmy marmosets are fast, leaping several feet to avoid the animals that would like to make a meal out of them.", "Pygmy marmosets eat both plant and animal-based food (omnivores). They eat different type of fruit, nectar, leaves and small invertebrates (such as insects).", "The white-tufted marmoset ( Callithrix jacchus ) live mainly in the highest part of the tops of the trees. It nourishes mainly of insects, but alsoof fruits and leaves. During the night, its temperature decreases of 1°c, unique fact I the monkeys.", "Common marmosets live in extended family groups of between three to twelve animals. This family group usually consists of one adult breeding pair and their offspring, but can also include two breeding males.  The dominant adults will be the only members of the group to produce young; however the rest of the group will all help take care of the young.  The group will forage for food together and sleep together, always with a sentry watching for predators.", "Marmosets live in family groups of three to 15, consisting of one to two breeding females, an unrelated male, their offspring and occasionally extended family members and unrelated individuals. Their mating systems are highly variable and can include monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry. In most species, fraternal twins are usually born, but triplets are not unknown. Like other callitrichines, marmosets are characterized by a high degree of cooperative care of the young and some food sharing and tolerated theft. Adult males, females other than the mother, and older offspring, participate in carrying infants. Most groups scent mark and defend the edges of their ranges, but it is unclear if they are truly territorial, as group home ranges greatly overlap.", "At the San Diego Zoo, pygmy marmosets eat veggies, fruit, a specialized commercial diet for New World monkeys, crickets, mealworms, wax worms, and hard-boiled eggs.", "It is estimated that there are 11 species of marmosets and 16 species of tamarins within the Callitrichid family. However, the exact taxonomic relationships are debated and new species are still being discovered, such as Callithrix mauesi, C. nigriceps, and C. saterei found since 1990 in Brazil.", "Pygmy marmosets are monogamous, which means that male and female mate for a lifetime. Pygmy marmosets reach sexual maturity at the age of 1 or 1.5 year. Each couple of pygmy marmosets has two litters per year.", "Pygmy marmosets use their lower canines to drill the bark and induce leakage of the sap. This sticky liquid is favorite food of pygmy marmosets.", "Marmosets will make special calls for different types of predators, to warn others. They may also mob a predator, attacking it as a group and making loud noises to scare it off!", "Another symbol of the New World tropics is the strange-looking Baird's tapir (danta locally), a solitary, ground-living, plant-eating, forest-dwelling, ungainly mixture of elephant, rhinoceros, pig, and horse. The tapir uses its short, highly mobile proboscis--an evolutionary forerunner to the trunk of the elephant--for plucking leaves and shoveling them into its mouth. This endangered species is the largest indigenous terrestrial land mammal in Central America. Like its natural predator the jaguar, the tapir has suffered severely at the hands of man. The animal was once common in Costa Rica and ranged far and wide in the lowland swamps and forests. It was even present in the bamboo thickets up to 3,000 meters elevation in the Talamanca mountains. Hunters have brought it to the edge of extinction.", "Spider monkeys of the genus Ateles are New World monkeys in the subfamily Atelinae, family Atelidae. Like other atelines, they are found in tropical forests of Central and South America, from southern Mexico to Brazil. The genus contains seven species, all of which are under threat; the black-headed spider monkey and brown spider monkey are critically endangered. Their disproportionately long limbs and long prehensile tails make them one of the largest New World monkeys and gives rise to their common name. Spider monkeys live in the upper layers of the rainforest, and forage in the high canopy, from 25 to 30 m (82 to 98 ft). They primarily eat fruits, but will also occasionally consume leaves, flowers, and insects. Due to their large size, spider monkeys require large tracts of moist evergreen forests, and prefer undisturbed primary rainforest. They are social animals and live in bands of up to 35 individuals but will split up to forage during the day. Recent meta-analyses on primate cognition studies indicated spider monkeys are the most intelligent New World monkeys. They can produce a wide range of sounds and will ‘bark’ when threatened; other vocalizations include a whinny similar to a horse and prolonged screams. The IUCN Red List lists one species as vulnerable, four species as endangered and two species as critically endangered.", "If an anteater and an armadillo had a baby, it might look something like the pangolin, an odd-looking mammal found throughout parts of Asia and Africa. The pangolin has a long, specially adapted tongue for eating ants and termites and wears a protective keratin shell — it is the only mammal known to have this adaptation. Sadly, its unique characteristics also make it the most trafficked mammal in the world, as it is highly sought-after for its meat and armor. The pangolin is currently listed as a threatened species.", "These facts will probably be familiar but they form an essential background to any discussion of environmental enrichment in marmosets. ", "The mangabeys, are very close to baboons, but have a shorter muzzle and a longer tail. They are essentially arboreal and have a social organization similar to that of the guenons." ]

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[ "Dendrophylax lindenii, the Ghost Orchid, has truly spectacular flowers but is difficult to care for in cultivation. They do much better in their native habitats in Florida and Cuba, though habitat destruction has endangered the species. These plants lack leaves, and photosynthesize with their roots!", "Anyone looking at a plant of the butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus) would suppose that it has the normal arrangement of leaves growing out of a stalk. But if you look closely at the 'leaves' you will see that little white flowers grow out of the centers of them. They cannot therefore be leaves - they are stems transformed to look like leaves and to perform the function of both stems and leaves.", "This southeast Asian plant has the largest known individual flower in the world. It is parasitic on members of the genus Tetrastigma (in the grape family, Vitaceae). It has no roots or leaves and most of the time lives unobserved inside the woody stems and roots of its host. Rafflesia arnoldii only becomes visible when its plump buds emerge through the bark of its host and develop into the large, fleshy flowers which are pollinated by carrion-flies.", "Flowers are produced from flower-buds in the axils of leaves called bracts; \"bract\" is properly restricted to the leaf from which the primary floral axis arises, while leaves which arise between the bract and the flower are bracteoles. Their arrange ment is similar to that of foliage leaves. In many cases, bracts protect the young flower, but they are sometimes undeveloped, and usually fall off early. Sometimes, especially with bracteoles, no flower-buds arise in their axils. At the base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants is often a whorl of bracts, the general involucre, while partial involucres or involucels are found at the base of the umbellules. In Compositae the involucre sur rounds the heads of flowers (fig. 12). When bracts become united, the outer ones often do not produce flowers. A sheathing bract or spathe, enclosing one or several flowers is common among monocotyledons and may, in some palms, reach 20 ft. in length and enclose 200,000 flowers. The spathe may be coloured (An thurium) or white (arum lily, Zantedeschia ethiopica). In grasses, the outer scales (glumes) of the spikelet are sterile bracts. Bracts may be changed into leaves (phyllody).", "A rare, parasitic, rootless and leafless plant, Rafflesia arnoldii has the largest known flower in the world.", "Dahlia ( or) is a genus of bushy, tuberous, herbaceous perennial plants native to Mexico. A member of the Asteraceae (or Compositae), dicotyledonous plants, related species include the sunflower, daisy, chrysanthemum, and zinnia. There are 42 species of dahlia, with hybrids commonly grown as garden plants. Flower forms are variable, with one head per stem; these can be as small as 2 in diameter or up to 1 ft (\"dinner plate\"). This great variety results from dahlias being octoploids—that is, they have eight sets of homologous chromosomes, whereas most plants have only two. In addition, dahlias also contain many transposons—genetic pieces that move from place to place upon an allele—which contributes to their manifesting such great diversity.", "Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as pedicels. After aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve. The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm (12 in) in height. A three-pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm (0.98–1.2 in) in length.", "Some confuse this species with Ravenala madagascariensis, the traveler's tree. Though very closely related, this latter plant produces less-cupped (i.e., flatter) leaves that have longer petioles and are longer and somewhat less stiff themselves. This plant eventually forms wonderfully stacked leaves in a neat, perfectly two dimensional plane for an incredibly ornamental effect. Flowers of these two species are similar, but traveler's tree flowers have lime-green spathes, no blue tongues and the sepals are a pale yellowy color. Sadly this species is even more cold sensitive and I cannot get one to survive in my climate here in inland Los Angeles.", "Gerbera plants have dark green, deeply cut, 10\" leaves with fuzzy undersides. Large, brightly colored, Daisy-like flowers stand above the foliage on stiff, leafless stems all summer.", "The tree is evergreen where rainfall occurs throughout the year, but deciduous where there is a long dry season. The leaves are opposite or in whorls of three, 30–50 cm long, pinnate, with six to ten oval leaflets up to 20 cm long and 6 cm broad; the terminal leaflet can be either present or absent. The flowers (and later the fruit) hang down from branches on long flexible stems (2-6 metres long). Flowers are produced in panicles; they are bell-shaped (similar to those of the African tulip tree but darker and more waxy), orange to reddish or purplish green, and about 10 cm wide. Individual flowers do not hang down but are oriented horizontally. Some birds are attracted to these flowers and the strong stems of each flower make ideal footholds. Their scent is most notable at night indicating that they are adapted to pollination by bats, which visit them for pollen and nectar. They also remain open by day however, and are freely visited by many insect pollinators, particularly large species such as carpenter bees. ", "Iris is a genus of 260–300 species of flowering plants with showy flowers. It takes its name from the Greek word for a rainbow, referring to the wide variety of flower colors found among the many species. As well as being the scientific name, iris is also very widely used as a common name for all Iris species, though some plants called thus belong to other closely related genera. A common name for some species is 'flags', while the plants of the subgenus Scorpiris are widely known as 'junos', particularly in horticulture. It is a popular garden flower. The often-segregated, monotypic genera Belamcanda, Hermodactylus, and Pardanthopsis are currently included in Iris.", "Ranunculus is a large genus of about 600 species of plants in the Ranunculaceae. Members of the genus include the buttercups, spearworts, and water crowfoots. The petals are often highly lustrous, especially in yellow species. Buttercups usually flower in the spring, but flowers may be found throughout the summer, especially where the plants are growing as opportunistic colonizers, as in the case of garden weeds.", "The perennial root is woody, thicky and long, the stem 1 to 2 feet high, erect with the leaves in distinct pairs, the lower shortly stalked, and the upper ones stalkless. The radical leaves lie in a rosette and have foot-stalks 1 1/2 to 4 inches long, their blades about the same length, oblong in shape, blunt at their ends and heart-shaped at the base, wavy at the margins, which are generally indented by five or six shallow, blunt lobes on each side, their surfaces much wrinkled. The whole plant is aromatic, especially when rubbed, and is rendered conspicuous by its long spike of purplish-blue flowers, first dense, afterwards becoming rather lax. The whorls of the spike are sixflowered, and at the base of each flower are two heart-shaped, fringed, pointed bracts. The calyx is much larger than the corolla. The plant is in bloom from June to August. The seeds are smooth, and like the Garden Clary, produce a great quantity of soft, tasteless mucilage, when moistened. If put under the eyelids for a few moments the tears dissolve this mucilage, which envelops any dust and brings it out safely. Old writers called this plant 'Oculus Christi,' or 'Christ's Eye.'", "The tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) is descended from an extremely remote ancestry, and remains one of the stateliest denizens of the North American river valleys, ranging from 150 to 190 feet high. The form of its leaves is unique among those of forest trees, being lyrate, ending in two pointed or rounded lobes considerably longer than the midrib. Ruskin declared it to be the only leaf which did not display one form or other of a Gothic arch—round or pointed. These leaves turn a beautiful clear yellow in autumn, and in summer the flowers, in size and shape like those of a tulip, attract numbers of bees. If only they were a little more gaily painted, the tulip tree would be among the showiest of park trees; but the petals are of a dull greenish white, with a splash of orange at the base of the interior of each, where one can't see it—unless one happens to be a bee.", "Apetalous flowers lack petals as in Elaeagnus pungens (silverthorn), Hydrangea spp. and Cornus florida (flowering dogwood).", "The tree flowers in the summer, from October to April in their native South America and from April to October in the northern hemisphere. It Usually blooms from November to February The red flower, arranged in inflorescences of the raceme type, is pentameric, complete, and of bilateral symmetry. Its calyx is gamosepalous, like a little red thimble. The corolla, like that of other legumes like common beans, is butterfly-shaped; however, the largest petal, called the \"standard\", is arranged in the lower part. The two of the petals called \"wings\" are so small that they are practically hidden within the calyx. The remaining two petals partially fuse together on occasion and form the flower's keel or \"carina\"; this protects its reproductive organs. The androecium consists of ten stamens, one free and nine united by their filaments (gynostemial androecium). The unicarpel gynoecium is welded between the stamens like a knife in its sheath.", "Carrion flowers or stinking flowers, any flower that emits an odor that smells like rotting flesh Rafflesia, genus which contains the species Rafflesia arnoldii, the largest single flower in the world Amorphophallus titanum, species, also known as the Titan arum, which has the largest unbranched inflorescence in the world (Wikipedia)", "This highly-branched plant has a square central stem and opposite leaves.  The leaves are lanceolate, stemless and slightly clasping at the stem. The flowers occur two-at-a-time in the upper part of the plant; each flower has a long pedicel that emerges from the leaf axil. This arrangement of leaves and flowers gives the plant a light and airy appearance.", "Most Apiaceae are annual, biennial or perennial herbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are shrubs or trees. Their leaves are of variable size and alternately arranged, or alternate with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. In some taxa, the texture is leathery, fleshy, or even rigid, but always with stomata. They are petiolate or perfoliate and more or less sheathing, the blade usually dissected and pinnatifid, but entire in some genera. Most commonly, crushing their leaves emits a marked smell, aromatic to foetid, but absent in some members. The flowers are nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels, simple or compound, often umbelliform cymes, rarely in heads.", "The genus includes annual, biennial and perennial herbaceous plants and soft-wooded shrubs, growing from 1–3 m tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, and palmately lobed. The flowers are conspicuous, 4–12 cm diameter, with five white, pink or red petals; they are produced in terminal clusters. ( link )", "Leaf margins have prominent spines and plant parts lack white sap when cut. Flowers are 3/4 to 2 inches in diameter. Color may be red, purple, pink, lavender or white (rare).", "In either its flowering state or when it has gone to seed, this is a very pretty plant up close.� It's a tall, climbing, perennial which reaches immense proportions when it clambers over hedges and trees. It has very pretty cream-coloured fragrant flowers (15-20mm across) with 4-petal-like sepal s and very prominent stamen s which are quite spread out.� These flowers are borne in cluster s and bloom from July to September.� The leaves are opposite and pinnate , usually in 5 leaflet s.� The seeds are in�masses�of feathery, silvery plumes which are borne on the wind. This is a garden escape, not a native plant, and it belongs to the family Ranunculaceae.", "Features: Typically rises 6-10\" tall and spreads over time in the wild to form large colonies on the forest floor. Each flower stalk typically emerges in spring wrapped by one palmate, deeply-scalloped, grayish-green, basal leaf. As the flower blooms, the leaf unfurls. Each flower stalk produces a solitary, 2\" wide, 8-10 petaled white flower with numerous yellow center stamens. Flowers open up in sun but close at night, and are very short-lived (1-2 days). Leaves continue to grow in size after bloom (sometimes to as much as 9\" across) and remain attractive until mid to late summer when the plant goes dormant. All parts of the plant exude a bright reddish-orange sap when cut, hence the common name. The double-flowered forms are prized by gardeners for their large showy white flowers, which are produced very early in the gardening season and bloom much longer than the normal forms.", "The grass-like leaves may emerge soon after the flowers or wait until the following spring. In either case, the leaves persist for 8-12 weeks, then wither and vanish, leaving no trace of the corms below until the flowers appear again in fall.", "Selaginella is a heterosporous member of the lycophytes. Some species of this genus are able to withstand drying out by going dormant until they are rehydrated. For this reason these forms of the genus are commonly called resurrection plants. An example of this is shown in Figure 14.", "The radical leaves are often a foot or more long, contracted at the base into a long, winged footstalk, the wings formed by the lower veins running down into it some distance. They have slightly indented margins and sloping lateral veins, which are a very prominent feature. The flowering stems give off a few leaves, that gradually diminish in size from below upwards. All the leaves are covered with small, simple, unbranched hairs.", "Description: Perennial herbs with erect or spreading stems. Leaves alternate , odd-pinnately compound, leaflets 7-15 pairs. Flowers in terminal or axillary, peduncled, ascending racemes ; corolla white, pink-tinged or greenish white, long and narrow. Legume several- to many-seeded, turgid, ascending, and glabrous .", "With many members of this genus, flowers only open after the calyx splits releasing the petals.", "Image:Hoofdje.jpg|Diagram of a flower head. Note bracts surrounding the flowers, which would be absent on a capitulum.", "The leaves are alternate, palmately lobed. The flowers are from 0.5–5 cm diameter, with five pink or white petals.", "Leaf margins are weakly prickly. Leaves and stems exude white sap when cut. Flowers are 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter. Color is yellow.", "Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used." ]

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[ "An omnivore is an animal that eats both plant material and other animals in order to get enough food. Animals that are omnivores have complex digestive systems that are able to deal with both plant animal material equally well, like kangaroos, otters and humans.", "Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores. They have both canines and molars. Are you a carnivore, a herbivore, or an omnivore? Animals have a much simpler diet than people do.", "Omnivores are animals that eat both plant- and animal- derived food. Although the Latin term omnivore literally means \"eater of everything\", omnivores cannot really eat everything that other animals eat. They can only eat things that are moderately easy to acquire while being moderately nutritious. For example, most omnivores cannot live by grazing, nor are they able to eat some hard-shelled animals or successfully hunt large or fast prey. Humans, bears, and chickens are examples of vertebrate omnivores; invertebrate omnivores include cockroaches and crayfish .", "The habits of the group are diverse. Coyotes and wolves are terrestrial and adapted for running; martens, fishers, and cats are expert at climbing trees; the badger is adept at digging in the ground; otters are expert swimmers and spend much of their time in the water. Most forms subsist on flesh either as carrion or that freshly killed. Bears, raccoons, ringtails, coyotes, and foxes, however, feed on a variety of foods, including insects, fruits, nuts, grain, and other plant materials, as well as flesh.", "1. Herbivores are only plant eating animals. Their teeth are flat, the reason why is to grind up plants. Carnivores eat only meat, or they only eat other animals. Their teeth come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Omnivores are animals that can eat both plants and animals. The omnivores of the dinosaur age generally had beaks.", "Racoons, another example of an omnivore, display characteristics of both carnivores and herbivores. They have sharp teeth for ripping flesh and flat molars for grinding up plants. Omnivores are readily adaptable animals, allowing them to live in extreme conditions. If meat is not available, omnivores can live on plants and vice versa. This is because omnivores can digest both protein and fiber, while carnivores receive no nutritional value from plant material.", "Omnivores eat both plants and other animals. Many monkeys, tree frogs, and birds are some of the omnivores that live in the Amazon Rain Forest.", "A carnivore meaning 'meat eater' is an animal with a diet consisting mainly of meat, whether it comes from animals living or dead (scavenging). Some animals are considered carnivores even if their diets contain very little meat but involve preying on other animals Animals that subsist on a diet consisting only of meat are referred to as obligate carnivores. Plants that capture and digest insects are called carnivorous plants. Similarly fungi that capture microscopic animals are often called carnivorous fungi. Cat  ,  Tiger  ,  Cheetah  ,  Lion  ,  Brown Bears  ,  Penguin  ,  Sharks  ,  Snake", "Ostriches are omnivores, which means they eat both vegetation and meat. Although they prefer plants — especially roots, seeds and leaves — they also eat locusts, lizards, snakes and rodents, according to the  San Diego Zoo . They also eat sand and pebbles, to help grind up their food inside their gizzard, which is a small pouch where food is crushed and ripped up before it reaches the stomach. ", "Animals such as pigs, bears, vultures and raptors can eat (and thrive) on decaying flesh. Predatory animals such as wolves, lions, leopards and cheetahs most often prey on the weakest (and at times the diseased) in animal herds.", "The word \"omnivore\" is derived from Latin, and it means \"all-eater.\" Scientists classify two general types of omnivores. First, there are omnivores that hunt for their food as well as forage for fresh plant matter. Second, there are omnivores that are classified as scavengers. These omnivores feed on already dead animals and plants. Some herbivores incidentally eat small amounts of animal food if that type of animal matter becomes available. Incidental consumption does not classify a living creature as an omnivore.", "      Probably no group of animals is more identified with Africa than its Carnivora ( carnivore ) (the order of flesh-eating mammals), of which there are more than 60 species. In addition to the better-known big (or roaring) cats—the lion, leopard, and cheetah—are the wild dog, hyena, serval (a long-limbed cat), wildcat , jackal , fox , weasel , civet , and mongoose . These predators and scavengers are vital in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of the areas that they inhabit.", "Other animals eat only plants - they are called herbivores. Herbivores often have well developed molars or incisors for grinding and cutting plant food.", "A herbivore is any organism that normally consumes only autographs such as plants, algae and photosynthesising bacteria. Gorilla  ,  Orangutan  ,  Monkey  ,  Panda  ,  Hippopotamus  ,  Rhinocerose  ,  Kangaroo", "The Wild Boar is an omnivorous animal that primarily feeds on plants. Plant matter comprises around 90% of the Wild Boar's diet as they feed on young leaves, berries, grasses and fruits, and unearth roots and bulbs from the ground with their hard snouts. Living in highly seasonal regions, Wild Boars have had to adapt to the changing fruits and flowers, and are known to favour the protein-rich nuts (such as acorns) that become available in the autumn and prepare them for the winter ahead. They will however, eat almost anything that will fit into their mouths, and supplement their diet by eating eggs, Mice, Lizards , Worms and even Snakes . Wild Boar will also happily finish off the abandoned kill of another animal.", "They eat a wide variety of animal and vegetable type-food, like fruit, seeds, grain, mast, berries and leaves as well as a wide range of invertebrates, such as leatherjackets, ant eggs, wireworms, caterpillars, grasshoppers and other insects; with small vertebrates like lizards, field voles, small mammals, and small birds occasionally taken.", "Ophiophagy (Greek \"snake eating\") is a specialized form of feeding or alimentary behavior of animals which hunt and eat snakes. There are ophiophagous mammals (such as the skunks and the mongooses), birds (such as snake eagles, the secretarybird, and some hawks), lizards (such as the common collared lizard), and even other snakes, such as the Central and South American mussuranas and the North American common kingsnake. The genus of the venomous king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is named for this habit.", "Mouflons are herbivores (plant-eaters). Their diet consists of different types of grass, shrubs and tree bark. Mouflons regurgitate food and chew it several times before it becomes ready for intestinal digestion.", "Anteater is a common name for the four mammal species of the suborder Vermilingua (meaning \"worm tongue\") that eat ants and termites. The individual species have other names in English and other languages. Together with the sloths, they are within the order Pilosa. The name \"anteater\" is also applied to the unrelated aardvark, numbat, echidnas, pangolins and some members of the Oecobiidae. Species include the giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla; the silky anteater Cyclopes didactylus; the southern tamandua or collared anteater Tamandua tetradactyla; and the northern tamandua Tamandua Mexicana.", "the habit of certain animals, esp certain insects, of feeding on many different types of food", "Anteater (suborder Vermilingua), any of four species of toothless, insect -eating mammals found in tropical savannas and forests from southern Mexico to Paraguay and northern Argentina. They are long-tailed animals with elongated skulls and tubular muzzles. The mouth opening of the muzzle is small, but the salivary glands are large and secrete sticky saliva onto a wormlike tongue , which can be as long as 60 cm (24 inches) in the giant anteater. Anteaters live alone or in pairs (usually mother and offspring) and feed mainly on ants and termites . They capture their prey by inserting their tongues into insect nests that they have torn open with the long, sharp, curved claws of their front feet; the claws are also used for defense. Giant anteaters and the smaller tamanduas use their hind legs and tail as a tripod when threatened, which thus frees the front limbs to slash at attackers.", "These herbivores eat seeds, fruit, stalks, leaves, roots, and other succulent plant parts, as well as occasional insects and fungi.", "They prey on rabbits and deer, sometimes even bears and tigers. Sometimes they also eat insects and fruits.", "They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, fruit and flowers;occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts.", "They are able to eat a wide variety of different types of vegetation. They consume mainly grass and bushes. They move around a great deal looking for food. They will consume types of vegetation that many other types of animals will skip over. They can spend several hours per day grazing and consuming food. Since there is very little nutritional value in the foods they eat, they have to take in a great deal of it.", "A hoofed and herbivorous mammals that has a specialised digestive system with more than one stomach chamber.", "Relates to an organism that bores into and feeds on the woody and non-woody portions of plants.", "Most forms were probably fruit eaters, some may also have included considerable amounts of leaves in their diet", "Basically it feeds on tree dwelling animals like birds, small monkeys and sloth the Largest prey it takes was a 17 lb Two-toed sloth and a 15 lb howler monkeys.", "Both are attractive, even fascinating, creatures that are relentlessly hunted for food. They might make useful livestock in forest situations.", "an organism that derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through predation or scavenging", "When hunting this species stomps vegetation to flush out their prey. After it is in the open they will stomp it repeatedly with their feet. Once they catch their prey it is swallowed whole." ]

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[ "Penguins are one of about 40 species of flightless birds. Other flightless birds include rheas, cassowaries, kiwis, ostriches, and emus. Most flightless birds live in the Southern Hemisphere.[1]", "Penguins are flightless aquatic birds living mostly in the southern hemisphere of the Earth, except for a single species which lives near the Equator.", "The rattites are a group of large flightless birds now found only in the southern hemisphere, including the rhea of South America, ostrich of Africa, emu of Australia and cassowaries of Australia and New Guinea.", "     Penguins (order Sphenisciformes, family Spheniscidae) are a group of aquatic, flightless birds living almost exclusively in the southern hemisphere, especially in Antarctica. Highly adapted for life in the water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage, and their wings have become flippers. Most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid, and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater. They spend about half of their life on land and half in the oceans. ", "The penguin is the only bird that can swim but not fly. These aquatic birds possess flipper-like wings and can spend as much as three-quarters of their lives in the sea. Penguins are almost exclusively found in the Southern Hemisphere, ranging from northwestern South America to coastal Antarctica.", "\"Steamer\" ducks [2] kept well ahead of the active oarsmen, their flightless wings aiding their webbed feet in a manner suggestive of paddle wheels used as auxiliaries to screw propellers, trailing a foamy wake a hundred yards behind. The species belongs exclusively to southern South America and is altogether the most notable bird of the straits region. It is said to weigh over fifteen pounds. While it can not, or at least does not, fly, and is seldom inclined to dive, the rapidity of its progress over the surface long ago attracted the attention of explorers and navigators. Most observers are of the opinion that the wings move alternately when in motion. An occasional penguin—that flightless, burly diver, peculiar to Antarctic seas—only showed himself above water in porpoise-like leaps and was seldom easy to get.", "Cassowaries are large, flightless birds that are related to emus and found only in Australia and New Guinea. The southern cassowary... More 10 Images 6 Videos", "Shifting to South America, and the Galapagos Islands, we find the world’s only cormorant that cannot fly (in spite of those huge wings!). This is one of the rarest birds in the world, found on only two islands in the Galapagos. Instead of flying over the waves, the flightless cormorant uses its powerful legs and swims for fish and other marine prey close to the shore. The bird is listed as vulnerable.", "Fiordland is also home to three out of the five species of kiwi, although they’re nocturnal so you’re unlikely to see one, but you may well hear one! Other flightless birds in Fiordland include the attractive looking kakapo, the weka and very rare takahe.", "These southern seas are frequented by several species of Petrels: the largest kind, Procellaria gigantea, or nelly (quebrantahuesos, or break-bones, of the Spaniards), is a common bird, both in the inland channels and on the open sea. In its habits and manner of flight, there is a very close resemblance with the albatross; and as with the albatross, a person may watch it for hours together without seeing on what it feeds. The \"break-bones\" is, however, a rapacious bird, for it was observed by some of the officers at Port St. Antonio chasing a diver, which tried to escape by diving and flying, but was continually struck down, and at last killed by a blow on its head. At Port St. Julian these great petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls. A second species (Puffinus cinereus), which is common to Europe, Cape Horn, and the coast of Peru, is of much smaller size than the P. gigantea, but, like it, of a dirty black colour. It generally frequents the inland sounds in very large flocks: I do not think I ever saw so many birds of any other sort together, as I once saw of these behind the island of Chiloe. Hundreds of thousands flew in an irregular line for several hours in one direction. When part of the flock settled on the water the surface was blackened, and a noise proceeded from them as of human beings talking in the distance.", "smaller of two tall fast-running flightless birds similar to ostriches but three-toed; found from Peru to Strait of Magellan", "The islands are a breeding ground for huge flocks of seabirds and are home to a number of endemic birds, some of which are seabirds and others which live on the islands. The best known species are the magenta petrel (IUCN classification CR]) and the black robin (IUCN classification EN), both of which came perilously close to extinction before drawing the attention of conservation efforts. Other endemic species are the Chatham oystercatcher, the Chatham gerygone, Chatham pigeon, Forbes' parakeet, the Chatham snipe and the shore plover. The endemic Chatham shag ([http://www.iucnredlist.org IUCN] classification CR), Pitt shag (IUCN classification EN) and the Chatham albatross (IUCN classification VU) are at risk of capture by a variety of fishing gear, including fishing lines, trawls, gillnets, and pots. ", "The Campbell Island teal, which is the world's rarest duck, is one of only four flightless ducks, and is historically endemic to Campbell Island and the tiny islet Dent Island in the subantarctic ocean southeast of the New Zealand mainland.  It was declared extinct until 20 teal were discovered on Dent Island in 1975.  After a 20-year captive breeding programme, 153 birds were sent back in three translocations from 2004 to 2006 to occupy their former range, and are now breeding on Campbell Island. ", "      The northern fulmar, or fulmar petrel (F. glacialis), nests in colonies on oceanic cliffs of the Arctic islands, the British Isles , and the coast of western Europe; in winter it is abundant in offshore waters in the sub-Arctic and temperate zones. The southern fulmar (F. glacialoides) has a comparable distribution in the Southern Hemisphere. Both fulmars are typically predominately white with a pearly gray mantle, but darker colour phases occur in some populations.", "Other nesting native birds include red-tailed tropicbirds ( Phaethon rubricauda ), wedge-tailed shearwaters ( Puffinus pacificus ), Audubon’s shearwater ( Puffinus iherminierii ), black-naped terns ( Sterna sumatrana ), white (or fairy) terns ( Gygis alba ), striated herons ( Butorides striatus ), and white-breasted waterhens ( Amaurornis phoenicurus ). [110] The 680-hectare Barton Point Nature Reserve was identified as an Important Bird Area for its large breeding colony of red-footed boobies. [111]", "apteryx ; kiwi (nocturnal flightless bird of New Zealand having a long neck and stout legs; only surviving representative of the order Apterygiformes)", "Falco peregrinus cassini, described by Sharpe in 1873, is also known as the Austral Peregrine Falcon. It includes kreyenborgi, the Pallid Falcon a leucistic morph (genetic mutation) occurring in southernmost South America, which was long believed to be a distinct species. Its range includes South America from Ecuador through Bolivia, northern Argentina and Chile to Tierra del Fuego and Falkland Islands.[12] It is non-migratory. It is similar to nominate, but slightly smaller with a black ear region. The variation kreyenborgi is medium grey above, has little barring below, and has a head pattern like the Saker Falcon , but the ear region is white.]", "Brown Skua - The Brown Skua , also known as the Antarctic Skua, Southern Great Skua, Southern Skua, or Hākoakoa , is a seabird that breeds in the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic zones and moves further north when not breeding. Its taxonomy is highly complex and a matter of dispute, with some splitting it into two or three species: Falkland Skua , Tristan Skua , and Subantarctic Skua . To further confuse, it hybridizes with both the South Polar and Chilean Skuas, and the entire group have been considered subspecies of the Great Skua, a species otherwise restricted to the Northern Hemisphere. It feeds on fish , small mammals, scraps, chicks, eggs and carrion.", "In undisturbed macaroni penguin colonies, predation is relatively low. Eggs (mainly deserted ones) are predated upon by skuas, sheathbills, and kelp gulls, while weakened chicks, or those separated from the crèche, are taken by skuas and giant petrels. Whilst at sea, adult macaroni penguins are predated upon by leopard seals and Antarctic fur seals (4) .", "The total bird list for the Chagos Archipelago, including Diego Garcia, consists of 91 species, with large breeding populations of 16 species. Although there are no endemic birds, there are internationally important seabird colonies. Diego Garcia's seabird community includes thriving populations of species which are rapidly declining in other parts of the Indian Ocean. Large nesting colonies of Brown Noddies ( Anous stolidous ), Bridled terns ( Sterna anaethetus ), the Lesser Noddy ( Anous tenuirostris ), Red-footed Booby ( Sula sula ) and Lesser Frigate Birds ( Fregata ariel ), exist on Diego Garcia. Other nesting native birds include Red-tailed Tropicbirds ( Phaethon rubricauda ), Wedge-Tailed Shearwaters ( Puffinus pacificus ), Audubon's Shearwater ( Puffinus iherminierii ), Black-Naped Terns ( Sterna sumatrana ), White (or Fairy) Terns ( Gygis alba ), Striated Herons ( Butorides striatus ), and White-breasted Waterhens ( Amaurornis phoenicurus ), [100]", "The wandering albatross, snowy albatross, white-winged albatross or goonie (Diomedea exulans) is a large seabird from the family Diomedeidae, which has a circumpolar range in the Southern Ocean. It was the first species of albatross to be described, and was long considered the same species as the Tristan albatross and the Antipodean albatross. A few authors still consider them all subspecies of the same species. The SACC has a proposal on the table to split this species, and BirdLife International has already split it. Together with the Amsterdam albatross, it forms the wandering albatross species complex. The wandering albatross is one of the two largest members of the genus Diomedea (the great albatrosses), being similar in size to the southern royal albatross. It is one of the largest birds in the world, and one of the best known and studied species of bird in the world. This is also one of the most far ranging birds. Some individual wandering albatrosses are known to circumnavigate the Southern Ocean three times (covering more than 120,000 km) in one year. ", "Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island. Red-tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs where they perform acrobatic courting rituals. Between August and May thousands of flesh-footed and wedge-tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day. From the Little Island Track between March and November one of the world's rarest birds, the providence petrel also performs courtship displays during winter breeding and it is extremely tame. The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century; though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island. The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews and the black-winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island. ", "The Island is also a focal point for sea birds of various species. Eight species or subspecies of sea birds nest on the Island. The most numerous is the Red-footed Booby, which nests in colonies in trees on many parts of the shore terrace. The widespread Brown Booby nests on the ground near the edge of the sea cliff and inland cliffs. Abbott's Booby (listed as endangered) nests on tall emergent trees of the western, northern and southern plateau rainforest. The Christmas Island forest is the only known nesting habitat of the Abbott's Booby left in the world.", "Christmas Island is a focal point for sea birds of various species. Eight species or subspecies of sea birds nest on the island. The most numerous is the Red-footed Booby that nests in colonies, in trees, on many parts of the shore terrace. The widespread Brown Booby nests on the ground near the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs. Abbott's Booby (listed as endangered) nests on tall emergent trees of the western, northern and southern plateau rainforest. The Christmas Island forest is the only nesting habitat of the Abbott's Booby left in the world. The endemic Christmas Island Frigatebird (listed as endangered) has nesting areas on the north-eastern shore terraces and the more widespread. Great Frigatebirds nest in semi-deciduous trees on the shore terrace with the greatest concentrations being in the North West and South Point areas. The Common Noddy and two species of bosuns or tropicbirds with their brilliant gold or silver plumage and distinctive streamer tail feathers also nest on the island. Of the ten native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies. Some 76 migrant bird species have been recorded.", "Grebes are small to medium-sized aquatic diving birds that use large, powerful lobed feet set far back on their body to propel and steer themselves in water. They have relatively long necks and are notable for their submarine-like ability to change their buoyancy. The New Zealand dabchick occurs on small lakes and sheltered inlets on larger lakes from Northland to the north of the South Island. Formerly widespread in the South Island it declined through the 1800s and 1900s until becoming extinct there as a breeding species in 1941. The reasons for this are not fully understood, although predation by introduced predators is likely to have been a factor. In 2012, a pair was recorded breeding near Takaka at the top of the South Island.", "any of three species of black and white seabirds of the genus Cepphus, in the auk family, Alcidae. The birds have a pointed, black bill and red legs. In British usage, the name guillemot also refers to birds that in America are called murres. Guillemots are deep divers that feed on the bottom. The...", "* Austropacific masked booby (Sula dactylatra personata) – important breeding colony; 3,000 birds before the 1982/83 decline", "These terns frequent quiet waters or lagoons when diving for fish, but also dive in calm ocean waters. They roost with flocks of gulls and other terns on coastal spits, estuarine sandbars, and on mudflats close to bay mouths.", "[Show abstract] [Hide abstract] ABSTRACT: Blood parasites are generally uncommon in seabirds, and knowledge on their epidemiology is further limited by the fact that they often inhabit remote locations that are logistically difficult or expensive to study. We present a long term data set of blood smear examinations of 1909 seabirds belonging to 27 species that were admitted to a rehabilitation centre in Cape Town (Western Cape, South Africa) between 2001 and 2013. Blood parasites were detected in 59% of species (16/27) and 29% of individuals examined (551/1909). The following blood parasites were recorded: Babesia ugwidiensis, Babesia peircei, Babesia sp., Plasmodium sp., Leucocytozoon ugwidi, Hepatozoon albatrossi, Haemoproteus skuae and Spirochaetales. Several of the records are novel host-parasite associations, demonstrating the potential of rehabilitation centres for parasite and disease surveillance, particularly for species infrequently sampled from which no host-specific parasites have been described.", "       is found on all continents except Antarctica, although in South America it occurs only as a non-breeding migrant. As", "Stejneger's Petrel - This species is highly pelagic, rarely approaching land, except to nest and rear young. It occurs in the Pacific Ocean, nesting in the Juan Fernandez Islands off Chile. It is a transequatorial migrant, finding its way to subtropical waters off Japan before returning to its nesting sites. It has been reported well off the west coast of the United States.", "Native, found only in New Zealand.  Not common.  Makes its nest on a sandy beach in a shallow dip in the sand just above high tide next to a small landmark like a plant or piece of wood. Walks or runs, then stops and pecks to feed. Declining numbers mean some breeding sites are fenced off to protect them from people and animals.  Can live more than 30 years." ]

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[ "The Decapoda or decapods (literally \"ten-footed\") are an order of crustaceans within the class Malacostraca, including many familiar groups, such as crayfish, crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimp. Most decapods are scavengers. The order is estimated to contain nearly 15,000 species in around 2,700 genera, with around 3,300 fossil species. Nearly half of these species are crabs, with the shrimp (about 3000 species) and Anomura (including hermit crabs, porcelain crabs, squat lobsters (about 2500 species) making up the bulk of the remainder. The earliest fossil decapod is the Devonian Palaeopalaemon. ", "1. (Animals) any chiefly marine decapod crustacean of the genus Cancer and related genera (section Brachyura), having a broad flattened carapace covering the cephalothorax, beneath which is folded the abdomen. The first pair of limbs are modified as pincers. See also fiddler crab , soft-shell crab , pea crab , oyster crab", "fiddler crab any of the approximately 65 species of the genus Uca (order Decapoda of the subphylum Crustacea). They are named “fiddler” because the male holds one claw, always much larger than the other, somewhat like a violin. Both claws in the female are relatively...", "decapod (order Decapoda), any of more than 8,000 species of crustaceans (phylum Arthropoda) that include shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, hermit crabs, and crabs. The presence of five pairs of thoracic legs (pereiopods) is the basis for the name decapod (from the...", "Fiddler (n.) A burrowing crab of the genus Gelasimus, of many species. The male has one claw very much enlarged, and often holds it in a position similar to that in which a musician holds a fiddle, hence the name; -- called also calling crab, soldier crab, and fighting crab.", "Largest Decapod: : Macrocheira kaempferi, the giant spider crab. Individuals can reach a diameter of 12-14 inches (30.5-35.6cm), with a claw span of 8-9 feet (2.4-2.7m). There is a report of a crab weighing 14 pounds and a claw span of 12 feet (3.65m).", "Look at the live brine shrimp, hermit crabs and fiddler crabs. Treat them gently (more pets). Watch the way they use their legs, including the modified legs that form their mouthparts. You may see the male fiddler crabs raise their large claw and wave it about to claim a territory inside the tank, in the hopes of attracting a mate (Can you blame them?).", "Male Fiddler Crabs (of all 3 species) have an oversized claw on one side, while female Fiddler Crabs have equal-sized claws. The larger claw of the male can grow to 2 inches long.    ", "When walking on the beach looking at the windrows of washed up seaweed, one will see thousands of jumping sand fleas. These are harmless and belong to the group \"Amphipods\" (crustaceans). These animals feed on the detritus in the dead seaweed. When one goes swimming or wading in the inter island lagoon or Chetumal Bay, one may seasonally (rarely) encounter a small (3/8\") bitting sea roach. These belong to the group \"Isopods\" (crustaceans)p locally called \"x-carib\". The bite is sharp, but there is no toxicity associated with this bite. In the mud flats by the small river north of the town, in the rainy season, one will see small Fiddler Crabs (Uca). These are noticeable in that one claw is significantly larger than the other.", "Burrow openings for Uca minax are often above water. Those of the other two fiddler crabs are chiefly intertidal.", "Crabs in Florida: A brief summary of the Blue, Fiddler and Stone Crab found in Florida.", "In certain species of fiddler crab, the males have an enlarged right claw, while in others they have an enlarged left claw.", "The fiddler crab is mostly brown but has a blue- blue green coloration on its anterior part of its carapace and the eyestalks. The Atlantic marsh fiddler crab does not have red or purple spots on its carapace like the Red Jointed and Sand Fiddler crabs. The large claw of red jointed fiddler crab is the largest, while the sand fiddler crab has the smallest claw, which is about 20mm. The fiddler crab is the most conspicuous and abundant invertebrate in most salt marshes (4). The abundance of this crab on a particular day is proportional to the tidal height.", "As the fiddler crab grows, it must shed its outer shell, or molt. Because the crab�s new shell is still soft while molting, it seeks the shelter of its burrow, where it is safe from most predators.", "The Fiddler Crab�s Claws: The male fiddler crab�s claw is greatly enlarged and brightly colored. By displaying his claw to a female, the male hopes to lure her into his burrow to mate. By waving his claw at other males, he warns them to stay away from his territory. He also uses it when fighting with rival males.", "Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism. Males often have larger claws, a tendency which is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca (Ocypodidae). In fiddler crabs, males have one claw which is greatly enlarged and which is used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate. Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon (abdomen); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods.", "As to habitat preference, Uca minax, the Brackish-water, or Red-jointed Fiddler Crab, and Uca pugnax. the Marsh Fiddler Crab live in muddy areas in marshes. As the name \"Brackish-water\" implies, Uca minax is more tolerant of low salinity.", "The habitat preferences for the Sand Fiddler Crab (above) and the Mud Fiddler Crab (below) do overlap somewhat, but as their names imply, the Mud Fiddler is more common on mudflats, while the Sand Fiddler is more often found in sandier situations and higher up on the beach. ", "hermit crab any crab of the families Paguridae and Coenobitidae (order Decapoda of the class Crustacea). These crabs use empty snail shells (e.g., whelk or periwinkle) or other hollow objects as a shelter for partial containment and protection of the body. Their...", "The term shrimp is used to refer to some decapod crustaceans, although the exact animals covered can vary. Used broadly, it may cover any of the groups with elongated bodies and a primarily swimming mode of locomotion – chiefly Caridea and Dendrobranchiata . In some fields, however, the term is used more narrowly, and may be restricted to Caridea, to smaller species of either group, or to only the marine species. Under the broader definition, shrimp may be synonymous with prawn, covering stalk-eyed swimming crustaceans with long narrow muscular tails (abdomens), long whiskers (antennae) and slender legs. They swim forwards by paddling with swimmerets on the underside of their abdomens. Crabs and lobsters have strong walking legs, whereas shrimp have thin fragile legs which they use primarily for perching.", "Most species have long, spirally curved abdomens, which are soft, unlike the hard, calcified abdomens seen in related crustaceans. The vulnerable abdomen is protected from predators by a salvaged empty seashell carried by the hermit crab, into which its whole body can retract. Most frequently, hermit crabs use the shells of sea snails (although the shells of bivalves and scaphopods and even hollow pieces of wood and stone are used by some species). The tip of the hermit crab's abdomen is adapted to clasp strongly onto the columella of the snail shell. Most hermit crabs are nocturnal.", "Ocean waters all over the world are known to be home to hermit crabs. It belongs to a larger family of invertebrate animals called crustaceans. There are about 500 species of hermit crabs in the oceans all over the world. Lobsters and shrimps fall in the same family of largely aquatic animals.…", "9. Also known as the Kiwaidae, this crab is a type of marine decapod living at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. The animals are commonly referred to as \"yeti crabs\" because of their claws and legs, which are white and appear to be furry like the mythical yeti", "There are several spider species all named black widow: southern black widow spider (L. mactans), the European black widow (L. tredecimguttatus), Western black widow spider (L. hesperus), Northern black widow spider (L. variolus). Other Latrodectus that cause latrodectism are the Australian redback spider (L. hasselti), and the katipo spider (L. katipo). Several other members of Latrodectus genus are not commonly associated with latrodectism including the cosmopolitan brown widow (L. geometricus).", "Also known as the portly spider crab or the nine-spined spider crab, the common spider crab is a long-legged and slow-moving crustacean that covers itself in algae and small debris as a defense against predators. ", "decapod having eyes on short stalks and a broad flattened carapace with a small abdomen folded under the thorax and pincers", "sheet-web weaver Linyphiidae a rather common group of small spiders (order Araneida) numbering about 2,000 species worldwide. Most are less than 6 mm (1 4 inch) in length and are seldom seen. Their webs are flat and sheetlike and dome- or cup-shaped. The spider is usually...", "Another name for Hyas araneus is Toad Crab. The species was described by Linnaeus in 1758.", "The name yabby is given to two different kinds of crustacean in Australia. These are the freshwater yabby and the marine yabby. The marine yabby is a type of ghost shrimp which lives in deep burrows in mudflats or sandbanks, especially in or near estuaries in the intertidal zone. These are commonly used as bait for fishing, especially in Queensland and northern New South Wales. The bass yabby is a common species that is found in south-eastern Australia.", "Mantis Shrimps: Squilla species or Gonodactylus species (in Creole called \"poisonous crayfish\" even though it is edible)", "River crabs include the semi-terrestrial potamon potamios crab. Edible snails are widespread and can cluster in the hundreds waiting for rainfall to reinvigorate them.", "The Sally Lightfoot crab, often referred to as the Red Rock crab, is one of the more colourful and vivid creatures to be found on the Galapagos Islands making it a popular creature for enthusiastic wildlife photographers. The Sally Lightfoot crab is a common species, and can be spotted on Baltra and San Cristobal Islands among others." ]

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[ "Our top ten promoter opines, in plant-eating vertebrates, the appendix is much larger and its main function is to help digest a largely herbivorous diet. The human appendix is a small pouch attached to the large intestine where it joins the small intestine and does not directly assist digestion. Biologists believe it is a vestigial organ, left behind from a plant-eating ancestor. Then Mr. Miller states in a monumental example of bogus reasoning, in 2000 there were nearly 300,000 appendectomies performed in the United States, and 371 deaths from appendicitis. Any secondary function that the appendix might perform certainly is not missed in those who had it removed before it might have ruptured.", "From an evolutionary perspective, the human appendix is a derivative of the end of the phylogenetically primitive herbivorous caecum found in our primate ancestors ( Goodman et al. 1998 ; Shoshani 1996 ). The human appendix has lost a major and previously essential function, namely cellulose digestion. Though during primate evolution it has decreased in size to a mere rudiment, the appendix retains a structure that was originally specifically adapted for housing bacteria and extending the time course of digestion. For these reasons the human vermiform appendix is vestigial, regardless of whether or not the human appendix functions in the development of the immune system.", "Another vestige of our herbivorous ancestry is the vermiform appendix. While this intestinal structure may retain a function of some sort, perhaps in the development of the immune system, it is a rudimentary version of the much larger caecum that is essential for digestion of plants in other mammals. For a detailed discussion of the vestigiality of the human vermiform appendix, see The vestigiality of the human vermiform appendix: A modern reappraisal .", "Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450 kg horse will eat 7 to of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can utilize cellulose, a major component of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters, Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or \"water gut\", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death. ", "In the wild grazing is a dangerous activity as it exposes the herbivore to predators. They crop the grass as quickly as possible and then when the animal is in a safer place the food in the rumen can be regurgitated to be chewed at the animal’s leisure. This is ‘chewing the cud’ or rumination. The finely ground food may be returned to the rumen for further work by the microorganisms or, if the particles are small enough, it will pass down a special groove in the wall of the oesophagus straight into the omasum. Here the contents are kneaded and water is absorbed before they pass to the abomasum. The abomasum acts as a “proper” stomach and gastric juice is secreted to digest the protein.", "Herbivores are animals whose primary food source is plant-based. Examples of herbivores include vertebrates like deer, koalas, and some bird species , as well as invertebrates such as crickets and caterpillars . These animals have evolved digestive systems capable of digesting large amounts of plant material. The plants are high in fiber and starch, which provide the main energy source in their diet. Since some parts of plant materials, such as cellulose , are hard to digest, the digestive tract of herbivores is adapted so that food may be digested properly. Many large herbivores have symbiotic bacteria within their guts to assist with the breakdown of cellulose. They have long and complex digestive tracts to allow enough space and time for microbial fermentation to occur. Herbivores can be further classified into frugivores (fruit-eaters), granivores (seed eaters), nectivores (nectar feeders), and folivores (leaf eaters).", "In herbivorous animals, the large intestine tends to be a highly specialized organ involved in water and electrolyte absorption, vitamin production and absorption, and/or fermentation of fibrous plant materials. The colons of herbivores are usually wider than their small intestine and are relatively long. In some plant-eating mammals, the colon has a pouched appearance due to the arrangement of the muscle fibers in the intestinal wall. Additionally, in some herbivores the cecum (the first section of the colon) is quite large and serves as the primary or accessory fermentation site.", "Because of the relative difficulty with which various kinds of plant foods are broken down (due to large amounts of indigestible fibers), herbivores have significantly longer and in some cases, far more elaborate guts than carnivores. Herbivorous animals that consume plants containing a high proportion of cellulose must \"ferment\" (digest by bacterial enzyme action) their food to obtain the nutrient value. They are classified as either \"ruminants\" (foregut fermenters) or hindgut fermenters. The ruminants are the plant-eating animals with the celebrated multiple-chambered stomachs. Herbivorous animals that eat a diet of relatively soft vegetation do not need a multiple-chambered stomach. They typically have a simple stomach, and a long small intestine. These animals ferment the difficult-to-digest fibrous portions of their diets in their hindguts (colons). Many of these herbivores increase the sophistication and efficiency of their GI tracts by including carbohydrate-digesting enzymes in their saliva. A multiple-stomach fermentation process in an animal which consumed a diet of soft, pulpy vegetation would be energetically wasteful. Nutrients and calories would be consumed by the fermenting bacteria and protozoa before reaching the small intestine for absorption. The small intestine of plant-eating animals tends to be very long (greater than 10 times body length) to allow adequate time and space for absorption of the nutrients.", "The human gastrointestinal tract features the anatomical modifications consistent with an herbivorous diet. Humans have muscular lips and a small opening into the oral cavity. Many of the so-called \"muscles of expression\" are actually the muscles used in chewing. The muscular and agile tongue essential for eating, has adapted to use in speech and other things. The mandibular joint is flattened by a cartilaginous plate and is located well above the plane of the teeth. The temporalis muscle is reduced. The characteristic \"square jaw\" of adult males reflects the expanded angular process of the mandible and the enlarged masseter/pterygoid muscle group. The human mandible can move forward to engage the incisors, and side-to-side to crush and grind.", "Natural carnivores have claws, pointed front teeth to tear raw flesh and no pores on the skin so they perspire through the tongue. Plant and fish eaters perspire through pores on the skin since they are searching for food during hot hours -- not hunting at sunrise, sunset or under cover of darkness as carnivores do. Carnivores also have a shorter intestinal tract than plant and fish eaters do so rapidly decaying carcasses in the stomach can pass out of the body quickly. Herbivores and omnivores have an intestinal tract that is several times their body length since a mostly plant-based diet doesn't include food that decays as quickly. The human intestinal tract is about 25 feet long . Doesn't that tell you something?", "Plants are a primary pure and good source of nutrients, however they are digested very easily and therefore herbivores have to eat large quantities of food to obtain all they require. Herbivores like cows, horses and rabbits typically spend much of their day feeding. To give the micro-organisms access to the cellulose molecules, the plant cell walls need to be broken down. This is why herbivores have teeth that are adapted to crush and grind. Their guts also tend to be lengthy and the food takes a long time to pass through it.", " This view is supported by studies of higher apes, particularly chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are the closest to humans genetically, sharing more than 96% of their DNA code with humans, and their digestive tract is functionally very similar to that of humans. Chimpanzees are primarily frugivores, but they could and would consume and digest animal flesh, given the opportunity. In general, their actual diet in the wild is about 95% plant-based, with the remaining 5% filled with insects, eggs, and baby animals. In some ecosystems, however, chimpanzees are predatory, forming parties to hunt monkeys. Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the gastrointestinal tract relative to body mass and to increase the brain mass instead.", "They have no true stomach; instead, they possess a specialized intestine that is capable of breaking down plant matter. Their teeth are flat, which allows them to grind food before swallowing it. Because they lack a stomach for holding large volumes of food, the herbivore must eat frequently - at least several times per day. Because herbivores require frequent feedings of vegetables and fruits, they are often not the best choice for a community tank.", "The second group has an enlarged large intestine and caecum, called a functional caecum, occupied by cellulose digesting micro-organisms. These non-ruminant herbivores include the horse, rabbit and rat.", "Cows and other megaherbivores are not very efficient digesters of grass and their dung is mostly composed of half digested grass and the smelly liquid portion. It is this smelly liquid portion that the adults like to feed on and some of them have specialised mouth parts designed to let them suck out this nutritious soup, which incidentally is full of micro-organisms which the beetles can digest.", "Sort of. They don't have a structure called a stomach, but they do have digestive organs (crop, gizzard, etc)", "The gastrointestinal tract, also known as the gut or alimentary canal, is a tube by which bilaterian animals (including humans) transfer food to the digestion organs. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, the anus, by which the animal disposes of feces (solid wastes). Some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means (for example, through the mouth). ", "Echinoderms possess a simple digestive system which varies according to the animal's diet. Starfish are mostly carnivorous and have a mouth, oesophagus, two-part stomach, intestine and rectum, with the anus located in the centre of the aboral body surface. In many species, the large cardiac stomach can be everted and digest food outside the body. In other species, whole food items such as molluscs may be ingested. Brittle stars have a blind gut with no intestine or anus. They have varying diets and expel food waste through their mouth. Sea urchins are herbivores and use their specialised mouthparts to graze, tear and chew algae and sometimes other animal or vegetable material. They have an oesophagus, a large stomach and a rectum with the anus at the apex of the test. Sea cucumbers are mostly detritivores, sorting through the sediment with their buccal tentacles which are modified tube feet. Sand and mud accompanies their food through their simple gut which has a long coiled intestine and a capacious cloaca. Crinoids are passive suspension feeders, catching plankton with their outstretched arms. Boluses of mucus-trapped food are passed to the mouth which is linked to the anus by a loop consisting of a short oesophagus and longer intestine. ", "The young of elephants , giant pandas , koalas and hippos eat the feces of their mothers or other animals in the herd, in order to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation found in their ecosystems. [11] When such animals are born, their intestines are sterile and do not contain these bacteria. Without doing this they would be unable to obtain any nutritional value from plants.", "To be an omnivore (from the Latin omne meaning all and vorare to devour) in the most rigorous sense, an animal must be physiologically adapted to consume and digest animal and plant tissues (i.e. in order to occupy multiple trophic levels). In support of such a classification for Erinaceus, in The New Hedgehog Book, Pat Morris mentions that hedgehogs have more than one metre (over three feet) of guts and a very large stomach (for their size) containing potent digestive juices that can cope with their varied diet. Despite this, Reeve notes that the lack of a caecum (the pouch marking beginning of the large intestine) in hedgehogs means that food passes rapidly (within 12 to 16 hours) through the gut, making it unlikely that much fermentative digestion (necessary for plant decomposition) occurs. Thus, although -- as we shall see -- hedgehogs have been found with plant remains in their stomachs (some have been observed eating plants), they are not technically omnivorous; rather they are insectivorous (insect-eating) predators, which take a wide spectrum of invertebrate prey while supplementing their diet with small vertebrates and carrion. Most dietary studies have concluded that plant material is a comparatively unimportant component of their diet.", "        Stomach form and size among various species also vary markedly. In the carnivore the stomach is a small, round sack designed to dissolve flesh quickly and then pass it on for removal.  In plant eaters (particularly ruminants) stomachs are complicated adjoining sacks with ring-like convolutions. The frugivore stomach (including humans) is oblong and is characterized by folds called rugae which serve to retain food for relatively long periods.", "Ruminant: a hooved mammal that eats its food, regurgitates it (cud), and eats it again, a procedure made possible by a four-chambered stomach. Ruminants include cattle, bison, sheep, deer, goats, elk, giraffes, antelopes, and camels. Their specialized stomach evolved to extract the maximum of nutrients from low-quality food.", "The evolution of grazing habits in Australian marsupials mirrored that which occurred in placental mammals elsewhere on the planet. Grass is a tough food. It requires a lot of chewing and very thorough digestion to unlock its nutrients. However it is abundant and easy to find, and those diprotodonts that adopted the grazing habit (mostly macropods) are now among the most widespread Australian mammals. The arrival of European settlers to the continent a little over 200 years ago has spelled disaster for many native diprotodonts, but not for large grazers, which benefited from the improvement of grassland for livestock.", "Ruminant are mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally through bacterial action", "A case of non-scaling in mammalian physiology? Body size, digestive capacity, food intake, and ingesta passage in mammalian herbivores", "Within the hierarchy of the food chain, every species has an anatomical body type. As you will soon see, anatomically speaking, humans are not herbivores, omnivores, or carnivores, as some believe, but rather frugivores. To some of you, frugivore may be a new term, but it’s really very simple. Frugivores are a species whose preferred food is fruit, along with a small amount of nuts, seeds, and leafy greens. Not only do frugivores feed on this diet, they thrive on it!", "..Bacterial synthesis of nutrients occurs in the lower gastrointestinal tract in these animals where little absorption is realized. The eating of their feces provides a method for obtaining these nutrients...", "- members of teh genus homo began eating meat which requires less surface area to digest", "It was once thought that Neanderthals lacked the sophistication for hunting, perhaps scavenging meat from carcasses, but increasing evidence suggests they were apex predators, capable of bringing down a wide range of prey from red deer, reindeer, ibex and wild boar, to larger animals such as aurochs and even, on occasion, mammoth, straight-tusked elephant and rhinoceros. However, while they were largely carnivorous, new studies indicate Neanderthals also had cooked vegetables in their diet. In 2010, an isotope analysis of Neanderthal teeth found traces of cooked vegetable matter, and more recently a 2014 study of Neanderthal coprolites (fossilized feces) found substantial amounts of plant matter, contradicting the earlier belief they were exclusively (or almost exclusively) carnivorous. ", "Why do cows have four stomachs when others grass eating mammals don't require that many? : askscience", "Both anthropologists and archaeologists have researched the evolution of subsistence systems and how farming emerged (with many attendant changes in technology) from food gathering about 10,000 years ago. Concern with the time and place of the first appearance of domesticated plants and animals has given way to questions about how domestication occurred under a variety of ecological conditions at different times and places. Hunting and gathering, horticulture, pastoralism, and the development of agriculture demonstrate different ways in which people have adapted to their environment to feed themselves. The past hundred years have seen the rapid development of industrial agriculture and industrial food systems. Anthropologists have documented how processes such as colonialism, industrial capitalism, and agribusiness have radically changed food production and people’s diets, often through the favouring of cash crops over food crops. Detailed ethnographic fieldwork exposes the health consequences of dietary change, including increased or decreased rates of malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies.", "An animal or animal-like organism that obtains nutrition by consuming the organic material of other forms of life." ]

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[ "The hummingbird, such as the broad-billed hummingbird, is the only bird who has the ability (and tendency) to fly backwards! These tiny birds can beat their wings 53 times a second and they fly in a unique acrobatic style matched by few other birds.", "Hummingbirds are small birds capable of hovering in mid-air due to the rapid flapping of their wings. They are the only birds that can fly backwards.", "Hummingbirds fly backwards, and they are the only birds capable of doing so. When using this unique ability, hummingbirds may reach speeds of 25 to 30 mph as they go. These birds have flexible wings that they can rotate in swift circles to help fly in reverse.", "The slowest flying bird is the American Woodcock. It can fly at just 5 mph (8 kph). When hummingbirds hover, they move at 0 mph. Additionally, hummingbirds are the only birds that can fly backwards under power, registering a negative speed.[10]", "While there are a few birds who can move backwards in small amounts, there is only one bird who can do it very well: The hummingbird!", "There exists only one species of bird that can reliably fly both forward and backward with precision without relying on the assistance of wind. In fact, this bird species can fly side to side, hover, and mostly move what can best be described as a “flying ninja.” We are referring to the Hummingbird: the most nimble and tactical species of all birds.", "From hoveing, the next \"logical' step is to be able to fly backward if you don't want to ruin your source of sweet. It takes a lot of studies to find out how could the hummingbird hover and fly backward and a lot of technical knowledge to explain the findings but the uniqueness of hummingbird flying sskill is obvious on evolutionary standpoint, isn't it?", "Most acrobatic flight = Hobby Falco subbutea which can catch swallows and swifts in mid-air. Many hummingbirds can fly backwards and sideways as well as going vertically up and down.", "The pengiun is the only bird is the only bird that can fly but not swim.", "Owls cannot swivel their eyes. Instead they move their heads completely around to see straight behind them. They live on every continent except Antarctica. Soft fringes on their wings make their flight essentially silent.[1]", "Penguins are one of about 40 species of flightless birds. Other flightless birds include rheas, cassowaries, kiwis, ostriches, and emus. Most flightless birds live in the Southern Hemisphere.[1]", "Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moas and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, give most birds the ability to fly, although further speciation has led to some flightless birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins, and also members of the duck family, have also evolved for swimming. Birds, specifically Darwin's finches, played an important part in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.", "Physicists have puzzled over the synchronized movements of flocking starlings, pondering whether the birds are governed by forces beyond simple biological instinct; researchers have designed and scrutinized mathematical models analyzing flock dynamics that show how each bird’s movement is influenced by its neighbors; and bird lovers have simply looked skyward in appreciation at the graceful undulating flocks in flight overhead. But the near-instantaneous movements of flocking birds reacting as one remains among the most mysterious sights in the natural world. Many birds flock together in tight formations with an obvious leader, but others prefer flowing aerial assemblages with no discernible head. While following a leader, geese, pelicans, and some waterfowl form lines and Vs in the sky, thought to be an optimum formation for aerodynamic travel and leaving little mystery about their movements. Starlings, blackbirds, robins, and shorebirds eschew rigid formations and fly in great moving avian clouds involving hundreds if not thousands of birds at speeds near 40 miles per hour, rivers of birds flowing across the sky together. Their synchronic movements are difficult to explain. Many animals integrate their motion; think of the", "Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for breeding, feeding, and predator avoidance and escape. Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing) that serves as an aerofoil. Wing shape and size generally determine a bird species' type of flight; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators. Though flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to \"fly\" through the water, as do auks, shearwaters and dippers.", "Shifting to South America, and the Galapagos Islands, we find the world’s only cormorant that cannot fly (in spite of those huge wings!). This is one of the rarest birds in the world, found on only two islands in the Galapagos. Instead of flying over the waves, the flightless cormorant uses its powerful legs and swims for fish and other marine prey close to the shore. The bird is listed as vulnerable.", "Kiwi (pronounced) or kiwis are flightless birds native to New Zealand, in the genus Apteryx and family Apterygidae. At around the size of a domestic chicken, kiwi are by far the smallest living ratites (which also consist of ostriches, emus, rheas, and cassowaries), and lay the largest egg in relation to their body size of any species of bird in the world. DNA sequence comparisons have yielded the surprising conclusion that kiwi are much more closely related to the extinct Malagasy elephant birds than to the moa with which they shared New Zealand. There are five recognised species, two of which are currently vulnerable, one of which is endangered, and one of which is critically endangered. All species have been negatively affected by historic deforestation but currently the remaining large areas of their forest habitat are well protected in reserves and national parks. At present, the greatest threat to their survival is predation by invasive mammalian predators.", "     Other flightless native birds of the Mascarenes disappeared as well: all the huge parrots, three kinds of owls, three rails, several small pigeons, two night herons, a stork and an ibis.  Little is known about many of these birds, but two of the rails were described in detail.  The Rodrigues or Leguat's rail (Aphanapteryx leguati) had bright gray plumage flecked with white and gray, a curved red bill, red legs and feet and a red ring surrounding the eye (Taylor 1998).  The bird’s call consisted of a long whistle, but when pursued, the rail gave an alarm call that sounded like a person with a hiccup (Taylor 1998).  This species fed on tortoise eggs and, like the related Mauritian red rail (Aphanapteryx bonasia), could be lured by holding out a red object and trapped when the bird came to attack the lure (Taylor 1998).  They were described as delicious, and were killed to the last bird.  Among flighted species lost were a type of weaver, a starling and a falcon (Brooks 2000; Fuller 1987; Greenway 1967).  The total of 31 extinct birds is more than that of any other island group or continent.", "The albatrosses are among the largest flying birds, with long, narrow wings for gliding. The majority are found in the Southern Hemisphere with only vagrants occurring in the North Atlantic. There are at least thirteen species worldwide with two in Britain.", "The Peregrine Falcon is the fastest bird that dives headfirst down through the sky. They can travel up to 200mph!", "In an interesting evolutionary parallel, auks in the northern hemisphere independently evolved wing-propelled swimming, an upright posture and black-and-white colors. Living auks are generally inefficient fliers – having traded in much of their flying ability for swimming prowess – but none of them are flightless. The great auk is an extinct member of the group that was flightless and disappeared only 150 years ago. Curiously, the word “penguin” was originally applied to this species of auk, prior to the discovery of what know today as penguins by western explorers.", "Generally smaller and more streamlined than hawks, Peregrines, like all falcons, have small heads, firm compact plumage, and long pointed wings—adaptations that allow them to fly at great speed. In flight they use quick, powerful wing strokes. Their powerful talons and strong hooked beak, equipped with a notch or “tooth” that aids in severing the spinal cord of avian prey, mark them as highly specialized predators.", "A skilled flyer, the western jackdaw can manoeuvre tightly as well as tumble and glide. It has characteristic jerky wing beats when flying, though these are not evident when birds are migrating. Wind tunnel experiments show that the preferred gliding speed is between 6 and per second and that the wingspan decreases as the bird flies faster. On the ground, western jackdaws have an upright posture and strut briskly, their short legs giving them a rapid gait. They feed with their heads held down or horizontally.", "Elephant birds were a family of large to enormous, flightless birds that once lived on the island of Madagascar, which lies about 320 km (200 mi) off the southeast coast of Africa. They became extinct, probably in the 17th or 18th century, for reasons that are unclear, although human activity is the suspected cause. Elephant birds comprised the genera Mullerornis and Aepyornis. Aepyornis was among the heaviest of birds. (The extinct Dromornis stirtoni of Australia reached a similar weight). The giant moa (Dinornis) is an extinct genus of ratite birds belonging to the moa family. Like all ratites it was a member of the order Struthioniformes. The Struthioniformes are flightless birds with a sternum without a keel. They also have a distinctive palate. It was endemic to New Zealand. Two species of Dinornis are considered valid, D. novaezealandiae of the North Island, and D. robustus of the South.", "Birds are animals with feathers. There are no other animals with feathers. Bird are generally able to fly and achieve great speed. The fastest birds can fly at speed exceeding 160 kilometers per hour. However, not all birds can fly.", "They are one of only two land-dwelling birds which hunt on their feet (the other being the caracara).", "They are the only bird species that have nostrils at the end of their long beak. They have a beak that is about 1/3 the length of their body. It is extremely sensitive to touch. They have wings but they don’t have any muscle which is why they don’t fly. The wings blend in so well to their feathers that you have to look closely to see that they have them.", "Question 4 : What are some kinds of birds that don't tuck their legs in as they fly?", "These birds are able to fly in both air and water. They can dive at great depths to pursue a prey, propelled by their short, narrow wings and the webbed feet. However, these morphological features do not help the birds in flight. The take-off is difficult but the flight is fast and direct, with rapid wingbeats. On land, they usually have an upright posture and may appear clumsy.", "A bird’s flight ability depends on a balance between its body size and the lift forces generated by its wings. Researchers previously thought that wingspans wider than 5 meters made it impossible for flight. While this puts the new extinct bird above the theoretical limits for powered flight, computer models show it was capable of highly efficient gliding flight, according to a new study  published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences this week. \"Science had made a rule about flight, and life found a way around it,” Daniel Ksepka from the Bruce Museum tells the Washington Post . ", "Most living things we see on a daily basis (including other people) have the ability to both move forward and backwards. Do our airborne bird counterparts get to experience the same luxury?", "Actually, because of aerodynamics, build,and feather type, the peregrine is the fastest. It has been clocked at over 250mph; look it up! Ignorance is bliss, so let me correct this. They can adjust angles, direction, breathe, control movements, attack, maintain, and manage a speed beyond terminal velocity due to the evolution of their biological make up. What makes me such an authority on this? I train, maintain and study them.", "It is nearly flightless, using its wings for displays (its primary wing feathers are patterned), and for moving quickly through the forest. It can also use them to glide when fleeing danger. The wings are not reduced in size like some other flightless birds, and have a span of around , but they lack the musculature for flight. It possesses bright red legs which are long and strong, enabling the bird to travel long distances on foot and run quickly." ]

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[ "Photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll. The palisade layer contains most of the chloroplast and principal region in which photosynthesis is carried out. The airy spongy layer is the region of storage and gas exchange. The stomata regulate carbon dioxide and water balance.", "The primary function of photosynthesis is to convert solar energy into chemical energy and then store that chemical energy for future use. For the most part, the planet’s living systems are powered by this process. It’s not particularly efficient by human engineering standards, but it does the job. Photosynthesis happens in regions of a cell called chloroplasts. The chemistry and physics are complex.", "Within a plant's cell, chlorophyll is located in membranes called thylakoids. Often the membranes are contained in minute cell bodies called chloroplasts. The chloroplasts located within a plant's leaves carry out the photosynthesis process. After the chlorophyll absorbs the light energy it is sent to the reaction centers within the thylakoids. It is there that the light is converted to chemical energy.", "Photosynthesis occurs inside plant cells in a material called chlorophyll. This substance is what gives plants their green color. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight, particularly from the red and blue wavelengths; the green wavelengths are reflected away from the chlorophyll, giving a green appearance. This energy is required to make the chemical bonds that allow photosynthesis to take place.", "Unlike mitochondria , chloroplasts contain a third membrane — the thylakoid membrane — that is the site of photosynthesis . In each chloroplast , the thylakoid membrane is believed to constitute a single, interconnected sheet that forms numerous small flattened vesicles, the thylakoids , which commonly are arranged in stacks termed grana (see Figure 16-34 ). The spaces within all the thylakoids constitute a single continuous compartment, the thylakoid lumen. The thylakoid membrane contains a number of integral membrane proteins to which are bound several important prosthetic groups and light-absorbing pigments, most notably chlorophyll. Carbohydrate synthesis occurs in the stroma, the soluble phase between the thylakoid membrane and the inner membrane. In photosynthetic bacteria extensive invaginations of the plasma membrane form a set of internal membranes, also termed thylakoid membranes, or simply thylakoids, where photosynthesis occurs.", "The thylakoid is the structural unit of photosynthesis. Both photosynthetic prokaryotes and eukaryotes have these flattened sacs/vesicles containing photosynthetic chemicals. Only eukaryotes have chloroplasts with a surrounding membrane.", "Plant photosynthesis occurs in leaves and green stems within specialized cell structures called chloroplasts. One plant leaf is composed of tens of thousands of cells, and each cell contains 40 to 50 chloroplasts. The chloroplast, an oval-shaped structure, is divided by membranes into numerous disk-shaped compartments. These disklike compartments, called thylakoids, are arranged vertically in the chloroplast like a stack of plates or pancakes. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural, grana); the grana lie suspended in a fluid known as stroma.", "Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by water splitting is used in the creation of two further compounds: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the \"energy currency\" of cells.", "Photosynthesis - a process that happens in the leaves of plants where sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide (from the air) are converted into food and oxygen.", "The light reactions of photosynthesis occur in chloroplasts in and on the thylakoid disks. During the light reactions, light energy charges up ATP molecules. More specifically, light turns the chloroplast into an acid battery, and this battery charges up ATP.", "Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the organelles that convert energy to forms that cells can use for work. Mitochondria are the site of cellular respiration, the metabolic process that generates ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels with the help of oxygen. Chloroplasts, are found in plants and algae, and they are the sites of photosynthesis. They convert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds such as sugar from carbon dioxide and water. Both of them are not part of endomembrane system. Mitochondria have two membrane separating their innermost space from the cytosol, and chloroplasts have three. The membrane proteins of mitochondria and chloroplasts are made not by ribosomes bound to the ER, but by free ribosomes in the cyotosol and by ribosomes contained within these organelles themselves. They also contain small amount of DNA that programs the synthesis of the proteins made on the organelle's ribosomes. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are semiautonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell.", "These cells are involved in some A-list activities in the plant, including being the site of all that photosynthesis plants are doing. But wait, you say, you’ve already read the section on photosynthesis , and you know that it happens in chloroplasts? That’s correct, but chloroplasts are organelles, and have to live inside cells. Those cells are parenchyma.", "A thylakoid is a membrane-bound compartment inside chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. The word \"thylakoid\" is derived from the Greek thylakos, meaning \"sac\".", "Photosynthesis consists of both light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions. In plants, the so-called \"light\" reactions occur within the chloroplast thylakoids, where the aforementioned chlorophyll pigments reside. When light energy reaches the pigment molecules, it energizes the electrons within them, and these electrons are shunted to an electron transport chain in the thylakoid membrane. Every step in the electron transport chain then brings each electron to a lower energy state and harnesses its energy by producing ATP and NADPH. Meanwhile, each chlorophyll molecule replaces its lost electron with an electron from water; this process essentially splits water molecules to produce oxygen (Figure 5).", "Plant cells have unique features that facilitate the process of photosynthesis. Through photosynthesis sunlight, water and carbon dioxide are transformed into energy, water and oxygen. This is an important process for the support of all forms of life.", "Photosynthesis is a very complex process, and for the sake of convenience and ease of understanding, plant biologists divide it into two stages. In the first stage, the light-dependent reaction, the chloroplast traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy contained in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), two molecules used in the second stage of photosynthesis. In the second stage, called the light-independent reaction (formerly called the dark reaction), NADPH provides the hydrogen atoms that help form glucose, and ATP provides the energy for this and other reactions used to synthesize glucose. These two stages reflect the literal meaning of the term photosynthesis, to build with light. AThe Light-Dependent Reaction Photosynthesis relies on flows of energy and electrons initiated by light energy. Electrons are minute particles that travel in a specific orbit around the nuclei of atoms and carry a small electrical charge. Light energy causes the electrons in chlorophyll and other light-trapping pigments to boost up and out of their orbit; the electrons instantly fall back into place, releasing resonance energy, or vibrating energy, as they go, all in millionths of a second.", "In multicellular autotrophs, the main cellular structures that allow photosynthesis to take place include chloroplasts, thylakoids, and chlorophyll.", "Exploring photosynthesis in a leaf - Chloroplasts, Grana, Stroma, Thylakoids, and other parts of a leaf.", "Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle. Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions. ", "1)Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis . Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell", "An organelle in the cells of green plants. It contains chlorophyll and functions in photosynthesis and protein synthesis.", "Chloroplasts are tiny factories inside the cells of plants. They are also found in the cells of other organisms that use photosynthesis. Chloroplasts take the energy from the sunlight and use it to make plant food. The food can be used immediately to give cells energy or it can be stored as sugar or starch. If stored, it can be used later when the plant needs to do work, like grow a new branch or make a flower.", "Many leaf cells contain tiny, lens-shaped organelles called chloroplasts. These can move around the cell towards the direction of sunlight. Chloroplasts contain a green, light-capturing pigment called chlorophyll. This chemical helps the chloroplasts to act like minute solar panels.", "Chloroplast: a part of a cell found in plants that converts light energy into energy plants can use (sugar). Other living organisms such as algae also have cells that contain chloroplasts.", "The non-membranous region inside the chloroplast is called the stroma. It contains an aqueous solution of enzymes and various metabolites that participate in the reduction of CO2 to carbohydrate via the Calvin Cycle, as described below.", "33. This structure, a type of plastid, encloses the stroma and the thylakoid [THIGH-luh-koyd] membrane. Surrounded by a double membrane, it contains two pigments that help produce ATP. What is this light-absorbing structure within a green plant cell?", "Diagram of photosynthesis showing how water, light, and carbon dioxide are absorbed by a plant to …", "An organism, typically a plant, obtaining energy from sunlight as its source of energy to convert inorganic materials into organic materials for use in cellular functions such asbiosynthesis and respiration.", "Chloroplast is a plastid with green pigment chlorophyll. It traps light energy and converts it to chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis.", "the substance in green plants that gives them their color and helps in the process of photosynthesis.", "Diagram of a typical plant, showing the inputs and outputs of the photosynthetic process. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates ( www.sinauer.com ) and WH Freeman ( www.whfreeman.com ), used with permission.", "Photosystem II; light energy is used to initiate an electron flow along the electron transport chain resulting in ATP systhesis and the release of oxygen gas" ]

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[ "Bark is the protective external covering of the stems (roots, trunk, and branches) of trees. The waterproof outer layer is known as cork. Composed of dead cells, cork can be as thick as several inches or more and serves to protect the internal living tissues from insects, animals, fungi, fire, and dehydration (the loss of water).", "The outside layer of the trunk, branches and twigs of trees.  The bark serves as a protective layer for the more delicate inside wood of the tree.  Trees actually have inner bark and outer bark -- the inner layer of bark is made up of living cells and the outer layer is made of dead cells, sort of like our fingernails.", "Tree trunks are made up of different layers of cells. On the outside is a protective layer called bark. Just beneath the bark is a thin layer of phloem cells, which carry food from the leaves to the rest of the tree. Below the phloem is another thin layer of cells, the cambium, which constantly divide and make the trunk wider. Beneath them, the sapwood draws up water and minerals from the roots.", "The rhytidome is the most familiar part of bark, it is the outer layer that covers the trunks of trees. It is composed mostly of dead cells and is produced by the formation of multiple layers of suberized periderm, cortical and phloem tissue. It is generally thickest and most distinctive at the trunk or bole (the area from the ground to where the main branching starts) of the tree.", "The bark on trees has two layers: an outer layer of dead wood and an inner layer of living tissues. The inner layer is made up of living cells that are continually dividing. The inner cells need water to live. They take in water through pores and lenticels. When the cells are deprived of water, they die and become part of the outer dead layer, which serves as an effective barrier against injuries and environmental stresses. Since this layer consists of dead cells, it can no longer grow. It cracks or breaks away as the inner cells continue to grow and push the older cells outward.", "Another important tissue is the dermal tissue, which is the outer protective layer. Plants don’t have skin exactly, but they do have an epidermis. (Did anyone else just picture a plant covered in human skin? No? Just us? Right then, moving on.) The epidermis is the outermost layer of tissue, the tissue that has to meet the cruel world out there. The epidermis is the tissue that encounters the rain, the heat, the pollution, and all the other elements.", "The epidermis is the outer layer of cells covering the leaf. It is covered with a waxy cuticle which is impermeable to liquid water and water vapor and forms the boundary separating the plant's inner cells from the external world. The cuticle is in some cases thinner on the lower epidermis than on the upper epidermis, and is generally thicker on leaves from dry climates as compared with those from wet climates. The epidermis serves several functions: protection against water loss by way of transpiration, regulation of gas exchange, secretion of metabolic compounds, and (in some species) absorption of water. Most leaves show dorsoventral anatomy: The upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions.", "The upper part of the trees in any forest or woodland is called the canopy. It is made up of their branches, twigs, and leaves. Tropical rainforest trees form a dense canopy that is home to many animals.", "It is completely covered with a close garment of bark, also made of annual layers. Between bark and wood is the delicate undergarment of living tissue called cambium. This is disappointing when one comes to look for it, for all there is of it is a colorless, slimy substance that moistens the youngest layers of wood and bark, and forms the layer of separation between them. This cambium is the life of the tree. A hollow trunk seems scarcely a disability. The loss of limbs a tree can survive and start afresh. But girdle its trunk, exposing a ring of the cambium to the air, and the tree dies. The vital connection of leaves and roots is destroyed by the girdling; nothing can save the tree's life. Girdle a limb or a twig and all above the injury suffers practical amputation.", "The walls of cork cells in the bark of trees are impregnated with suberin, and suberin also forms the permeability barrier in primary roots known as the Casparian strip. Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic silica crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores.", "The uppermost continuous layer of a vegetation cover, for example the tree canopy in a forest ecosystem or the uppermost layer of a shrub stand.", "a waxy non-cellular layer on the outer surface of the plant leaf that prevents water loss evaporation", "Terrestrial plants developed a waxy outer coating to prevent water loss, stomata, reproductive structures that could function on land, and complex water circulation system with horizontal stalks", "The taiga (pronounced \"tie-guh\" and shown in Figure 8) is a coniferous forest extending across most of the northern area of northern Eurasia and North America. This forest belt also occurs in a few other areas, where it has different names: the montane coniferous forest when near mountain tops; and the temperate rain forest along the Pacific Coast as far south as California. The taiga receives between 10 and 40 inches of rain per year and has a short growing season. Winters are cold and short, while summers tend to be cool. The taiga is noted for its great stands of spruce, fir, hemlock, and pine. These trees have thick protective leaves and bark, as well as needlelike (evergreen) leaves can withstand the weight of accumulated snow. Taiga forests have a limited understory of plants, and a forest floor covered by low-lying mosses and lichens. Conifers, alders, birch and willow are common plants; wolves, grizzly bears, moose, and caribou are common animals. Dominance of a few species is pronounced, but diversity is low when compared to temperate and tropical biomes.", "Bark is a distinguishing character of many trees—of others it is confusing. The sycamore, shedding bark in sheets from its limbs, exposes pale, smooth under bark. The tree is recognizable by its mottled appearance winter or summer. The corky ridges on limbs of sweet gum and [Pg xvi] bur oak are easily remembered traits. The peculiar horizontal peeling of bark on birches designates most of the genus. The prussic-acid taste of a twig sets the cherry tribe apart. The familiar aromatic taste of the green twigs of sassafras is its best winter character; the mitten-shaped leaves distinguish it in summer.", "The skin is the efficient \"third lung\" of animals. The closing of its pores causes immediate suffocation. The bark of trees carries on the work of respiration in the absence of the leaves. Bark is porous, even where it is thickest.", "The bane of many forest explorers, the Rattans bear fearsome spines on their stems and leaves. Numerous species are to be found in the reserve, particularly where a gap has appeared in the canopy and sunlight is streaming through. Not only for protection, the spines help the Rattan cling to the trunks of trees. Many Rattans grow to a height at which they are unable to support their own weight and they collapse in a tangle to the forest floor. Good examples of smaller Rattans are to be seen along the main road leading to the summit.", "(1) More or less continuous cover of branches and foliage formed collectively by adjacent tree crowns", "Exogenous trees are divided into broad-leaved trees and needle-leaved conifers. The broad, flat leaves of trees such as oaks and chestnuts gave rise to the former term, while the narrow resinous leaves of the pine and hemlock gave rise to the latter. The woods of the former group are usually referred to as hard woods, although some of them are very soft; those of the latter group are referred to as soft woods, although some of them are very hard. Most, but not all, of the broadleaf trees are deciduous, that is, they change their foliage every year; and most, but not all, of the needleleaf trees are evergreen, that is, the foliage is persistent. Needleleaf trees are also known as conifers, that is, cone-bearers.", "The resinous sap that courses through the veins of coniferous wood seals up the bark, leaves, and cones against the invasion of enemies, and acts as an antiseptic dressing for wounds. Without these special adaptations to a life of [Pg 220] hardship, the conifers would never have held their own as they have done. They inhabit regions where conditions discourage all but a few of the broad-leaved trees.", "Secondary homes are especially abundant in summer and frequently consist of a pile of leaves and bark heaped onto a twig platform. A roofed-over cavity isn’t necessary as the green leaves on the tree provide ample protection. Sometimes leaf platforms or old bird nests are used for resting during feeding and exploration bouts.", "[Pg 252] All fir trees belong to the genus abies, whose twenty-five species are distributed from the Far North to the highlands of tropical regions in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. All are tall pyramidal trees, with wide-spreading horizontal limbs bearing thick foliage masses, and with bark that contains vesicles full of resinous balsam. The branches grow in whorls and spread like fern fronds, covered for eight or nine years with the persistent leaves. Circular scars are left on the smooth branches when they fall.", "the top of a tree or group of trees; the leaves and living branches of a tree", "A band of forest left relatively undisturbed so as to protect some element of the environment, such as a streambank from erosion.", "n armor In paleobotany, the thick covering or jacket which surrounds the woody axis of fossil cycadean trunks, consisting of the persistent leaf-bases and the copious ramentum which fills the interstices between them. The ramentum is firmly silicified, forming walls around the leaf-bases; and where, as is usually the case, only the lower portion of the leaf-bases is preserved, the triangular cavities remaining give to the trunks a honeycomblike appearance.", "c. between the bark and the wood. d. at nodes on the surface of the main stem.", "CLUE: These trees are called BROADLEAF, (a tree with leaves that are flat, thin and generally shed annually) most are DECIDUOUS (shedding all leaves annually) and bear a variety of fruit and flowers.", "Many gymnosperms have thin needle-like or scale-like leaves that can be advantageous in cold climates with frequent snow and frost. These are interpreted as reduced from megaphyllous leaves of their Devonian ancestors. Some leaf forms are adapted to modulate the amount of light they absorb to avoid or mitigate excessive heat, ultraviolet damage, or desiccation, or to sacrifice light-absorption efficiency in favour of protection from herbivory. For xerophytes the major constraint is not light flux or intensity, but drought. Some window plants such as Fenestraria species and some Haworthia species such as Haworthia tesselata and Haworthia truncata are examples of xerophytes. and Bulbine mesembryanthemoides.Marloth, Rudolf. \"The Flora of South Africa\" 1932 Pub. Cape Town: Darter Bros. London: Wheldon & Wesley.", "When it grows in more open conditions, black spruce is one of the classic \"cone shaped\" evergreen trees. (That's cone, as in the geometric shape, not the scaly seed-bearing structure.) Many spruce (Genus: Picea) and fir (Genus: Abies) trees, and some pines (Genus: Pinus) exhibit a very regular and symmetrical growth form that results in them appearing conical in shape. In silhouette they look like a narrow isosceles triangle with the apex pointing up. When most people think of a \"pine\" tree, this is the shape they think of, but most pines don't actually end up this shape. They tend to be less regular in their growth form, with upward pointing branch tips and often have twisted or branching trunks. It is actually the spruce and fir trees that most often exhibit the regular \"pine\" tree shape. (Sorry to be such a \"nudge\", but you know I'm a stickler for details like this.)", "�Coal forests� dominated the North American and Eurasian landscapes until near the end of the Carboniferous period. At that time, global climate, turned drier and colder, and the vast swamps began to disappear. This climatic change provided an opportunity for seed plants, which can complete their life cycles on dry land and withstand long, harsh winters", "In a forest, where we find an open community structure, there is a gradient of soil moisture. Plants have different tolerances to this gradient and occur at different places along the continuum. Where the physical environment has abrupt transitions, we find sharp boundaries developing between populations. For example, an ecotone develops at a beach separating water and land.", "A forest of high elevation that occurs along the foggy windward shores of continents and islands." ]

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[ "Plants also need water for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is what plants do to create their food, and water is critical to this process. Water enters a plant's stem and travels up to its leaves, which is where photosynthesis actually takes place. Once in the leaves water evaporates, as the plant exchanges water for carbon dioxide. This process is called transpiration, and it happens through tiny openings in the plant's leaves, called stomata. The water from the leaves evaporates through the stomata, and carbon dioxide enters the stomata, taking the water's place. Plants need this carbon dioxide to make food. Transpiration - this exchange of water for carbon dioxide - only occurs during the day when there is sunlight. This is why you might find dew on plants in the morning. The plants contain a lot of water because all night long water has been entering through the stem and being pulled into the leaves where it can't evaporate. Since the water doesn't evaporate at night, the water has no where to go so it remains on the leaves as dew.", "For plants to perform photosynthesis they require light energy from the sun, water and carbon dioxide. Water is absorbed from the soil into the cells of root hairs.  The water passes from the root system to the xylem vessels in the stem until it reaches the leaves.  Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere through pores in the leaves called stomata.  The leaves also contain chloroplasts which hold chlorophyll.  The sun’s energy is captured by the chlorophyll.", "Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale oxygen gas as waste. The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO2 (carbon dioxide) and 6 H2O (water) and that makes 6 O2 (oxygen) and C6H12O6 (glucose). What is not expressed in the chemical equation is the capture of energy from sunlight which occurs. Photosynthesis uses electrons on the carbon atoms as the repository for that energy. Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. It reclaims the energy to power chemical reactions in cells. In so doing the carbon atoms and their electrons are combined with oxygen forming a gas which is easily removed from both the cells and the organism. Plants use both processes, photosynthesis to capture the energy and respiration to use it.", "Photosynthesis requires plants to take in carbon dioxide gas (). As they do so, they lose water through transpiration. Like other types of succulents, cacti reduce this water loss by the way in which they carry out photosynthesis. \"Normal\" leafy plants use the C3 mechanism: during daylight hours, is continually drawn out of the air present in spaces inside leaves and converted first into a compound containing three carbon atoms (3-phosphoglycerate) and then into products such as carbohydrates. The access of air to internal spaces within a plant is controlled by stomata, which are able to open and close. The need for a continuous supply of during photosynthesis means the stomata must be open, so water vapor is continuously being lost. Plants using the C3 mechanism lose as much as 97% of the water taken up through their roots in this way. A further problem is that as temperatures rise, the enzyme that captures starts to capture more and more oxygen instead, reducing the efficiency of photosynthesis by up to 25%.", "Photosynthesis takes place in two stages, the first of which captures the energy, and the second which makes sugars. The first one requires water, because the plant uses the hydrogen atoms in water to collect the energy. The second requires both: sugar contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, of which the first two come from carbon dioxide and the last, comes from water. The excess oxygen is released as oxygen gas.", "Sunlight provides energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Sunlight is actually made up of photons, which are very small particles that carry electromagnetic force. In the first step of photosynthesis, the plants capture a photon and harness its energy in order to start photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, the plants take carbon dioxide (which is present throughout the air) and water (which is also in the air and dirt) and turn it into sugar, among other compounds. Plants also produce oxygen during photosynthesis. (This is a lucky process for us because we produce carbon dioxide and breathe in oxygen -- without plants, we'd be in a lot of trouble!)", "Plants, like animals, have evolved to utilize and respond to parts of the electromagnetic spectrum they are embedded in. Plants (and many bacteria) convert the light energy captured from the Sun into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organism's activities. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. Photosynthesis is vital for all aerobic life on Earth (such as humans and animals). The portion of the EM spectrum used by photosynthesic organisms is called the photosynthetically active region (PAR) and corresponds to solar radiation between 400 and 700 nm, substantially overlapping with the range of human vision. This is again not coincidental; the light in this range is the most plentiful to organisms on the surface of Earth because the Sun emits about half of its luminosity in this wavelength range and it is allowed to pass freely through the optical windows in Earth's atmosphere.", "Photosynthesis is defined as the formation of carbohydrates in living plants from water and carbon dioxide (CO2). It is the most important chemical pathway (series of chemical reactions) on our planet. Almost all of the biomass on Earth was initially created by photosynthesis.", "Most of the solid material in a plant is taken from the atmosphere. Through a process known as photosynthesis, most plants use the energy in sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, plus water, into simple sugars. (Parasitic plants, on the other hand, use the resources of its host to grow.) These sugars are then used as building blocks and form the main structural component of the plant. Chlorophyll, a green-colored, magnesium-containing pigment is essential to this process; it is generally present in plant leaves, and often in other plant parts as well.", "A majority of plants use these steps in photosynthesis. Plants such as corn and crabgrass that have evolved in hot, dry environments, however, must overcome certain obstacles to photosynthesis. On hot days, they partially close the pores in their leaves to prevent the escape of water. With the pores only slightly open, adequate amounts of carbon dioxide cannot enter the leaf, and the Calvin cycle comes to a halt. To get around this problem, certain hot-weather plants have developed a way to keep carbon dioxide flowing to the stroma without capturing it directly from the air. They open their pores slightly, take in carbon dioxide, and transport it deep within the leaves. Here they stockpile it in a chemical form that releases the carbon dioxide slowly and steadily into the Calvin cycle. With this system, these plants can continue photosynthesis on hot days, even with their pores almost completely closed. A field of corn thus remains green on blistering days when neighboring plants wither, and crabgrass thrives in lawns browned by the summer sun.", "Photosynthesis occurs in green plants, seaweeds, algae, and certain bacteria. These organisms are veritable sugar factories, producing millions of new glucose molecules per second. Plants use much of this glucose, a carbohydrate, as an energy source to build leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. They also convert glucose to cellulose, the structural material used in their cell walls. Most plants produce more glucose than they use, however, and they store it in the form of starch and other carbohydrates in roots, stems, and leaves. The plants can then draw on these reserves for extra energy or building materials. Each year, photosynthesizing organisms produce about 170 billion metric tons of extra carbohydrates, about 30 metric tons for every person on earth.", "Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b6 (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction is as follows:", "have a vast surface area of leaves to catch enough sunlight for photosynthesis and these leaves need carbon dioxide which is", "Most of the Viscaceae bear evergreen leaves that photosynthesise effectively, and photosynthesis proceeds within their green, fleshy stems as well. Some species, such as \"Viscum capense\", are adapted to semi-arid conditions and their leaves are vestigial scales, hardly visible without detailed morphological investigation. Therefore their photosynthesis and transpiration only take place in their stems, limiting their demands on the host's supply of water, but also limiting their intake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Accordingly their contribution to the host's metabolic balance becomes trivial and the idle parasite may become quite yellow as it grows, having practically given up photosynthesis.", "Diagram of photosynthesis showing how water, light, and carbon dioxide are absorbed by a plant to …", "Plants need carbon dioxide, which they can get from the atmosphere or from animals and bacteria.", "Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is:", "Process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water using chlorophyll and sunlight as the energy source.", "The stipe, like a plant’s stem, carries nutrients, although in a much simpler way - it’s primarily used to deliver sugars from photosynthesis. [8]", "The process by which a plant or tree combines water and carbon dioxide with energy from the sun to make glucose and oxygen.", "With the help of an enzyme, six molecules of carbon dioxide bond to six molecules of RuBP to create six new molecules. Several intermediate steps, which require ATP, NADPH, and additional enzymes, rearrange the position of the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in these six molecules, and when the reactions are complete, one new molecule of glucose has been constructed and five molecules of RuBP have been reconstructed. This process occurs repeatedly in each chloroplast as long as carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are available. The thousands of glucose molecules produced in this reaction are processed by the plant to produce energy in the process known as aerobic respiration, used as structural materials, or stored. The regenerated RuBP is used to start the Calvin cycle all over again.", "      Half a molecule of glucose. That's all we've got so far. Photosynthesis may be over, but it is not the end for these important molecules.", "6CO2 + 6H2O + Light & Chlorophyll   -->  C6H12O6  + 6O2   or   Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy= Glucose + Oxygen", "A. Solar light is essential for the production of carbon; and as plants kept in the dark lose their carbon, they lose the blue colour which should convert their yellow sap to green.", "    This hypothesis explains why freezing and thawing temperatures are required and why sap flow is always followed by re-absorption of water (Marvin, 1958). However, it doesn't explain why sap flow requires: (1) sucrose in the sap, and (2) living cells. It is possible that both are necessary for cellular respiration that yields carbon dioxide. This gas may be the main component of the gases that undergo thermal expansion and contraction during the freeze-thaw cycle (Marvin, 1958; Kramer, 1983).", "# It is the solvent in which nutrients are carried to, into and throughout the plant.", "1. The organic molecule produced directly by photosynthesis is: a) lipids; b) sugar; c) amino acids; d) DNA", "Employing this process allows the near-perfect efficiency of plants in harvesting energy from sunlight and is likely to be used by all of them, Engel says. It might also be copied usefully by researchers attempting to create artificial photosynthesis, such as that in photovoltaic cells for generating electricity. \"This can be a much more efficient energy transfer than a classical hopping one,\" Engel says. \"Exactly how to implement that is a very difficult question.\"", "The fluid inside the thylakoid disks is positively charged because it contains a lot of hydrogen (H+) ions. The pH here is low, making the fluid very acidic. The solvent of thylakoid disk fluid is water.", "a process that takes place in green plants when the plant uses the energy in sunlight to make food for itself.", "Fig. 27   Pigment in cells near the top surface in an apparent liquid state 1,000X (Oil)", "Hess, W. R., Rocap, G., Ting, C. S., Larimer, F., Stilwagen, S., Lamerdin, J. & Chisholm, S. W. (2001) Photosynth. Res. 70, 53–71." ]

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[ "During spring, bats return from migration or awaken from hibernation and the females begin having baby bats called \"pups\".", "Mating occurs in the late summer and early autumn, and the females store the males' sperm until the next spring. A pregnant female will carry her young for a gestation period of 40 days to six months. Then, she will give birth to one baby, called a pup. The pup will weigh about one-fourth as much as its mother at birth. Young bats drink milk from their mothers to survive, much like other mammals. ", "Reproduction: Mating occurs in autumn when groups of a few hundred, known as “swarming”, are formed and pairs mate before going into hibernation. The gestation period for he Northern myotis is 50-60 days, after which a single young bat is born. Young are generally born in late June or early July. Female bats nurse their young for about a month, and give birth to one young bat a year. [5]", "A mother gives birth while hanging by her feet; she must catch her baby with her wings as it drops! Most female bats have only one baby, called a pup, per year, although twins and quadruplets occur in a few species. Some tropical bats can have two pregnancies per year. In some species, the pregnant females form nursery colonies in warmer roosts. A mother bat can locate her pup by its scent and sound out of millions in a roost!", "Reproduction: Mating takes place in flight and copulation occurs in August or September. Female Red Bats give birth to twins each year. Their young learn to fly at about 5 weeks old and it takes them about another 5 weeks to learn to fly on their own. [4]", "In most species, females give birth to only one offspring per year. The young are usually born naked and helpless, with small and undeveloped wings, but grow rapidly and soon can fly and forage on their own. Those bats that live in places with cold winters can hibernate during the winter. Other bats migrate to warmer climates when winter comes. Bats are remarkably long-lived for their size; both fruitbats and microbats have been known to live for over 20 years.", "If you're picturing the beautiful demigoddesses of ancient Greece and Rome, you're only half right. A nymph is also the young of any insect that undergoes incomplete metamorphosis, like grasshoppers, termites, ticks and cockroaches. Nymphs are born with many of the characteristics they will carry into adulthood, unlike moths and butterflies which undergo a full metamorphosis, liquefying and reforming with wings in the pupal stage. So, what do you call a baby falcon? Check out the next slide.", "Bats have some unique mating behaviors not seen in other animals. Male and female bats meet in hibernation sites, called hibernacula, where they breed. \"Bats 'swarm' around in huge numbers, chasing each other and performing spectacular aerobatics,\" biologist John Altringham told Live Science in a 2013 article. [ Related: Animal Sex: How Bats Do It ] ", "Bats, like people, usually only have one baby at a time although on occasion they'll have twins.", "Bats belong to the order Chiroptera which aptly means “hand-wing.” More than 1,100 species exist. The two sub-orders are Megachiroptera or “megabats” and Microchiroptera, the smaller, echolocating and mostly insectivorous bats. Old World fruit bats of Africa, Asia and Australia, commonly called “flying foxes,” make up the single megabat family Pteropodidae. The genus Pteropus contains around 60 species that are found throughout tropical and sub-tropical Asia, Australasia and Pacific islands. The Indian flying fox has a widespread range on the Indian sub-continent that extends from Pakistan to Southeast Asia and China, and south to the Maldive Islands. Pteropus giganteus is also known as the Greater Indian fruit bat.", "Bats are divided into two main types: megabats and microbats. Megabats (formally, bats in the Megachiroptera suborder) include flying foxes and Old World fruit bats. They tend to be larger than microbats (Microchiroptera suborder), but some microbats are actually larger than some megabats.", "Flying-foxes (also called fruit bats) are members of a large group of mammals called BATS. There are microbats and megabats. Bats are the only group of mammals capable of sustained flight.", "Breeding takes place in the spring and many Natterer's bats may congregate in a nursery roost. After fertilisation, a female normally gives birth to a single offspring after a gestation period of fifty to sixty days, but twins sometimes occur. Weaning takes place six or seven weeks later and the juvenile becomes sexually mature the following year.", "Bats are present throughout most of the world, performing vital ecological roles of pollinating flowers and dispersing fruit seeds. Many tropical plant species depend entirely on bats for the distribution of their seeds. Bats are important, as they consume insect pests, reducing the need for pesticides. The smallest bat is the Kitti's hog-nosed bat, measuring 29–34 mm (1.14–1.34 in) in length, 15 cm (5.91 in) across the wings and 2–2.6 g (0.07–0.09 oz) in mass. It is also arguably the smallest extant species of mammal, with the Etruscan shrew being the other contender. The largest species of bat are a few species of Pteropus and the giant golden-crowned flying fox with a weight up to 1.6 kg (4 lb) and wingspan up to 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in).", "Bats are nocturnal creatures, coming out at night to feed. Many of the species of bats classified in the Megachiroptera, the \"flying foxes\" or fruitbats, feed on fruit, as their common name suggests. Some species of fruitbat feed on flowers or on flower nectar. Fruitbats occasionally damage fruit crops and garden flowers in the Old World tropics", "Megabats consists of one family (Pteropodidae) and about 166 species. Megabats are also called fruit bats because they all feed primarily on plant material: fruit, nectar or pollen. The flower-eaters are usually small and have long pointed heads, long tongues, and the ability to hover and fly slowly. Some megabats will supplement their diets with insects. Megabats are also called flying foxes because they have big eyes for finding food and they have a face that looks somewhat like a fox.", "Most bat moms give birth to only a single pup each year, making them very vulnerable to extinction. Bats are the slowest reproducing mammals on earth for their size.", "Balcombe, J.P. Vocal recognition of pups by mother Mexican free-tailed bats, Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana. Animal Behaviour 39, 960-966 (1990).", "These bats are also known as 'whispering bats' because their echolocation sounds are very quiet. They have particularly sensitive hearing and often locate prey from just the sound made by the insect's own movements and not bothering to echolocate. They may also sometimes use vision. Small prey is eaten in flight, but larger insects are taken to a 'perch'. Regularly used perches, which are frequently inside porches or barns, can be recognised by the accumulations of discarded insect remains, particularly the wings of moths such as the Yellow Underwing.", "Bats are the only mammals capable of powered flight which requires both lightness and strength. The wing membrane stretched across the elongated finger digits is so thin that light can be seen though it. Bats have very light bones compared to other mammals. Flight muscles attach to shoulder blades and the breastbone. In contrast to the powerful upper body, most fruit bats lack weight bearing hind limbs for locomotion or even standing. At best, flying foxes crawl on the ground. With lighter and weaker rear quarters, bats hang upside down. Tendons in the hind legs lock claws onto surfaces without any effort. To launch into flight, they merely release their grip.", "The freetail bats (family Molossidae) are a cosmopolitan group of communal bats characterized by a long tail extending well beyond the end of the tail membrane. Among them are the guano bats (Tadarida), which live in enormous colonies. Their excrement, called guano guano", "The Congress Bridge over Colorado River houses approximately one and a half million bats in mid-summer. In the spring, the pregnant female makes her way north to roosting sites in the Southwestern United States. They each give birth to a baby and at five weeks of age the pups can fly. Hundreds of people line the bridge at dusk to catch a rare glimpse of the bats as they leave the bridge for their nightly feeding. It may take up to 45 minutes for all the bats to exit. They will consume between 10,000 and 30,000 pounds of insects each night.", "Another common name for flying fox is fruit bat. Flying foxes belong to a group of mammals called Chiroptera, which means hand-wing. A bats wing is its hand. The hand has elongated fingers with a thin membrane of skin stretched between them.", "They will also learn the anatomy and the glorious design that enables birds to do remarkable things. After becoming amateur ornithologists, your children will explore the world of chiropterology, which is the study of bats.", "Most bats are nocturnal creatures. Their daylight hours are spent grooming and sleeping; they hunt during the night. The means by which bats navigate while finding and catching their prey in the dark was unknown until the 1790s, when Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted a series of experiments on a group of hooded and surgically blinded bats. These bats were placed in a room in total darkness, with silk threads strung across the room. Even then, the bats were able to navigate their way through the room. Spallanzani concluded the bats were not using their eyes to fly through complete darkness, but something else.", "↑ a b Kurta, Allen (2010), Reproductive timing, distribution and sex ratios of tree bats in lower Michigan, Journal of Mammalogy, p. 586-592 ", "Bats are the only mammals that can fly. They are also among the only mammals known to feed on blood. Common misconceptions and fears about bats have led many people to regard the creatures as unclean disease carriers, but bats are actually very helpful in controlling the population of crop-destroying insects.", "The giant golden-crowned flying fox, however does not suck on humans or even attack them. The only vampire bats live in South America and they are tiny and timid. Still, there could be bats in this region which are not recognised by mainstream science that perhaps be the stuff of nightmares.", "These notorious bats sleep during the day in total darkness, suspended upside down from the roofs of caves. They typically gather in colonies of about 100 animals, but sometimes live in groups of 1,000 or more. In one year, a 100-bat colony can drink the blood of 25 cows.", "Microbats use echolocation to navigate and forage, often in total darkness. They generally emerge from their roosts in caves, attics, or trees at dusk and hunt for insects into the night. Their use of echolocation allows them to occupy a niche where there are often many insects (that come out at night since there are fewer predators then), less competition for food, and fewer species that may prey on the bats themselves.", "Natalus micropus is an insect-eating bat that hunts on the wing while fluttering like a moth. ", "New evidence suggests that the creature is able to chase and capture birds on the wing, the first such behaviour observed in bats." ]

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[ "The aquatic larva of a frog or toad, having gills, a long, laterally compressed tail, and in early stages, no limbs. During metamorphosis of a tadpole into an adult, legs and lungs develop, and the tail gradually disappears. Also called polliwog.", "Tadpoles are the larval stages of frogs and toads . Amphibians differ from most other vertebrates (higher organisms with a backbone), in that their eggs develop into a larval stage, known as a tadpole. The word comes from the old English words for a toad anf a head (poll). Pollywog, another name for a tadpole, alos comes from the root poll for head and the old word for wriggle, reflecting the fact that the body of the young tadpole appears to be completely made up of a head and a tail. Whereas frogs and toads are terrestial, tadpoles are completely aquatic, they have gills instead of eyes. The food of tadpoles, and therefore their mouths and digestive systems is often very different from that of their parents. Tadpoles also have tails, which the adult lacks. Frogs are in the order anura, meaning no tail, as opposed to tailed amphibians, like salamanders .", "An animal in an early stage of development that differs greatly in appearance from its adult stage. Larvae are adapted to a different environment and way of life from those of adults and go through a process of metamorphosis in changing to adults. Tadpoles are the larvae of frogs and toads.", "A pollywog is another name for a tadpole, or the larval stage in the life cycle of an amphibian, namely frogs and toads. While most tadpoles are aquatic and spend most all their time in the water, a few are terrestrial.", "The larval stage of a frog or toad. A tadpole lives in the water, has a tail and gills, and has no limbs. The tail and gills disappear as the legs and lungs develop on the way to the adult stage.", "Endemic to South and Southeast Asia, this fairly large species of toad grows up to the size of 20 cm and is alternatively known as 'common Indian toad', 'Javanese toad', and 'black-spectacled toad', etc. After the breeding season of monsoon, they can be seen in large number, and their black-colored larvae can usually be seen in the still or slow-moving water bodies.", "The larva that hatches out of the egg is called a nymph. It has wing pads but no functional wings and breathes underwater with gills. The nymph feeds on other insect larvae, tadpoles, and small fish. It is stocky and shorter than the adult and is usually a green-brown color to help blend in with its watery habitat. Water temperature can determine what time of year the eggs hatch and how quickly the nymph grows and molts.", "The strings of eggs absorb water and swell in size, and small tadpoles hatch out after two to three weeks. At first they cling to the remains of the strings and feed on the jelly. They later attach themselves to the underside of the leaves of water weed before becoming free swimming. The tadpoles at first look similar to those of the common frog (Rana temporaria) but they are a darker colour, being blackish above and dark grey below. They can be distinguished from the tadpoles of other species by the fact that the mouth is the same width as the space between the eyes, and this is twice as large as the distance between the nostrils. Over the course of a few weeks their legs develop and their tail gradually gets reabsorbed. By twelve weeks of age they are miniature toads measuring about long and ready to leave the pond.", "�Amphibian� means �double life�. This pertains to the amphibian metamorphosis, in which the embryo develops into a larva called a tadpole, which lives only in wet environments, obtains oxygen through gills, and swims using a tail. Afterward, it loses the tail and gills and develops lungs and limbs. Some amphibians develop straight into the adult stage from the embryo, skipping the tadpole stage.�", "Adult Western Toads lack the prominent cranial crests found on the other species of Montana toads, and have horizontal rather than vertical pupils, as is present in the Plains Spadefoot. Western Toad tadpoles lack visible white or gold flecks on the back that are present in Woodhouse's and Great Plains Toad tadpoles. Woodhouse's Toad ova are enclosed in a single jelly layer, not two, and Great Plains Toad eggs are in strings that are noticeably pinched between each egg. However, eggs and tadpoles of Western and Woodhouse's Toads are very similar and may be indistinguishable in some cases. Distribution is a useful character for all life stages, as the range and habitat of the Western Toad do not overlap any other toad in Montana, with the possible exception of Woodhouse's Toad (Bufo woodhousii) in a very narrow area north of the Beartooth and Absaroka mountains (Maxell et al. 2003).", "The word larva is applied to the young of certain animals that must undergo great physical changes before they become adults. A young frog hatches from the egg as a water-living tadpole and gradually becomes transformed into the air-breathing adult. A tadpole is therefore a larva. More than one larva are called larvae.", "The order Anura (from the Ancient Greek a(n)- meaning \"without\" and oura meaning \"tail\") comprises the frogs and toads. They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin. Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs, while those with warty skins are known as toads. The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family Bufonidae are known as the \"true toads\". Frogs range in size from the 30 cm Goliath frog (Conraua goliath) of West Africa to the Paedophryne amauensis, first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate. Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas. ", "A young tadpole, which looks like a large head with a tail, will in time become a toad or a frog. The English word tadpole comes from a Middle English compound word taddepol, made up from tadde, “toad,” and pol, “head.”", "Tadpoles metamorphose in first summer and take two months or more to reach metamorphosis, depending on the water temperature. At high elevation sites near treeline in Wyoming and Colorado tadpoles may fail to metamorphose (Baxter and Stone 1985, Hammerson 1999), and persistence of these populations may be dependent on immigration of juveniles and adults from lower elevation; overwintering of tadpoles has never been observed. Metamorphosis usually occurs in August in Colorado and Oregon, but may occur in late July to mid-September. Recently metamorphosed toadlets measure about 1.0 to 1.6 centimeters snout-vent length (SVL), but can be 1.6 to 2.0 centimeters.", "The horned toad is a common name for a genus of short-tailed, short-legged lizards in the iguana family. They are called “horned†for the hornlike spines on the back of the head and sides of the body, and “toad†for their rounded, toadlike shape. Found mostly in dry regions of the western United States and Mexico, they are diurnal and can often be seen sitting motionless near ant mounds. Most species feed heavily on ants, but they will also eat other types of small insects and spiders. Their wide, flat bodies are about 8 to 13 cm (about 3 to 5 in) long. For defense, many species, including the coast horned lizard, can spray an intruder with blood from the corners of their eyes. The horned toad was adopted as the State Reptile on February 18, 1993.", "Adults of most species lay eggs in water, and individuals pass through an aquatic larval stage before metamorphosing into adultlike body forms. Three life histories occur among salamandrids with aquatic larvae . In some genera, such as the Asian Cynops and the European Pleurodeles, the larvae metamorphose in the water, and juveniles and adults remain aquatic. In the European newts (Triturus) and western North American newts (Taricha), the larvae metamorphose into terrestrial juveniles that remain terrestrial as adults; adults return to water only for courtship and egg deposition . In the eastern North American newts (Notophthalmus), the larvae metamorphose into a terrestrial juvenile, referred to as the eft stage; efts spend two to four years on land. As they begin to mature sexually, they return to water and become aquatic as adults.", "The Anura include all modern frogs and any fossil species that fit within the anuran definition. The characteristics of anuran adults include: 9 or fewer presacral vertebrae, the presence of a urostyle formed of fused vertebrae, no tail, a long and forward-sloping ilium, shorter fore limbs than hind limbs, radius and ulna fused, tibia and fibula fused, elongated ankle bones, absence of a prefrontal bone, presence of a hyoid plate, a lower jaw without teeth (with the exception of Gastrotheca guentheri) consisting of three pairs of bones (angulosplenial, dentary, and mentomeckelian, with the last pair being absent in Pipoidea), an unsupported tongue, lymph spaces underneath the skin, and a muscle, the protractor lentis, attached to the lens of the eye. The anuran larva or tadpole has a single central respiratory spiracle and mouthparts consisting of keratinous beaks and denticles.", "3.Tadpole larva possesses three pairs of external gills in the early stages which are present at the junction of head and trunk. Later these are replaced by three pairs of internal gills.The adult possess the lungs.", "Johnson, P.T.J., K.B. Lunde, R.W. Haight, J. Bowerman, and A.R. Blaustein. 2001. Ribeiroia ondatrae (Trematoda: Digenea) infection induces severe limb malformations in western toads (Bufo boreas) Canadian Journal of Zoology 79: 370â379.", "4. Many members of the families Bombinatoridae, Discoglossidae, Pelobatidae, Rhinophrynidae, Scaphiopodidae, and some species from the Microhylidae family are commonly, but erroneously, called ‘toads’. According to scientists, all true toads belong to which family, the only one that is exclusively given the common name ‘toad’?", "Salamander development is highly diverse; some species go through a dramatic reorganization when transitioning from aquatic larvae to terrestrial adults, while others, such as the Axolotl , display paedomorphosis and never develop into terrestrial adults. Within the genus Ambystoma , species have evolved to be paedomorphic several times, and paedomorphosis and complete development can both occur in some species. [11]", "Toad: Hopping amphibian, resembling a frog, with short legs and rough skin. Unlike a frog, which has moist skin, a toad has dry skin. ", "There are many flies in which one stage is predominant. Swarms of adult midges (Chironomidae), for example, are conspicuous and troublesome; but the adult midge lives just long enough—usually less than a day—to mate and lay eggs. Thus, most of the life cycle is occupied under water by the larval stage. The larvae are wormlike in appearance. Some are adapted to oxygen-poor situations; the “bloodworm,” for example, which lives in the mud of stagnant waters, uses hemoglobin as a respiratory pigment. Other midge larvae live in silken tubes, either filtering minute organisms from water for food or preying upon larger creatures. Some midge larvae have evolved an elaborate symbiosis , or mutualism , with other aquatic organisms; for example Nostoc (a genus of blue-green algae) and certain midge larvae utilize each other’s excreta. Larval life as complex as this is not mere preparation for adult life; rather, the adult stage is a revitalizing and distributory stage for the larval one. The adult stage is of relatively little importance in a few other groups, too.", "The fully developed larva is about 7 mm long. It has a dark brown head, and the rest of the body is white, except for the lateral and dorsal plates on the three thoracic segments close to the head, which are hardened and dark. Aiello (1979) believes the plates protect the larva from natural enemies when it reaches out of its case for locomotion.", "All frogs start out as embryos inside squishy, gelatinous eggs. As the embryos mature, the next stage of metamorphosis, called the larval stage, occurs. During this time, the tadpoles live underwater, breathing through gills as tadpoles. Over time, these tadpoles begin to grow legs and lose their tails, slowly adapting to a more terrestrial life as an adult frog. Adults may or may not remain near water, depending on their subspecies.", "The larvae in the photo to the right are about 50 mm (2 inches) in length. The hind legs are not fully grown at this point but are quite visible. At this size they are more than capable of taking the 3 mm axolotl pellets.", "The spadefoot toad is a burrowing species of toad and they use their large front feet to make tunnels in the sand. Spadefoot toads are able to spend weeks underground but will come to the surface at night time after heavy rain when the air is moist, so that they can feed.", "There are seven species in this family. Spadefoot toads get their name from the hard, sharp, bony \"spade\" on their hind feet that they use to dig burrows.", "After hatching from its egg, a frog emerges as a tadpole. Like other amphibians, a frog undergoes dramatic changes throughout its life cycle in a process known as metamorphosis.", "It doesn't start out so big, though. The goliath frog tadpole is the same size as the tadpole of an average frog, but just keeps growing. The adult looks a lot like other frogs as well, just a whole lot bigger.", "At the end of the tadpole stage, a frog undergoes metamorphosis in which its body makes a sudden transition into the adult form. This metamorphosis typically lasts only 24 hours, and is initiated by production of the hormone thyroxine. This causes different tissues to develop in different ways. The principal changes that take place include the development of the lungs and the disappearance of the gills and gill pouch, making the front legs visible. The lower jaw transforms into the big mandible of the carnivorous adult, and the long, spiral gut of the herbivorous tadpole is replaced by the typical short gut of a predator. The nervous system becomes adapted for hearing and stereoscopic vision, and for new methods of locomotion and feeding. The eyes are repositioned higher up on the head and the eyelids and associated glands are formed. The eardrum, middle ear, and inner ear are developed. The skin becomes thicker and tougher, the lateral line system is lost, and skin glands are developed. The final stage is the disappearance of the tail, but this takes place rather later, the tissue being used to produce a spurt of growth in the limbs. Frogs are at their most vulnerable to predators when they are undergoing metamorphosis. At this time, the tail is being lost and locomotion by means of limbs is only just becoming established.", "Tree frogs live high in the canopy, where they scramble around on the branches, twigs, and leaves, sometimes never coming down to earth. The \"true\" tree frogs belong to the family Hylidae, but members of other frog families have independently adopted an arboreal habit, a case of convergent evolution. These include the glass frogs (Centrolenidae), the bush frogs (Hyperoliidae), some of the narrow-mouthed frogs (Microhylidae), and the shrub frogs (Rhacophoridae). Most tree frogs are under 10 cm in length, with long legs and long toes with adhesive pads on the tips. The surface of the toe pads is formed from a closely packed layer of flat-topped, hexagonal epidermal cells separated by grooves into which glands secrete mucus. These toe pads, moistened by the mucus, provide the grip on any wet or dry surface, including glass. The forces involved include boundary friction of the toe pad epidermis on the surface and also surface tension and viscosity. Tree frogs are very acrobatic and can catch insects while hanging by one toe from a twig or clutching onto the blade of a windswept reed. Some members of the subfamily Phyllomedusinae have opposable toes on their feet. The reticulated leaf frog (Phyllomedusa ayeaye) has a single opposed digit on each fore foot and two opposed digits on its hind feet. This allows it to grasp the stems of bushes as it clambers around in its riverside habitat. " ]

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[ "The Greater Roadrunner is frequently seen in Crockett County and is found in all Texas counties. Its habitat spreads throughout the southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. These extremely adaptable birds have recently been reported as far north as Kansas and eastward into Missouri. A member of the Cuculidae or cuckoo family, their scientific name, Geococcyx californianus, means “Californian earth cuckoo”.", "The greater roadrunner is a member of the cuckoo family. It is a ground bird that is about two feet in length. It has speckled brown and black feathers on its back and wings and a lighter throat and chest with dark stripes. It has long legs, a very long tail and yellow eyes. It has a crest on its head  and the male has a red and blue patch of skin on the side of its head.", "The greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) is a long-legged bird in the cuckoo family, Cuculidae, from Southwestern United States and Mexico. The Latin name means \"Californian earth-cuckoo\". Along with the lesser roadrunner, it is one of two species in the roadrunner genus Geococcyx. This roadrunner is also known as the chaparral cock, ground cuckoo, and snake killer. (Subscription required.)", "The Greater Roadrunner is a long-legged member of the cuckoo family found throughout the southern United States and northern Mexico. This species is the state bird of New Mexico, and can be seen in its breeding habitat in deserts and shrublands. The Greater Roadrunner is found in California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Oklahoma, Kansas, and sometimes Arkansas, Missouri and Louisiana. More", "The roadrunner (genus Geococcyx), also known as a chaparral bird or chaparral cock, is a fast-running ground cuckoo that has a long tail and a crest. It is found in the southwestern United States and Mexico, usually in the desert. Some have been clocked at 20 mph.", "The subfamily Neomorphinae, the New World ground cuckoos, includes eleven species of birds, while the genus Geococcyx has just two, the greater roadrunner and the lesser roadrunner. The greater roadrunner, G. californianus, inhabits Mexico and the southwestern United States. The lesser roadrunner, G. velox, inhabits Mexico and Central America. ", "The greater roadrunner is a large, ground-dwelling cuckoo with brown, white, and beige streaks and a very long tail. Its head has a distinctive shaggy crest, and it has blue and orange patches of bare skin behind the eyes. A common sight dashing across the American southwestern desert and plains, it was adopted as the state bird of New Mexico in 1949. The greater roadrunner eats spiders, snakes, scorpions, centipedes, lizards, small birds, eggs, rodents, carrion, fruit, and seeds. It can run up to 15 mph (24 kph), crouching lower as it gains speed. Its calls include guttural clucks, crows, coos, and whines. The nest is a shallow platform of sticks lined with leaves, grass, feathers, and snakeskin usually sheltered in a thorny bush, small tree, or cactus.", "The roadrunner is a fast-running bird that has a long tail and a crest. The bird is found in the southwestern United States and Mexico. The roadrunner is also called a chaparral bird and a chaparral cock. Some Road Runners have been clocked at 20 miles per hour and are usually found in the desert.", "The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites.", "The State Bird of New Mexico, the Greater Roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus) is known by a wide variety of names including Chaparral Bird, el corrrecaminos, and el paisano.  It is the larger of two ground cuckoos, the other being the Lesser Roadrunner found in Mexico and Central America.  The Greater Roadrunner is found across the American southwest and south to central Mexico.", "While anis are very social birds that live in family groups and build communal nests, other cuckoos are solitary in nature. The anis forage together in scrub and on the ground for small creatures, and pick ticks off the backs of livestock. The Greater Roadrunner also forages on the ground, dashing after lizards and other small animals. The other North American cuckoo species forage for insects (especially their larvae) in bushes and trees.", "Although the Common Cuckoo of Eurasia is most well known for depositing its eggs in the nests of other bird species, most cuckoos that breed in North America do not share this behavior. However, one species that has been documented as an occasional brood parasite is the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, a bird also known for calling before rain storms hence its nickname the “rain crow”.", "). Unlike the European cuckoo, none of these three lays its eggs in the nest of another species. The squirrel cuckoo, which is a large (48 cm) reddish brown bird, with a bright yellow bill, a grey belly and a long tail with black and white stripes on its underside, is found in wooded areas across Costa Rica. It tends to be quite a secretive bird, feeding off insects and pairing up just for the breeding season. Both sexes build the nest, incubate the eggs and feed the young. In contrast, the anis are noisy, conspicuous, gregarious birds, living in flocks of eight to 25 individuals in bushy scrub and open areas, often around human habitation. They are often seen foraging on the ground around cattle, eating the insects flushed up by the cows. Both species are black with a large, almost parrot-like grey bill, the smooth-billed being found on the southern Pacific slope and the groove-billed in the northern Pacific and the Caribbean.", "Birds - one of the most remarkable birds that can be found in the desert is the greater roadrunner. They dart across the ground at up to 25 km/hr and they capture a variety of prey including venomous rattlesnakes. The gila woodpecker and gilded flicker often drill their nest holes in the giant saguaro cactus and these are sometimes taken over later by elf owls. Other species of bird include anna's hummingbird , costa's hummingbird , canyon wren, lawrence's goldfinch, spotted owl, lucy's warbler, cactus wren, mourning dove, sage sparrow, bendire's thrasher and grey vireo.", "This incontrovertibly distinctive bird belongs in the cuckoo family, sharing distinguishing features such as long tail feathers and... More 4 Images 0 Videos", "The roadrunner is about 52 - long, has a 43 - wingspan and weighs 221 -. It stands around 25 - tall and is the largest cuckoo of the Americas. Roadrunners have 4 toes on each zygodactyl foot; two face forward, and two face backward. The toes are brown in color and have pale gold spots. The upper body is mostly brown with black streaks and sometimes pink spots. The neck and upper breast are white or pale brown with dark brown streaks, and the belly is white. A crest of brown feathers sticks up on the head, and a bare patch of orange and blue skin lies behind each eye; the blue is replaced by white in adult males (except the blue adjacent to the eye), and the orange (to the rear) is often hidden by feathers.", "Tweet of the Day is the voice of birds and our relationship with them, from around the world. Chris Packham presents the Indian cuckoo found across much of South East Asia. A bird singing \"crossword puzzle\" - \"crossword puzzle\" over the woods is an Indian Cuckoo, a shy and slender bird, grey above and barred black and white below. These features are similar to those of a small hawk and when a cuckoo flies across a woodland glade, it's often mobbed by other birds. They're right to sense danger. Indian cuckoos are brood parasites and the females lay their eggs in the nests of other species including drongos, magpies and shrikes. The Indian cuckoo's song is well-known in the Indian sub-Continent and has been interpreted in different ways. As well as \"crossword puzzle \" some think it's saying \"one more bottle\" or \"orange pekoe\". And in the Kangra valley in northern India, the call is said to be the soul of a dead shepherd asking \"... where is my sheep? Where is my sheep?\".", "Among the large migratory birds that winter in Texas, especially around the lakes and lagoons of the Gulf Coast, are many species of ducks and geese, as well as the nearly extinct whooping crane, a great white bird that stands about 5 ft tall and whose numbers are slowly recovering through rigid protection. Birds found in the interior of Texas include the wild turkey and the roadrunner. A few golden eagles live in the mountains of the Basin and Range province.", "The crazy Aracuan, with its flaming red hair, hot pink face and fluorescent yellow feet, appears at first to be a completely fictional creation. However, there actually is a South American bird called the Aracuan (or Aracuã, in contemporary Portuguese). The aracuan is the local name for the eastern Brazilian sub-species of the Speckled Chachalaca (Ortalis guttata). Chachalacas are moderately large tree-dwelling birds that belong the Cracid family, which also includes guans and curassows. Cracids are related to other galliformes, such as turkeys, and also share some characteristics with megapodes (such as the Australian malleefowl and brush-turkey).", "Captain Clark observed large numbers of a \"black bird\" near Spirit Mound in Clay County, South Dakota (opposite Dixon County, Nebraska), on August 25, 1804. Swenk tentatively identified this species as the lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys). However, by August the lark bunting's breeding season is over, and males would be molting out of their nearly all-black breeding plumage and into a brown plumage. Other more common and permanently black-plumaged birds in that region are better possibilities, including various blackbirds and grackles. Gary Moulton has suggested that Clark observed the red-winged blackbird, which seems a much more likely choice, as by late August these abundant birds would be forming migratory flocks. One of the most numerous of North American songbirds, this species may number in excess of 100 million birds. However, although it probably increased greatly during the first half of the twentieth century, its overall population has been declining significantly over the past four decades as breeding habitats have been increasingly converted to agriculture.", "Buntings are a group of Eurasian and African passerine birds of the family Emberizidae. They are seed-eating birds with stubby, conical bills, and are the Old World equivalents of the species known in North America as sparrows. Their habits are similar to those of finches, with which they sometimes used to be grouped. Some emberizids are still named \"finches\" rather than \"buntings\". Conversely, there are species retaining the name \"bunting\" which are now classed in the cardinal family. Among those are the Painted and Indigo Buntings.", "Birds-of-paradise are closely related to the corvids. Birds-of-paradise range in size from the king bird-of-paradise at 50 g (1.8 oz) and 15 cm (5.9 in) to the curl-crested manucode at 44 cm (17 in) and 430 g (15 oz). The male black sicklebill, with its long tail, is the longest species at 110 cm (43 in). In most species, the tails of the males are larger and longer than the female, the differences ranging from slight to extreme. The wings are rounded and in some species structurally modified on the males in order to make sound. There is considerable variation in the family with regard to bill shape. Bills may be long and decurved, as in the sicklebills and riflebirds, or small and slim like the Astrapias. As with body size bill size varies between the sexes, although species where the females have larger bills than the male are more common, particularly in the insect eating species.", "Tweet of the Day is the voice of birds and our relationship with them, from around the world. Miranda Krestovnikoff presents the black drongo of Southern Asia. What looks a like a small crow crossed with a flycatcher is riding a cow's back in an Indian village. Black drongos are slightly smaller than European starlings, but with a much longer tail. They feed mainly on large insects: dragonflies, bees, moths and grasshoppers which they will pluck from the ground as well pursuing them in aerial sallies. Although small, these birds are famous for being fearless and will attack and dive-bomb almost any other bird, even birds of prey, which enter their territories. This aggressive behaviour has earned them the name \"King Crow\" and in Hindi their name is Kotwal - the policeman.", "The Ruby-throated Hummingbird (Archilochus colubris), is a small hummingbird. It is the most common species of hummingbird in the eastern half of North America and the only hummingbird that breeds east of the Mississippi River.", "* Cagebird breeders sometimes breed hybrids between species of finch, such as goldfinch × canary. These birds are known as mules.", "Currawong, also called piping-crow, or crow-shrike, any of several songbirds of the Australian family Cracticidae (order Passeriformes). They are large, up to 50 centimetres (20 inches) long, with black, gray, or black-and-white plumage and yellow eyes. All have resounding, metallic voices. Found in woodlands and occasionally flocking into suburban areas, currawongs live on fruit, insects, small animals, and other birds’ eggs and young: they may be a nuisance in orchards and hen yards. The pied currawong, or chillawong (Strepera graculina) makes rolling sounds; the gray currawong (S. versicolor), also called squeaker, or rainbird, makes clanking noises.", "Troglodytes es un género de pequeñas aves paseriformes de la familia Troglodytidae. El largo de estas aves es de entre 11 y 12 centímetros. Son típicamente rayados café por encima y un poco más pálidos por debajo, con alas cortas y redondeadas, patas fuertes y una cola de tres picos. El vuelo es directo. Se encuentran principalmente en hábitats algo más fríos que la mayoría de sus parientes. La mayoría de las especies se encuentran en las montañas de México hasta el norte de América del Sur. Tres especies se encuentran en latitudes templadas.", "Conures are a diverse, loosely defined group of small to medium-sized parrots. They belong to several genera within a long-tailed group of the New World parrot subfamily Arinae. The term \"conure\" is used primarily in bird keeping, though it has appeared in some scientific journals. The American Ornithologists' Union uses the generic term parakeet for all species elsewhere called conure, though Joseph Forshaw, a prominent Australian ornithologist, uses conure. ", "Troglodytes es un género de pequeñas aves paseriformes de la familia Troglodytidae.El largo de estas aves es de entre 11 y 12 centímetros. Son típicamente rayados café por encima y un poco más pálidos por debajo, con alas cortas y redondeadas, patas fuertes y una cola de tres picos. El vuelo es directo.Se encuentran principalmente en hábitats algo más fríos que la mayoría de sus parientes. La mayoría de las especies se encuentran en las montañas de México hasta el norte de América del Sur. Tres especies se encuentran en latitudes templadas.", "It is a migratory passerine which winters in southern and western Europe, southern Asia and north Africa . Greenish-brown above and off-white below, it is named onomatopoeically for its simple chiff-chaff song. It has a number of subspecies, some of which are now treated as full species. The female builds a domed nest on or near the ground, and assumes most of the responsibility for brooding and feeding the chicks, whilst the male has little involvement in nesting, but defends his territory against rivals, and attacks potential predators.", "It is a migratory passerine which winters in southern and western Europe, southern Asia and north Africa. Greenish-brown above and off-white below, it is named onomatopoeically for its simple chiff-chaff song. It has a number of subspecies, some of which are now treated as full species. The female builds a domed nest on or near the ground, and assumes most of the responsibility for brooding and feeding the chicks, whilst the male has little involvement in nesting, but defends his territory against rivals, and attacks potential predators.", "). They inhabit open areas such as farm- and parkland, thickets and forest edges but are most commonly seen as they fly up directly in front of one's car, their eyes flashing a bright red in the headlights. Indeed, their Spanish name means 'common road blocker'. Their mottled brown, black and white colour is an excellent camouflage, and they are almost impossible to spot roosting (on the ground or along tree branches) during the day. The" ]

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[ "1. (Plants) any member of a kingdom of organisms (Fungi) that lack chlorophyll, leaves, true stems, and roots, reproduce by spores, and live as saprotrophs or parasites. The group includes moulds, mildews, rusts, yeasts, and mushrooms", "any member of a kingdom of organisms (Fungi) that lack chlorophyll, leaves, true stems, and roots, reproduce by spores, and live as saprotrophs or parasites. The group includes moulds, mildews, rusts, yeasts, and mushrooms", "Any of a group of primitive plants lacking chlorophyll, including mold, rusts, mildews, smuts, and mushrooms. Some kind are parasitic on fishes. Reproduces by spores.", "Some orchids, such as Neottia and Corallorhiza, lack chlorophyll, so are unable to photosynthesise. Instead, these species obtain energy and nutrients by parasitising soil fungi through the formation of orchid mycorrhizas. The fungi involved include those that form ectomycorrhizas with trees and other woody plants, parasites such as Armillaria, and saprotrophs. These orchids are known as myco-heterotrophs, but were formerly (incorrectly) described as saprophytes as it was believed they gained their nutrition by breaking down organic matter. While only a few species are achlorophyllous holoparasites, all orchids are myco-heterotrophic during germination and seedling growth, and even photosynthetic adult plants may continue to obtain carbon from their mycorrhizal fungi.", "Various forms of parasitism are also fairly common among plants, from the semi-parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully parasitic broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no chlorophyll. Some plants, known as myco-heterotrophs, parasitize mycorrhizal fungi, and hence act as epiparasites on other plants.", "Fungi are similar to algae, but they do not contain chlorophyll and require pre-formed organic matter as energy and carbon sources (e.g., sugars, fat, protein, and other carbohydrates). Such organisms are called heterotrophs. Fungi, ranging in size from a few microns to several centimeters, grow either independently by feeding on decaying matter, or in association with plants and animals.", "protozoa, the Sporozoa, are parasites. Small numbers of protozoa contain chlorophyll and can switch between autotrophic and heterotrophic modes of feeding, based on light conditions.", "These plants do not have chlorophyll and do not perform photosynthesis. H. africana is a parasite that exists largely as a tangle of roots attached to the root system of Euphorbia plants.", "In the past, many different chlorophyll-free organisms that grew and subsisted like fungi were classified as fungi. In the meantime, molecular markers and genetic analysis in particular have led to a systematic that reflects natural relationships more correctly. There is a general agreement that the so-called ray fungi (actinomycetes) are unrelated to fungi despite the fact that they have mycelia consisting of cell threads and form actinospores. Actinomycetes are prokaryotes (and hence nowadays called Actinobacteria). The best-known representative of actinomycetes, Streptomyces, is one of the most important antibiotics producers after Penicillium and related true fungi. What was previously classified as slime mould (including Dictyostelium and Physarum, popular model organisms for the development of unicellularity) is now no longer classified as fungus and instead is split into a separate heterogeneous group.", "Some flowering plants do not have photosynthetic chlorophyll-bearing (green) leaves and are completely parasitic on the stems and roots of other plants. In order to grow and reproduce, they must absorb their vital carbohydrates (sugars) and amino acids from the host plant. Some of these root and stem parasites include the most bizarre plants on earth. Since they are nonphotosynthetic, they are also called heterotrophic like most animals and humans. Some heterotrophic plants look more like pale, fleshy fungi than flowering plants. They live in the deep humus of shady forests and include some very strange and colorful species. These \"fungus flowers\" are referred to as \"mycotrophic\" (fungus-nutrition) because their carbohydrates and amino acids come from mycorrhizal soil fungi which are in turn attached to the roots of nearby forest trees. Like true parasitic flowering plants, mycotrophic wildflowers must absorb their energy-rich molecules from other host plants, but unlike the direct root and stem parasites, their carbohydrates and amino acids are derived from nearby root systems via a conduit of filamentous soil fungi. Using labeled sugars containing radioactive carbon 14, scientists have shown that carbohydrates synthesized by nearby trees pass into the mycorrhizal soil fungi and eventually into the mycotrophic \"fungus flowers.\"", "Photosynthetic, aquatic, eukaryotic organisms that contain chlorophyll but lack terrestrial plant structures (e.g., roots, stems, and leaves). Algae can exist in many sizes ranging from single cells to giant kelps several feet long.", "• Many fungi, such as molds, produce spores asexually on conidia • Single-celled yeasts reproduce by buds • Molds and yeasts with no known sexual stage are classified as deuteromycetes, or imperfect fungi • Figure 31.7 Q: In the cells of a heterokaryotic mycelium, how many nuclei are there and what is the ploidy (chromosome #)? A: Two or more; haploid Concept 31.4 – Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages • Figure 31.11 Chytrids • Fungi classified in the phylum Chytridiomycota • Saprobic or parasitic • Unique in having flagellated spores called zoospores • Figure 30.12 • Once though that chytrids were monophyletic • Molecular evidence suggests some chytrids are closely related to zygomycetes Q: When the two nuclei in the cell of a dikaryotic mycelium fuse within the fruiting body, what cell types is produced? A: Zygote Zygomycetes • Fungi in the Phylum Zygomycota • Include molds, parasites, and commensal symboints • Named for their sexually produced zygosporangia • Life Cycle of Rhizopus stolonifer o Figure 31.13 Glomeromycetes • Fungi in the phylum Glomeromycota • Form distinct type of endomycorrhizae called arbuscular mycorrhizae • About 90% of all plants have mutualistic relationship with glomeromycetes", "Among parasitic plants there exist partial and complete parasites. The mistletoes, with few exceptions, are partial parasites; that is, they do not depend entirely on the host for their nourishment. They contain abundant chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants, which with the aid of sunlight transforms inorganic compounds, such as carbon dioxide and water, into carbohydrate food materials. Because of this ability to manufacture food, the mistletoe requires only water and mineral nutrients from its host.", "..... Click the link for more information.  and molds, such as those of the genus Glomus, that form important symbiotic relationships with plants. Most are soil-living saprobes that feed on dead animal or plant remains. Some are parasitic of plants or insects. They reproduce sexually and form tough zygospores from the fusion of neighboring gametangia. There is no distinguishable male or female.", "The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis.", "Plants formerly considered saprophytes are now considered parasites and they are called \"myco-heterophytes\" or \"myco-heterotrophs\". See parasitic .", "There are parasitic fungi that live on animals and are called zoopathogenic fungi, which include entomopathogenic fungi, which live on insects. Parasitic fungi that live on plants are called phytopathogenic fungi and include mycophthorous fungi—that is, those that live on mushrooms. Phytopathogenic fungi are the most common. They act by means of toxic secretions or enzymes, which damage plant tissue, and then use these tissues as food. Many of the phytopathogenic fungi attack economically valuable plants. For example, various rust fungi cause stem rust and brown rust of grasses (Puccinia graminis, P. triticina), sunflower rust (P. helianthi), and flax rust (Melampsora lini); smut fungi cause durum and powdery wheat smut (Tilletia tritici, Ustilago tritici); and powdery mildew fungi cause powdery mildew of grasses (Erysiphe graminis). Parasitic fungi cause apple scab (Venturia inaequales), grape mildew (Plasmopara vitícola), and many other diseases. There is a large well-known group of wood-destroying fungi that grows on living trees (various species of Polyporaceae and honey fungus), as well as on commercial wood and wooden parts of buildings (house fungi). Fungous plant parasites are combated by means of special agricultural techniques, the production of hardy varieties, and the application of chemical substances (disinfection of seeds, spraying of plants, etc.). Mycophthorous fungi parasitize the fruit bodies and mycelia of many other fungi.", "Chytridiomycetes produces posteriorly uniflagellate zoospores Chytridiomycetous fungi occur as saprobes on plants and animal remains in water while other members occur as parasites on algae and aquatic animals.", "Chytridiomycota (Chytrids) - these are microscopic fungi and are mostly found in freshwater or damp/drenched soil. The majority of chytrids are parasites of algae and animals. Some are saprobes (living on decomposed organic matter). A chytrid called Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis causes disease in amphibians. Scientists have identified over 800 species of chytrids.", "The same is true for mushrooms.  A mushroom- the fruiting body of a fungus (Kindom Fungi)  is not considered a plant. It is closer to the animal kingdom.  A mushroom is not photoautotrophic at all, but saprophytic for the most part however, some fungi and bacteria is parasitic.", "Homeowners throughout much of the southern United States find their oak trees becoming coated with mosslike, green, fungal growths. These growths commonly belong to one of three categories: Spanish moss, ball moss or lichens. True moss, such as Spanish moss, are epiphytes or organisms that live on a host plant. These species use the oak as a host and in some cases cause problems for a growing tree. Though epiphytes and lichens contribute to tree decline, these organisms are not considered parasites, according to the Texas A&M University website.", "Plant-like organisms with cells with distinct nuclei surrounded by nuclear membranes, incapable of photosynthesis. Fungi are decomposers of waste organisms and exist as yeast, mold, or mildew.", "Saprophyte: an organism that eats dead organisms, thereby recycling the nutrients. Fungi and bacteria are examples.", "Heterotrophic; Eukaryotic; Multicellular; No cell wall, no chloroplasts; Motile (able to move, opposite of sessile); Sense Organs.", "ubiquitous in nature; exist as free-living saprobes that derive no obvious benefits from parasitizing humans or animals.", "The larvae and adults feed on the conidia of slime molds (e.g. many Enicmus species) and fungi. Generally, they live in and around dead or moldy vegetation and plant debris, rotten wood, logs and moss and under dead bark. Some species are associated with molds in stored food products.", "Most of the Viscaceae bear evergreen leaves that photosynthesise effectively, and photosynthesis proceeds within their green, fleshy stems as well. Some species, such as \"Viscum capense\", are adapted to semi-arid conditions and their leaves are vestigial scales, hardly visible without detailed morphological investigation. Therefore their photosynthesis and transpiration only take place in their stems, limiting their demands on the host's supply of water, but also limiting their intake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Accordingly their contribution to the host's metabolic balance becomes trivial and the idle parasite may become quite yellow as it grows, having practically given up photosynthesis.", "parasite: an organism that lives in (or on) a host organism and obtains nourishment from the host without benefiting or killing it.", "effuse colony of Sporidesmium dematiaceous anamorph of Sporidesmium folliculatum is saprobic on fallen branch of Sorbus", "conidioma of Foveostroma coelomycetous anamorph of Dermea padi is saprobic on dead twig of Prunus spinosa", "Heterotrophs: Organisms that cannot make their own food and that must, therefore, obtain their food from other organisms.", "an organism that cannot fix carbon and uses organic carbon for growth. obtains nutrients by eating." ]

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[ "Hiya. The fish gills basically provide a large surface area for blood vessels in the fish to come into contact with water. Water has oxygen dissolved in it and as it passed over the gills, oxygen naturally diffueses from the area of high oxygen (water) to low oxygen (blood). As oxygen is not nearly as abundant in water as in air, fish have had to develop gills to create a surface area big enough to absorb as much oxygen as possible.", "Vertebrates such as fish, birds, and mammals have evolved specialized structures for gas exchange. Fish gills are made of a delicate tissue with many fine filaments that maximize surface area. The fish pumps water across the gills, and oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged across the filament walls. Fish gills are made especially efficient because blood flows through the gills against the current of the water. In this way, the water is always more oxygen rich than the blood in the gills, and the concentration gradient always moves from the water to the blood.", "Fish have gills for breathing - the fish inhales water through its mouth, which passes over the gills, where hemoglobin in the fish's blood absorbs oxygen.", "Gills are made up of many small filaments that contain capillaries, which give the organs a large amount of surface area. This is necessary due to the lower oxygen content of water compared with atmospheric air. Any given volume of air contains more than 25 times as much oxygen as the same volume of freshwater. As a fish swims, it creates a constant current of water over its gills, allowing it to extract as much oxygen as possible. Some fish have the ability to create this pressurized stream of water using their internal organs, while others must remain constantly in motion to draw enough water through their gills to survive.", "The process by which Fish use their gills to extract O2 starts with the fish’s mouth, which is how the fish takes in water. When a fish opens and closes its mouth, it is actually pumping water back through the gills and is therefore breathing. Most fish have an effective pumping system that involves the mouth and the outer cover of the gills(I’m told its called the operculum-though for clarity im going to call it the flappy bit!!) When the fish’s mouth opens, the flappy bit closes, drawing water into the fish’s mouth. When the fish closes its mouth, the flappy bit opens, allowing fresh water to cross the gills. Other fish have a less effective pumping system, requiring them to swim constantly to keep fresh, oxygenated water flowing over the gills. These types of fish, such as tuna(yum!), generally swim with their mouths partly open.", "The blood vessels in the gills are incredibly thin, allowing oxygen from the water to absorb into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide to be released through the same mechanism. All fish gills have a large surface area with thousands of small capillaries to extract as much oxygen from the water as possible. This is much harder for fish than for land animals, as water typically only contains between 4 and 8 parts of oxygen for every 1 million particles, whereas air has around 200,000 molecules of oxygen per million.", "The Head of the fish has its mouth, nostrils and gill cover. The gills (found under the gill covers) allow the fish to breath. As water moves over the surface of the gills, oxygen is absorbed - like lungs in land creatures.", "The gills, located under the operculum, are a respiratory organ for the extraction of oxygen from water and for the excretion of carbon dioxide. They are not usually visible, but can be seen in some species, such as the frilled shark. The labyrinth organ of Anabantoidei and Clariidae is used to allow the fish to extract oxygen from the air. Gill rakers are bony or cartilaginous, finger-like projections off the gill arch which function in filter-feeders to retain filtered prey.", "Most fish exchange gases using gills on either side of the pharynx. Gills consist of threadlike structures called filaments. Each filament contains a capillary network that provides a large surface area for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide.", "Not every species of fish relies on gills for oxygen. Some fish have rudimentary lung structures or absorb oxygen through their skin. These must occasionally surface to partake of the oxygen-rich air instead of filtering it from the water around them.", "In sharks and rays the number of gills is usually 5, but there are some species with 6 or 7 sets, in fish the number of gills is 4 on either side of the body. Each gill is supported by a gill arch and protected by gill rakers. Each gill arch supports one set of paired gill filaments. The gill rakers help make sure that no extraneous material gets into the gill filaments to clog them up. Each paired gill filament in turn supports numerous lamellae (sing. lamella), extending out from both sides of the filament body. It's here in the lamellae that the uptake of O2 actually occurs.", "The main difference between lungs and gills (other than water vs. air) is that lungs are tidal - air flows in one way, and back out the other way. With gills, water flows in through the mouth, over the gills, and is expelled through the gill slits. Because water is heavier, this is more efficient, as the water can just move in one direction. It also allows fish to extract a greater proportion of the oxygen from the water, because the concentration of oxygen is much lower than in air.", "Did you know that loads of animals have gills at some stage of their life (even humans have them at an early stage of their development in the womb), but fish retained these gills and they are still a functional part of their anatomy.", "Instead of limbs and lungs, fish have fins and gills.  Unlike the above animals, fish live underwater.  Almost all fish cannot live outside of water, but there are a couple that can.", "Fish solve the problems of extracting the O2 they need from the water they live in in a variety of ways. Firstly they have different life styles, obviously a fish that spends most of its life resting on the bottom of the ocean waiting for its dinner to swim by needs less O2 than a fish which actively chases smaller fish for its dinner. However most of the problem is solved in the design of the gills.", "Tadpoles of amphibians have from three to five gill slits that do not contain actual gills. Usually no spiracle or true operculum is present, though many species have operculum-like structures. Instead of internal gills, they develop three feathery external gills that grow from the outer surface of the gill arches. Sometimes, adults retain these, but they usually disappear at metamorphosis. Lungfish larvae also have external gills, as does the primitive ray-finned fish Polypterus, though the latter has a structure different from amphibians. Some salamanders, such as the olm, and the mudpuppy, retain their external gills upon reaching adulthood.", "As with many aquatic animals, most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills. Blood wastes are filtered by the kidneys.", "Dissolved oxygen is seawater readily diffuses through the gill membranes and into the bloodstream of fish because concentrations of oxygen in seawater are greater than they are in the blood of fish. Similarly, the concentrations of carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood of fish is greater than seawater, so carbon dioxide readily diffuses out of the fish and into the seawater. Helping this process is the way that blood and water flow across the gills; blood typically flows in a direction opposite to that of the water flow in a countercurrent flow that assists gas exchange.", "To ensure a continuous gradient of gaseous difference between its blood and the water flowing past its gills fish use a counter-current system. This means that the blood flows along the vessels in the lamellae in the opposite direction to which the water is passing on the outside of the lamellae.", "A gill is a respiratory organ found in many aquatic organisms that extracts dissolved oxygen from water and excretes carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are kept moist. The microscopic structure of a gill presents a large surface area to the external environment.", "Sharks and rays typically have five pairs of gill slits that open directly to the outside of the body, though some more primitive sharks have six pairs. Adjacent slits are separated by a cartilaginous gill arch from which projects a cartilaginous gill ray. This gill ray is the support for the sheet-like interbranchial septum, which the individual lamellae of the gills lie on either side of. The base of the arch may also support gill rakers, projections into the pharyngeal cavity that help to prevent large pieces of debris from damaging the delicate gills.", "Their prominent and feather-like gills are highly functional breathing systems. The gills pull water through their membranous structure so the capillaries can extract oxygen from the liquid and feed it into the body.", "Many microscopic aquatic animals, and some larger but inactive ones, can absorb adequate oxygen through the entire surface of their bodies, and so can respire adequately without a gill. However, more complex or more active aquatic organisms usually require a gill or gills.", "These fish have a small head, strong neck, long-thin pipe-like snout, and a prehensile tail that is more than half their length. The gill opening is a small round pore. The rounded, scaleless body is covered in hard bony plates. Their eyes are just behind and in line with their snout. Small leaf-like appendages protrude from their head, body, and tail. Number of appendages, color, and size vary with geographic location, depth and age. Their almost translucent fins are small. They have a few short spines that are used for defense.", "This common carp, like many other aquatic organisms, has gills that allow it to obtain oxygen from water.", "The gills of vertebrates typically develop in the walls of the pharynx, along a series of gill slits opening to the exterior. Most species employ a countercurrent exchange system to enhance the diffusion of substances in and out of the gill, with blood and water flowing in opposite directions to each other. The gills are composed of comb-like filaments, the gill lamellae, which help increase their surface area for oxygen exchange. ", "The original selective advantage offered by the jaw was not related to feeding, but to increased respiration efficiency. The jaws were used in the buccal pump still observable in modern fish and amphibians, that uses \"breathing with the cheeks\" to pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians. Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans) for feeding was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.", " There are seven gills, located in pouches called gill pouches on eachside. These pouches lie in between the body wall and the respiratorypharynx. Each gill pouch contains a series of gill filaments or gilllamellae, supplied with blood capillaries. The gill pouches open outsideby external gill slits. Normally water is drawn through the mouth intothe gill pouches both in the larva and adult. Exchange of gases takesplace in the gills and water escapes through the external gill slits. Whenthe adult is attached to a host by buccal funnel, water enters the gillpouches and leaves the gill pouches only through the external gill slits. A", "Another type of bony fish, the lungfish, is unique among fish because, as the name suggests, they have lungs. Scientists believe that the fish developed lungs to supply their hearts with more oxygen, allowing them to swim more quickly. It was from these fish that the amphibian eventually developed.", "Because light penetration in the oceans is limited, most fish have well-developed eyes. Sight is very important for finding prey or avoiding predators and fish respond readily to moving shadows. In fact, most humans that have spent any time underwater often express their \"concerns\" over shadows lurking just beyond their vision. Good vision also allows fish to respond to visual cues emitted by photophores for communication or reproduction.", "The head may have several fleshy structures known as barbels, which may be very long and resemble whiskers. Many fish species also have a variety of protrusions or spines on the head. The nostrils or nares of almost all fishes do not connect to the oral cavity, but are pits of varying shape and depth.", "Bony fish usually have a gas-filled internal organ called a swim bladder .  This is used to adjust the buoyancy of the fish to the water around it (deeper water is denser, affecting buoyancy) so that, unlike cartilage fish, a bony fish doesnt sink when it stops swimming, it can just \"hang,\" reducing the amount of energy it has to expend.  Oddly enough, the swim bladder is thought to have arisen as a lung, used by fish whose water bodies dried out periodically.  This seems unlikely, but the progression of evolution of this group is pretty confusing." ]

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[ "26 Octopuses and squids move by \"jet propulsion\", sucking water into a muscular sac in the mantle cavity surrounding their bodies and quickly expelling it out a narrow excurrect siphon. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cephalopods have an active, predaceous lifestyle", "Ocean living mollusks move or swim by jet propulsion. They propel themselves by ejecting water from their body. For example, the squid ejects water from a cavity within its body, and the scallop ejects water to move by clamping its shell closed.", "An octopus can move in two different ways. When it is searching for prey, the octopus uses its arms to slither over the seabed, feeling into rocky cracks for food. The cup-shaped suckers on the arms give the octopus a powerful grip as it crawls along. But if an octopus is frightened, it does not crawl slowly away. Instead it swims away at high speed, its body forming a torpedo-like shape to slice through water. The octopus does this by squirting jets of water from its bag-like body. It draws water into its body cavity then forces it out from a tube under its head. The force of the water squirting out pushes the octopus along, allowing it to swim backward through the ocean. This is called jet propulsion.", "A group of marine mollusks (including squids, octopuses, and chambered nautiluses) that pursue prey by jet propulsion, squirting water out through a small opening in the body.", "Following the cheetah, there are a number of other mammals, including the wildebeest, lion , and Thomson’s gazelle, all of which can obtain 50 miles per hour (80 km per hour), and the hyena , zebra , and Mongolian wild ass, all of which can reach 40 miles per hour (64 kilometers per hour). The white-tailed deer, wart hog, and grizzly bear all check in at 30 miles per hour (48 km per hour). The fastest dog is the greyhound, which can run 43 miles per hour (69 km per hour), while cats can reach speeds of 30 miles per hour (48 km per hour).", "The aim of this question is not to find the fast “level speed” animal on Earth, but to find which animal can attain the highest speed. And in that Regard, the peregrin falcon is the single animal capable attaining such speed.", "While comparing between various classes of animals, a different unit is used, body length per second. The fastest animal on earth, relative to body length, is the South Californian mite Paratarsotomus macropalpis, which has a speed of 322 body lengths per second. The equivalent speed for a human running as fast as this mite would be 1300 mph. This is far in excess of the previous record holder, the Australian tiger beetle, Cicindela eburneola, the fastest insect in the world relative to body size, which has been recorded at or 171 body lengths per second. The cheetah, the fastest land mammal, scores at only 16 body lengths per second while Anna's hummingbird has the highest known length-specific velocity attained by any vertebrate.", "Mammals are the fastest animals on land, with the cheetah , which can run 70 miles per hour (113 km per hour), taking the lead. Compare this with the fastest insect, the hawk moth, which reaches 33 miles per hour (53 km per hour), and the fastest reptile, the spiny-tailed iguana, which can reach 21 miles per hour (34 km per hour). The fastest bird on land is the ostrich , which runs at 43 miles per hour (69 km per hour), while the wild turkey can attain 15 miles an hour (24 km per hour), with the chicken following at 9 miles per hour (14 km per hour).", "Taking the question simply as it is written ‘What Is the Fastest Animal on Earth?’, and imposing no parameters on it then the answer, to the question as written, is Man. Had the question itself been more specific then the answer would be different…but as it stands, it’s Man. Man is the fastest animal on Earth, able to achieve speeds in excess of Mach 6 in the X-15, the world’s fastest manned aircraft. No other animal can move that fast!", "Some of the larger animals roaming the grasslands include pronghorns, black-tailed jackrabbits (hares), Gunnison's prairie dogs, coyotes, bobcats and foxes. Pronghorns, the fastest land animals in North America, are capable of 60 mph sprints. The blood vessels in the huge, thin-walled ears of the jackrabbits act as heat exchangers. These hares are known for their bursts of speed, long leaps, and zigzag routes, all of which protect them from being eaten by golden eagles and other predators. The prairie dogs live in large colonies or \"towns\", near which many other species find food and shelter. Coyotes dine largely on rodents but also eat fruits, reptiles, insects, small mammals, birds, and carrion.", "Ugghhhh im tried of this people if we are talking about land its cheetah if air its a acuallty im not sure but not the pergine falcon cause it only moves fast when it dive bombs", "Semi-aquatic mammals, like pinnipeds, have two pairs of flippers on the front and back, the fore-flippers and hind-flippers. The elbows and ankles are enclosed within the body.Berta, pp. 62–64. Pinnipeds have several adaptions for reducing drag. In addition to their streamlined bodies, they have smooth networks of muscle bundles in their skin that may increase laminar flow and make it easier for them to slip through water. They also lack arrector pili, so their fur can be streamlined as they swim. They rely on their fore-flippers for locomotion in a wing-like manner similar to penguins and sea turtles. Fore-flipper movement is not continuous, and the animal glides between each stroke. Compared to terrestrial carnivorans, the fore-limbs are reduced in length, which gives the locomotor muscles at the shoulder and elbow joints greater mechanical advantage; the hind-flippers serve as stabilizers. Other semi-aquatic mammals include beavers, hippopotamuses, otters and platypuses. Hippos are very large semi-aquatic mammals, and their barrel-shaped bodies have graviportal skeletal structures, adapted to carrying their enormous weight, and their specific gravity allows them to sink and move along the bottom of a river. ", "A jet engine is a reaction engine discharging a fast-moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion. This broad definition includes turbojets, turbofans, rocket engines, ramjets, and pulse jets. In general, jet engines are combustion engines.", "The sailfish is the fastest animal without flying they have an average top speed of 69 mph where the cheeta’s average is 62 mph.", "So, the cheetah is the fastest animal on land, but not in the world. That honour goes to the Peregrine Falcon. Until they race those experienced skydivers,of course.", "Falcons and Caracaras, Peregrine Falcons have been recorded diving at speeds of 200 miles per hour, making them the fastest-moving creatures on Earth. Some small falcons with long narrow wings are called hobbies, and some which hover while hunting are called kestrels. Feeding mostly on other birds, this blue-gray falcon is the fastest moving animal. Falcons kill their prey by biting into the neck or head", "The flukes (lobes of the tail) and dorsal fin are formed of dense connective tissue and do not contain bone or muscle. The animal propels itself by moving the flukes up and down. The pectoral flippers (at the sides of the body) are for steering; they contain bones homologous to the forelimbs of land mammals. A bottlenose dolphin discovered in Japan has two additional pectoral fins, or \"hind legs\", at the tail, about the size of a human's pair of hands. Scientists believe a mutation caused the ancient trait to reassert itself as a form of atavism. ", "The fastest animal on earth is the Peregrine Falcon some have been clocked at over 240 mph", "into either wing of its prey, so as not to harm itself on impact. In its stoop, the Peregrine Falcon attains the highest speed of any animal. The fastest speed recorded is 390 km/h", "The world’s fastest animal is the Perigrine Falcon, which is also the fastest bird. Radar observations have discovered that it can reach speeds of up to 140 mph in a dive (called a stoop).Perigrine Falcons can also stop quickly at top speeds, which is effective when involved in a hunt.", "Man is an animal. He lives on earth. In obit a space ship will travel 17,500 miles per hour. Man is the fastest animal. As well as the most dominant one.", "(NEWSER) – Watch your back, Usain Bolt: A California physics major has found that a tiny mite is (sort of) the fastest land animal on Earth, keeping a pace equivalent to that of a human running 1,300 miles per hour, the Christian Science Monitor reports.", "The first animal sent to space was a female Samoyed named Laika. Laika was sent into space on November 3, 1957 aboard the Russian spacecraft ", " A creature with a barbed tongue, dorsal fin, the forelegs of a lion and the hind legs of an eagle", "Back in the Soviet Union, the dogs Veterok (\"Breeze\") and Ugoyok (\"Little Piece Of Coal\") were launched aboard Kosmos 110 by the Soviet Union on February 22, 1966. The flight was an evaluation of prolonged effects during space travel of radiation from the Van Allen Belts on animals. Twenty-one days in space still stand as a canine record and was only surpassed by humans in June 1974 with the flight of Skylab 2.", "The rocket engine uses the same basic physical principles as the jet engine for propulsion via thrust, but is distinct in that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen; the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass. This allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in space.", "As you can see, there are some impressively fast animals on the land, as well as in the sea and air. These remarkable animals showcase the many different ways that creatures can adapt to fulfill the role of either predator or herbivore. While we may be at the top of the food chain thanks to our tools and inventions, we are easily outclassed when it comes to speed. Many of these creatures are as fast as the cars we have constructed to get from place to place at a reasonable pace. If that isn’t a humbling thought, what is?", "A scramjet is a supersonic ramjet and aside from differences with dealing with internal supersonic airflow works like a conventional ramjet. This type of engine requires a very high initial speed in order to work. The NASA X-43, an experimental unmanned scramjet, set a world speed record in 2004 for a jet-powered aircraft with a speed of Mach 9.7, nearly .", "They are unique in that they shed their horns and that the horns grow on both the male and female. They can reach burst speeds of 50 miles per hour or more.", "Rocket engines are also used to propel rocket sleds along a rail at extremely high speed. The world record for this is Mach 8.5. ", "There was one supersonic ramjet cruise missile that actually reached hypersonic speeds. I forgot the name. But during one test, the fuel feed got stuck on full throttle, and the cruise missile reached Mach 5.5 with no problem.", "An aerodynamic vehicle propelled by fuel oxidized by intake from the atmosphere; an air breathing vehicle." ]

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[ "Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, the majority of primary production in the ocean is performed by free-living microscopic organisms called phytoplankton. Larger autotrophs, such as the seagrasses and macroalgae (seaweeds) are generally confined to the littoral zone and adjacent shallow waters, where they can attach to the underlying substrate but still be within the photic zone. There are exceptions, such as Sargassum, but the vast majority of free-floating production takes place within microscopic organisms.", "Algae have no true roots, stems, or leaves and range in size from tiny, one-celled organisms to large, multi-celled plant-like organisms, such as chara or muskgrass. Plankton algae, which consist of free-floating microscopic plants, grow throughout both the littoral zone and the well-lit surface waters of an entire lake. Other forms of algae, including stringy filamentous types, are common only in the littoral area.", "Flowering plants (angiosperms) comprise about 90 percent of the Kingdom Plantae. The total number of described species exceeds 250,000, and many tropical species are as yet unnamed. During the past 130 million years, flowering plants have colonized practically every conceivable habitat on earth, from sun-baked deserts and windswept alpine summits to fertile grasslands, freshwater marshes, dense forests and lush mountain meadows. Although a number of flowering plants live in aquatic habitats and have adapted to the saline conditions of dry lake beds and salt marshes, relatively few species live submersed in the oceans. True marine angiosperms are found throughout the oceans of the world, although most species are distributed in tropical regions. They are sometimes referred to as \"seagrasses\" and include about 50 species in 12 genera. Virtually all flowering plants produce some type of functional floral organ, although in some families such as the Lemnaceae, the flowers are microscopic and are seldom seen by the casual observer. Certain grasses and specialized cultivars apparently do not produce flowers, although they may still have rudimentary flowers (vestigial floral parts).", "Phytoplankton -- Microscopic floating plants, mainly algae, that live suspended in bodies of water and that drift about because they cannot move by themselves or because they are too small or too weak to swim effectively against a current.", "Phytoplankton - Microscopic floating plants, mainly algae, that live suspended in bodies of water and that drift about because they cannot move by themselves or because they are too small or too weak to swim effectively against a current.", "Marine primary producers—plants and microscopic organisms in the plankton—are widespread and very diverse. Microscopic photosynthetic algae, phytoplankton, contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. About 45 percent of the sea's primary production of living material is contributed by diatoms. Much larger algae, commonly known as seaweeds, are important locally; Sargassum forms floating drifts, while kelp form seabed forests. Flowering plants in the form of seagrasses grow in \"meadows\" in sandy shallows, mangroves line the coast in tropical and subtropical regions, and salt-tolerant plants thrive in regularly inundated salt marshes. All of these habitats are able to sequester large quantities of carbon and support a biodiverse range of larger and smaller animal life. ", "Algae: plants that mostly grow in the sea. Most are microscopic organisms that float around in the surface water (plankton).", "Phytoplankton comprise an enormous number of diatoms and other microscopic algae. They have a large surface in relation to their mass in order to help them keep afloat in the water column. Many form chains of cells or have large but light weight surfaces. Diatoms, for example, are single celled plants that constitute more than half of the plankton in the ocean. Others have branches or arms. Dinoflagellates have a whip like flagella which they flick to help maintain their position.", "Minute plants suspended in water with little or no capability for controlling their position in the water mass, referred to as algae.", " In addition to the major types of vegetation described above, a special vegetation called sudd (literally meaning “barrier”) occurs in the great Nile, Niger, and Zambezi drainage systems of the African interior plateau. Characteristic is the sudd along the White Nile River in The Sudan and Uganda. Sedges (especially papyrus), reeds, and other water plants—including the floating Nile cabbage (Pistia stratiotes)—form masses of waterlogged plant material that are largely unproductive and are a nuisance to fishing and navigation. Pistia has become an unwelcome invader of Lake Kariba, the body of water formed by the impounding (1959) of the Zambezi River in the Kariba Gorge.", "Charophyta species (commonly called the stoneworts) are considered an evolutionary link to higher plants. They occur in lakes, ponds, and streams attached to the bottom by rhizoids. This group is often mistaken for true plants because of the whorls of filaments at nodes along the shoot of the organism. Charophyta can form relatively large areas of dense underwater monocultures. ", "Green (Chlorophyta) – over 8,000 species, 90% of which are freshwater. These are the original plants on Earth. We can identify them readily by their vivid green colour, such as the gutweed (Enteromorpha) that is often seen carpeting low flat shore banks, or the Sea Lettuce (Ulva latuca) that grows in shallow water. Both can utilise inorganic nutrients from land runoff, so are often found where freshwater streams flow in. Sea lettuce is a highly nutritious source of protein, fibre, vitamins and minerals and eaten in coastal cultures around the world. The green seaweeds are also favourite food of those rock pool grazers, sea urchins and sea slugs.", "There are also many invasive species that are primarily brought in the ballast water of foreign ships, usually from the ocean bordering Northeastern Asia. This water is dumped directly into the Great Lakes, depositing a variety of fresh and salt water fish and invertebrates, most notably the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha. There are also many plant species that have been transported to the Great Lakes, including Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria and Phragmites australis, both of which are considered to be a threat to native hydrophyte wetland plants. ", "The plant world consists of phytoplankton (350 unicellular species occur), bottom macrophytes (280 species), several grass species, and sea herbs. The Phillophora rubens herb, which covers over 15,000 sq km of the sea bottom and is harvested in quantities of over five million tonnes, has commercial value. The Zostera sea grass, which is consumed by fish, grows on the silt and sand bottoms of quiet bays.", "Algae are diverse water plants that can vary in size, color, and shape. Algae occur naturally in habitats such as inland lakes, inter-tidal zones, and damp soil and provide a dedicated food source for animals, fish, and invertebrates. There are three main groups of algae:", "Although pollen grains can be made to germinate in aqueous sugar solutions, water alone in most cases has a disastrous effect on them. Accordingly, only a very few terrestrial plants, such as the bog asphodel of the Faroes, use rainwater as a means of pollen transport. Even in aquatic plants, water is seldom the true medium of pollen dispersal. Thus, the famous Podostemonaceae , plants that grow only on rocks in rushing water, flower in the dry season when the plants are exposed; pollination occurs with the aid of wind or insects or by selfing. Another aquatic plant, ribbon weed, sends its male and female flowers to the surface separately. There, the former transform themselves into minute sailboats, which are driven by the wind until they collide with the female flowers. In the Canadian waterweed, and also in pondweed (Potamogeton) and ditch grass (Ruppia), the pollen itself is dispersed on the water’s surface; it is, however, still water-repellent. True water dispersal (hydrophily), in which the pollen grains are wet by water, is found only in the hornworts and eelgrasses.", "      n   a floating aquatic plant, Eichhornia crassipes, of tropical America, having showy bluish-purple flowers and swollen leafstalks: family Pontederiaceae. It forms dense masses in rivers, ponds, etc., and is a serious problem in the southern U.S., Australia, and parts of Africa  ", "*Infusoria (1674) - Infusoria is a collective term for minute aquatic creatures including ciliate, euglena, paramecium, protozoa and unicellular algae that exist in freshwater ponds. However, in formal classification microorganism called infusoria belongs to Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Protozoa, Class Ciliates (Infusoria). They were first discovered by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek.", "common name for members of the aquatic animal phylum Porifera, and for the dried, processed skeletons of certain species used to hold water. Over 4,500 living species are known; they are found throughout the world, especially in shallow temperate waters.", "This little insectivorous plant is found growing in muddy edges of ponds, bogs and rivers, where the soil is peaty. It is a small herbaceous, perennial, aquatic plant, with short and slender fibrous root, from which grow the leaves. These are remarkable for their covering of red glandular hairs, by which they are readily recognized, apart from their flowers which only open in the sunshine. Their leaves are orbicular on long stalks, depressed, Iying flat on ground and have on upper surface long red viscid hairs, each having a small gland at top, containing a fluid, which looks like a dewdrop, hence its name. This secretion is most abundant when the sun is at its height. Flower-stems erect, slender, 2 to 6 inches high, at first coiled inward bearing a simple raceme, which straightens out as flowers expand; these are very small and white, appearing in summer and early autumn. Seeds numerous, spindleshaped in a loose chaffy covering contained in a capsule. These hairs are very sensitive, they curve inward slowly and catch any insects which alight on them; the fluid on the points also retains them. After an insect has been caught, the glandular heads secrete a digestive fluid which dissolves all that can be absorbed from the insect. It has been noted that secretion does not take place when inorganic substances are imprisoned.", "milfoil - noun. the common Eurasian yarrow 2. (also water milfoil) a widely distributed and highly invasive aquatic plant with whorls of fine submerged leaves and wind-pollinated flowers ORIGIN: Middle English: via Old French from Latin millefolium, from mille 'thousand' + folium 'leaf.'", "On the west coast, the sessile oaks of the Atlantic oakwoods are particularly important, as they form bryophyte-rich temperate rainforests under the influence of the mild, wet oceanic climate. These woodlands are of international significance because of their unique assemblage of species, especially mosses, lichens and ferns, but are all greatly reduced in extent.", "If actually growing in water, the raft-like masses of interwoven roots and mud, which in a river or lake float about a foot below the surface of the water, are cut out in square sections, raked to the lake edge, the leaves stripped off and separated. Whether growing thus actually in water, or in moist ground, the rhizomes are next thoroughly washed in a trough, and then, deprived of the far less aromatic and brittle rootlets, which are 4 to 6 inches long, unbranched, but near the tip beset with soft, thin fibres.", "Close-up view of the water fern (Azolloa filiculoides). The overlapping scalelike leaves (black arrow) are about 1/25th of an inch (1 mm) in length. Also shown in the photo are three species in the duckweed family (Lemnaceae): Wolffia borealis (1), W. columbiana (2) and Lemna minuta (3). Although the latter three species are very small, they do not have leaves.", "The top picture shows the commonly occurring kelp called Furbelows, Saccorhiza polyschides(Lightfoot) Batters, washed up at Studland Bay, Dorset. It is one of the largest brown seaweeds or Phaeophyceae. It has long strap-like leathery fronds. The stalk is short, flat and typically has a wavy ruff or frill either side of it as you can see in the picture below. Sometimes the stalk is twisted at the base. The holdfast at the base frequently has a warty and bulbous hemispherical appearance as well as rootlets. Lots of plants and animals prefer to settle here on both stalk and holdfast. The specimen below has red seaweeds attached to it. ", "The Nymphaeaceae are aquatic, rhizomatous herbs. The family is further characterized by scattered vascular bundles in the stems, and frequent presence of latex, usually with distinct, stellate-branched sclereids projecting into the air canals. Hairs are simple, usually producing mucilage (slime). Leaves are alternate and spiral, opposite or occasionally whorled, simple, peltate or nearly so, entire to toothed or dissected, short to long petiolate), with blade submerged, floating or emergent, with palmate to pinnate venation. Stipules are either present or absent. Flowers are solitary, bisexual, radial, with a long pedicel and usually floating or raised above the surface of the water, with girdling vascular bundles in receptacle. Sepals are 4-12, distinct to connate, imbricate, and often petal-like. Petals lacks or 8 to numerous, inconspicuous to showy, often intergrading with stamens. Stamens are 3 to numerous, the innermost sometimes represented by staminodes. Filaments are distinct, free or adnate to petaloid staminodes, slender and well differentiated from anthers to laminar and poorly differentiated from anthers; pollen grains usually monosulcate or lacking apertures. Carpels are 3 to numerous, distinct or connate. Fruit is an aggregate of nuts, a berry, or an irregularly dehiscent fleshy capsule. Seeds are often arillate, more or less lacking sperm.", "Bryophytes are the group of non-flowering plants which include mosses and liverworts, and 65 species grow on the trunks and branches of oaks. They are particularly abundant in the temperate rainforest ecosystems of the Atlantic oakwoods, where the trees are festooned with mosses. Common species include broom fork-moss (Dicranum scoparium) and slender mouse-tail moss (Isothecium myosuroides), while rarer species from the Atlantic oakwoods include western featherwort (Plagiochila atlantica). Frequently to be seen growing amongst the moss on the branches of oaks is the common polypody fern (Polypodium vulgare).", "Any plants of a group of unicellular and multicellular primitive organisms that include the Chlorella, Scenedesmus, and other genera.", "      n   any of various pond plants of the genus Myriophyllum, having feathery underwater leaves and small inconspicuous flowers: family Haloragidaceae  ", "harmful toxins. It is a tiny aquatic plant with a grainy texture and looks like a miniature", "Tiny, covered with hydrofuge hairs suitable to habitat on surface or along edges of bodies of still, fresh water; sometimes crawl into the water; food habits not known; about 120 species; in all zoogeographic regions; some widely distributed species may have been carried in drinking water on early sailing ships.", "Synurophycean Algae from the Lake Pontchartrain region: A Preliminary Survey from the Southern Atlantic Coastal Plain of North America" ]

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[ "Wombats are nocturnal and spend most of the day in their extensive burrow systems. They can be found in south-eastern Australia, along the Nullarbour plain, and in Tasmania. Wombats are herbivores. They eat grasses, herbs, and roots. Their enemies are Dingos and the Tasmanian Devils.", "Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea are home to more than 50 species of kangaroos and wallabies, known as macropods, due to the large feet of these marsupials. The largest, the red kangaroo of Australia's inland plains, can be up to six feet tall; gray kangaroos are smaller and found in woodlands. Wallabies, medium-sized marsupials, live in a variety of habitats, including shrubs, swamps and rocky cliffs. Ground-dwelling kangaroos and wallabies get around by hopping. There are also 14 species of arboreal kangaroos, two of which, the Bennett and Lumholtz varieties, occur in Australia. Kangaroos and wallabies are herbivores that eat a variety of grasses and other vegetation.", "The wombat is a large marsupial found only in Australia. Wombats are nocturnal creatures and have powerful claws and rodent-like front teeth that they use for digging extensive burrows. Being marsupials, the wombat rears its young in a pouch, however in the case of the wombat this is a backwards-facing pouch – a very useful evolutionary variation that prevents the wombat covering its young with soil when digging. Wombats weigh around 25-30 kg and are herbivores, eating mainly grasses, herbs, bark and roots. One of the best places to see wombats is in the late afternoon at Narawntapu National Park in Tasmania's north.", "The animals in this order are found in Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea. They are carnivores and insectivores. Animals in this order include quolls, dunnarts, Numbat and the Tasmanian Devil. The order has about 63 species.", "Other mammals found here include the echinda, or spiny anteater (Tachyglossus aculeatus), which is widespread in Tasmania but prefers sclerophyll and heathland areas. Australia’s other monotreme, the duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatimus) is found in freshwater throughout Tasmania, including King Island but not the Furneaux Group. The long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus) is widespread on Tasmania, whereas the Tasmanian bettong (Bettongia gaimardi) is restricted to dry sclerophyll forest in eastern Tasmania, and the little pygmy possum (Cercartetus lepidus) prefers dry sclerophyll forest as well. Nearly extinct on the mainland, the eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii) inhabits grasslands through out this ecoregion. Both the spotted-tail (Dasyurus maculatus) and eastern quoll (D. viverrinus) are found here, as are larger herbivores, the red-necked wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) and the eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). Although abundant on mainland Australia, the eastern grey kangaroo has suffered a severe constriction of habitat on Tasmania after agricultural development. Wombats (Vombatus ursinus tasmaniensis) are widespread on Tasmania, with a separate subspecies on Flinders Island, V.u. ursinus.", "The most characteristic native mammals are marsupials, the young of which are nourished in an external marsupium, or abdominal pouch. Although also found in South America, marsupials in Australia have evolved to virtually all mammalian niches. The best-known Australian marsupial is the kangaroo, of which there are about 50 species found in both the Temperate and Tropical Zones. The kangaroo is vegetarian and can be tamed. The large red or grey kangaroo may stand as high as 2.1 m (7 ft) and can leap 9 m (30 ft). Originally a creature of the forests and semiarid shrublands, it is one of the few native animals to have benefited from the extension of pastureland. Numbers have exploded, and hunting is used as a control measure. The wallaby, kangaroo rat, and tree kangaroo are smaller members of the kangaroo family. The phalangers are herbivorous marsupials that live in trees; they include the possum and the koala. Feeding only on the leaves of certain species of eucalyptus, the koala has been endangered by loss of habitat and is protected throughout Australia. Other well-known marsupials are the burrowing wombat, bandicoot, and pouched mouse. Marsupial carnivores, the native cat, the tiger cat, and the Tasmanian devil are found only on the island of Tasmania. The Tasmanian tiger, or thylacine, a sheep killer, became extinct in the 1930s.", "Marsupial closely related to the kangaroo and living in Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea; certain species are prized for their fur.", "The marsupial herbivores are classified in the order Diprotodontia, and further into the suborders Vombatiformes, Phalangeriformes and Macropodiformes. The Vombatiformes include the Koala and the three species of wombat . One of Australia's best-known marsupials, the Koala is an arboreal (tree-dwelling) species that feeds on the leaves of some 120 species of eucalyptus. Wombats, on the other hand, live on the ground and feed on grasses, sedges and roots. Wombats use their rodent-like front teeth and powerful claws to dig extensive burrow systems; they are mainly crepuscular and nocturnal. Wombats are also well known for their backwards facing pouches.", "Tasmanian devils are only found in Tasmania, though fossil evidence shows that there were devils on the Australian mainland 600 years ago. They have powerful jaws and long, sharp teeth. They are primarily nocturnal, coming out at night to forage for food. Devils are scavengers, sometimes eating small mammals as prey, but mainly living on the remains of dead animals. When feeding, a Tasmanian devil will eat everything, including bones and fur.", "Australia and New Guinea have been connected for a large part of the last 1 million years, although the largely dry climate of the northern Cape York Peninsula has limited the flow of species from New Guinea, which are mostly rainforest- or wet-adapted species. The New Guinean plants, birds, and mammals found in Cape York Peninsula are all rainforest inhabitants, including Bennett’s tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus bennettianus) and the spotted cuscus (Spilocuscus maculatus). In contrast, the herpetofauna shared between New Guinea and Australia are not rainforest species, and are often concentrated in heathlands habitat (Abrahams et al. 1995).", "A rich mammalian fauna utilizes the mixed sclerophyll forests and heath vegetation of Tasmanian Temperate Forests. Perhaps the most renowned of these is the largest marsupial carnivore, the Tasmanian thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus), which was hunted to extinction by European settlers. Both the thylacine and the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) were once widespread on mainland Australia, but were eliminated before the arrival of Europeans, presumably through competition with the dingo (Canis lupus dingo), which has never been introduced to Tasmania (Strahan 1998).", "The only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous to Australia and New Guinea, although there is evidence that they were once more widespread. Among living mammals they include the platypus and four species of echidnas (or spiny anteaters);", "Animal life is virtually absent from the true rainforests but abounds in the extensive eucalypt forests. Birds include honey eaters, black jays, masked plovers, black magpies, black cockatoos, and various parrots. Among the mammals are wallabies, brushtail and ringtail possums, and marsupial carnivores—the various “ native cats ,” including the spotted-tailed and eastern quoll, and the Tasmanian devil . The thylacine (Tasmanian tiger) became extinct in the 1930s. The sedge land and moorlands are distinctive for wombats, and the coastal heaths for green rosellas, platypuses, and short-nosed echidnas.", "Prey included kangaroos, wallabies, wombats, birds and small animals such as potoroos and possums. A favourite prey animal may have been the once-common Tasmanian emu, a large, flightless bird which shared the habitat of the Thylacine. It was hunted to extinction around 1850, possibly coinciding with the decline in Thylacine numbers. Both dingos and foxes have been noted to hunt the emu on the mainland. European settlers believed the Thylacine to have preyed upon farmers' sheep and poultry. In captivity, Thylacines were fed a wide variety of foods, including dead rabbits and wallabies as well as beef, mutton, and horse and occasionally poultry.", "The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus, or, inaccurately, koala bear) is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats. The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland's eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body and large head with round, fluffy ears and large, spoon-shaped nose. The koala has a body length of 60 – and weighs 4 –. Pelage colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown. Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south. These populations possibly are separate subspecies, but this is disputed.", "There are honey badgers and aardvarks, but visitors rarely get to see these nocturnal creatures. Noisy bushbabies, which are also nocturnal creatures, can be more easily heard more than seen. There are also small-spotted genets with distinctive black-and-white tails, and the loud tree hydraxes that are similar to chipmunks.", "Tags: Tasmania devil, saving wildlife, carnivorous, Australia, Sarcophilus harrisii,Worlds komisch Tasmania Teufel 世界の奇妙なタスマニアデビル Mondes étranges Tasmanie Diable Mondi strano Tasmania Devil โลกปีศาจแปลกแทสมาเนีย Worlds aneh Tasmania Iblis", "These include the flying foxes (fruitbats:pictured above), the blossom bats and the tube-nosed bats, found in northern and eastern Australia. Because they do not echo-locate they do not need the elaborate nose-leaves and large ears the microbats usually have, but instead have more typically mammalian faces, leading to the common names 'flying fox' in English and 'flughund' in German. Their diet consists of fruit and nectar, some species favouring one more than the other.", "Wombats, Echidnas, Kangaroos, Bilbys, Emus, Rabbits, Deer, Pigs Goats, Sheep, Cattle, Brumbies, Copperhead and brown snakes, Frogs, Kookaburras, Gang-gang Cockatoos, Crimson and Easter Rosellas, Wedge-tail Eagles, Hawks, Falcons", "s when farming and settlement intensified. Few of the previously recorded species�from either cave deposits or earlier accounts�now exist here. �The mild-eyed hordes of kangaroos have been slaughtered in their thousands by [W]hite hunters who drank themselves to death on the proceeds,� writes Daisy Bates. [31] Yet, the rifle didn�t kill off native mammals the most. Neither did the grazing of domestic animals, nor droughts. Rather, a combination of factors caused the tragedy: grazing by rabbits, increased burning of the Plain, and hunting by the introduced cat and fox. The fox first appeared in Eucla in", "The dingo is the largest terrestrial predator in Australia and is considered a pest by sheep farmers due to its frequent attacks on livestock.", "Belcher, C. A.; J. P. Darrant. (March 2004) Home range and spatial organization of the marsupial carnivore, Dasyurus maculatus maculatus (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) in south-eastern Australia. Journal of Zoology. Vol. 262, Issue 3. pp. 271-280.", "Triggs, B. 1996. Tracks, Scats and Other Traces: a Field Guide to Australian Mammals. Oxford University Press, Qld (very useful if the mammals themselves are not actually seen)", "a burrowing monotreme mammal covered with spines and having a long snout and claws for hunting ants and termites; native to New Guinea", "In Tasmania it preferred the woodlands of the midlands and the coastal heath, which eventually became the primary focus of British settlers seeking grazing properties for their livestock. The striped pattern may have provided camouflage in woodland conditions, but it may have also served for identification purposes. The animal had a typical home range of between 40 sq km (15 sq mi) and 80 sq km (31 sq mi). It appears to have kept to its home range without being territorial; groups too large to be a family unit were sometimes observed together.", "In Tasmania it preferred the woodlands of the midlands and coastal heath, which eventually became the primary focus of British settlers seeking grazing land for their livestock. The striped pattern may have provided camouflage in woodland conditions, but it may have also served for identification purposes. The animal had a typical home range of between 40 and. It appears to have kept to its home range without being territorial; groups too large to be a family unit were sometimes observed together. ", "They are located throughout Australia but are one of the more solitary of the Australian native animals. Keep your eye out for them when bush walking. They like to shelter against rocks when it is raining or windy.", "A semiaquatic egg-laying mammal that frequents lakes and streams in eastern Australia. It has a sensitive pliable bill shaped like that of a duck, webbed feet with venomous spurs, and dense fur", "They are nomadic and roam the countryside looking for food. Although they are solitary creatures, emus can live in flocks or pairs. When they form a flock, they don’t do it for company – they just all gather where food is.", "There are few native natural predators of emus still alive. Early in its species history it may have faced numerous terrestrial predators now extinct, including the giant lizard Megalania , the thylacine , and possibly other carnivorous marsupials , which may explain their seemingly well-developed ability to defend themselves from terrestrial predators. The main predator of emus today is the dingo , which was originally introduced by Aboriginals thousands of years ago from a stock of semi-domesticated wolves. Dingoes try to kill the emu by attacking the head. The emu typically tries to repel the dingo by jumping into the air and kicking or stamping the dingo on its way down. The emu jumps as the dingo barely has the capacity to jump high enough to threaten its neck, so a correctly timed leap to coincide with the dingo's lunge can keep its head and neck out of danger.", "a burrowing monotreme mammal covered with spines and having a long snout and claws for hunting ants and termites; native to Australia", "These animals inhabit equatorial forests and mixed secondary tropical forest. They generally live among undergrowth on the edges of dense lowland rainforests. They especially haunt rivers and swampy bush areas, seeking escape by water when in danger." ]

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[ "In vertebrates, the mandible, lower jaw or jawbone[1] is a bone forming the skull with the cranium.", "In lobe-finned fishes and the early fossil tetrapods, the bone homologous to the mandible of mammals is merely the largest of several bones in the lower jaw. In such animals, it is referred to as the dentary bone, and forms the body of the outer surface of the jaw. It is bordered below by a number of splenial bones, while the angle of the jaw is formed by a lowerangular bone and a suprangular bone just above it. The inner surface of the jaw is lined by aprearticular bone, while the articular bone forms the articulation with the skull proper. Finally a set of three narrow coronoid bones lie above the prearticular bone. As the name implies, the majority of the teeth are attached to the dentary, but there are commonly also teeth on the coronoid bones, and sometimes on the prearticular as well.[2]", "1. Either of two bony or cartilaginous structures that in most vertebrate animals form the framework of the mouth, hold the teeth, and are used for biting and chewing food. The lower, movable part of the jaw is called the mandible. The upper, fixed part is called the maxilla.", "The mandible consists of a horizontal arch, which holds the teeth and contains blood vessels and nerves. Two vertical portions ( rami ) form movable hinge joints on either side of the head, articulating with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone of the skull . The rami also provide attachment for muscles important in chewing. The centre front of the arch is thickened and buttressed to form a chin, a development unique to man and some of his recent ancestors; the great apes and other animals lack chins.", "In lobe-finned fishes and the early fossil tetrapods, the bone homologous to the mandible of mammals is merely the largest of several bones in the lower jaw. In such animals, it is referred to as the dentary bone, and forms the body of the outer surface of the jaw. It is bordered below by a number of splenial bones, while the angle of the jaw is formed by a lower angular bone and a suprangular bone just above it. The inner surface of the jaw is lined by a prearticular bone, while the articular bone forms the articulation with the skull proper. Finally a set of three narrow coronoid bones lie above the prearticular bone. As the name implies, the majority of the teeth are attached to the dentary, but there are commonly also teeth on the coronoid bones, and sometimes on the prearticular as well.", "The mandible is the only bone in the entire cranium that doesn’t articulate with its adjacent skull bones via sutures . When the skull is observed purely as a bony structure, there is nothing anatomically holding the rest of the skull and the mandible together. This bone is also known as the lower jaw and it articulates dentally with the upper jaw or the maxilla in the viscerocranium via the teeth when the mouth is closed. It also articulates to the neurocranium via the temporal bone , forming the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).", "The mandible is the largest of all the facial bones and is the only bone of the facial bones that has the ability of movement. The mandible is able to create movement such as this through two joints which attach it to the skull known as temporomandibular joints. The body of the mandible, which is comprised of the front and sides, creates the shape of a horseshoe. Two rami extend from the mandible at the exterior portion. Each individual ramus contains a knoblike condylar processes that are located reside at the superior margin. The condylar process meets the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone . A pointed coronoid process extends to allow for attachment of the temporalis muscle. The mandibular notch is the depressed area that exists between the two processes. At the corner of the jaw, where the vertical ramus and the horizontal body meet, is the angle of the mandible.", "1. (Zoology) the part of the skull of a vertebrate that frames the mouth and holds the teeth. In higher vertebrates it consists of the upper jaw (maxilla) fused to the cranium and the lower jaw (mandible).", "The lower jaw, or mandible, which carries the lower teeth in its alveolar part, is described later.", "Carnivores have a wide mouth opening in relation to their head size. This confers obvious advantages in developing the forces used in seizing, killing and dismembering prey. Facial musculature is reduced since these muscles would hinder a wide gape, and play no part in the animal's preparation of food for swallowing. In all mammalian carnivores, the jaw joint is a simple hinge joint lying in the same plane as the teeth. This type of joint is extremely stable and acts as the pivot point for the \"lever arms\" formed by the upper and lower jaws. The primary muscle used for operating the jaw in carnivores is the temporalis muscle. This muscle is so massive in carnivores that it accounts for most of the bulk of the sides of the head (when you pet a dog, you are petting its temporalis muscles). The \"angle\" of the mandible (lower jaw) in carnivores is small. This is because the muscles (masseter and pterygoids) that attach there are of minor importance in these animals. The lower jaw of carnivores cannot move forward, and has very limited side-to-side motion. When the jaw of a carnivore closes, the blade-shaped cheek molars slide past each other to give a slicing motion that is very effective for shearing meat off bone.", "Ossification.The mandible is ossified in the fibrous membrane covering the outer surfaces of Meckels cartilages. These cartilages form the cartilaginous bar of the mandibular arch (see p. 66), and are two in number, a right and a left. Their proximal or cranial ends are connected with the ear capsules, and their distal extremities are joined to one another at the symphysis by mesodermal tissue. They run forward immediately below the condyles and then, bending downward, lie in a groove near the lower border of the bone; in front of the canine tooth they incline upward to the symphysis. From the proximal end of each cartilage the malleus and incus, two of the bones of the middle ear, are developed; the next succeeding portion, as far as the lingula, is replaced by fibrous tissue, which persists to form the sphenomandibular ligament. Between the lingula and the canine tooth the cartilage disappears, while the portion of it below and behind the incisor teeth becomes ossified and incorporated with this part of the mandible.", "1. either of two tooth-bearing bones or bony structures, the mandible or maxilla, forming the framework of the vertebrate mouth.", "Odd-toed ungulates have a long upper jaw with an extended diastema between the front and cheek teeth, giving them an elongated head. The various forms of snout between families are due to differences in the form of the premaxilla. The lacrimal bone has projecting cusps in the eye sockets and a wide contact with the nasal bone. The temporomandibular joint is high and the mandible is enlarged.", "Consider the jawbone&rsquo;s general shape, size and consistency. A massive jawbone, depending on your area, will likely belong to only a few animals of major size. For example, if you come across a hefty bone in the southern Appalachians, without looking at any other feature you might begin to consider a black bear, a white-tailed deer or a feral hog, or possibly a free-roaming horse or cow. A light, fragile-feeling jawbone might belong to a fish, amphibian or reptile, though larger species will have stouter structures. Shape will help further refine your guess. The quality can roughly distinguish between closely related species: A bobcat&rsquo;s jawbone will be squatter than a coyote&rsquo;s of similar heft and dentition.", "Canines -- All mammals have a single canine in each quadrant, if they have canines at all. These teeth are often absent; they are never found in modern rodents, for example, and many artiodactyls have them only in the lower jaw. When present, the canines are the first tooth in the maxilla. They tend to be moderately to very long, and most commonly they consist of a single cusp with one root (but there are exceptions). Canines are most often used for stabbing and holding prey, and it is in herbivorous species that they are often reduced in size or missing altogether (for example, in bovid artiodactyls the upper canines are missing and the lower are small and incisor-like).", "Most species of herbivorous mammals have a diastema between the front teeth (incisors and canines), if present, and the cheek teeth (molars and premolars). This is the case, for example, for rodents and lagomorphs, as well as for most ungulates.", "The following characters apply especially to llamas. Dentition of adults:-incisors 1/3 canines 1/1, premolars 2/2, molars 3/2; total 32. In the upper jaw there is a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla, followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar which follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series which are in contact with each other consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge.", "The jugal is a skull bone found in most reptiles, amphibians, and birds. In mammals, the jugal is often called the zygomatic bone or malar bone.", "Fun physiology: The goldeye has teeth on its tongue. So do its relatives, which include the giant Amazonian arapaima and large tropical arawannas.", "[287] later, in a startling, almost romantic way, by the discovery by Mr. Dawson and a young French naturalist who were resifting and searching the gravel at the exact spot where the jaw was found, of one of the great canine teeth, twice as big as that of any man and resembling that of a chimpanzee (see Fig. 26 and its explanation). There was a good deal of hesitation about the admission of the correctness of Dr. Smith Woodward's presentation of the jaw of Eoanthropus, with so close a resemblance to that of a chimpanzee. But the careful consideration of the specimen, and above all the welcome discovery of the great ape-like canine, has now convinced every anatomist of the truth of Dr. Woodward's restoration. The jaw itself and the recovered canine tooth, as well as the completely restored model of the two sides of the lower jaw and of the brain-case, may now be seen and studied by visitors to the Natural History Museum. They are placed in the Geological Gallery. I have visited with Mr. Dawson and the gravel at Piltdown where the jaw and skull were found, and have picked", "On the other hand, carnivorous marsupials have carnassial teeth. Both the living Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) and the recently extinct Tasmanian wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus) possessed modified molars to allow for shearing, although the Tasmanian wolf, the larger of the two, had adaptation more similar to the modern dog. The Pleistocene marsupial lion (Thylacoleo carnifex) had massive carnassial molars. A recent study concludes that these teeth produced the strongest bite of any mammal in history. Moreover, these carnassial molars appear to have been used, unlike in any other known mammal, to inflict the killing blow to the prey by severing the spinal cord, crushing the windpipe or severing a major artery. Like these true marsupials, the closely related borhyaenids of South America had three carnassial teeth involving the first three upper molars (M1-M3) and the second through fourth lower molars (m2-m4). In the borhyaenids the upper carnassials appear to have been rotated medially around the anteriorposterior axis of the tooth row in order to maintain tight occlusional contact between the upper and lower shearing teeth. ", "This conclusion becomes specially noteworthy when we compare the canine in detail with that of the apes and with that of the temporary set in a human child the so-called milk teeth (Fig. 21). The Piltdown tooth is seen to differ in shape from the canine in all known [72] apes, whether existing or fossil, by the absence of a little prominence on the inner side of the base of the crown. It also differs in the shortness of its root, which is blunted at the lower end. In these ways it is similar to the temporary canine of the human child.", "Whale shark dentition (top, Photo © Cathleen Bester), and (bottom) A) Portion of upper dentary band (about 2.5x), B) top and C) lateral view of a single upper tooth (about 9x). Illustrations courtesy Bigelow & Schroeder,1948, FNWA", "The mouth of the Sabre-toothed Tiger (which type did not reach its culmination, however, till the close of the Miocene), could open with a gape that must have measured a foot and a half in the biggest examples. And thus the twelve-inch long, flattened, sabre-like, serrated canines of the upper jaw could be plunged for all their length into the neck or body of some great herbivore, aided by the leverage exercised by the prolonged chin, with its massed incisors and stunted canines. The molar teeth, reduced to two on each side, served only to sever, not to masticate, parcels of flesh. These gobbets must have been swallowed whole; or possibly the extreme form of the Machairodont lived mainly by blood-sucking, after severing the great arteries with its teeth. The biggest and most awful of the Sabre-tooths (Smilodon neogeus) lived in South America, lingering on almost to the human period in that region; while in Europe and Asia its near allies of the same genus were certainly contemporaneous with man. Indeed, in England the Sabre-toothed �Tiger� was possibly still in existence 100,000 years ago, when Paleolithic man had begun to take possession of the caves.", "has a lower jaw consisting of a single pair of bones (one of the ways we can tell if a fossil was a mammal)", "Wüster, W. and R.S. Thorpe. 1992. Dentitional phenomena in cobras revisited: spitting and fang structure in the Asiatic species of Naja (Serpentes: Elapidae). Herpetologica:424-434 < link >", "Dunkleosteus was the largest of the prehistoric fish Placodermi. Its head and thorax were covered by articulated armored plates. Instead of teeth, these fish possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates, which formed a beak-like structure.", "RIGHT: A drawing of the jaw of AMN5098 adapted from Bennett (2001, fig. 23).  Click for a photo of the complete specimen (adapted from Wellnhofer, 1991)", "Major Characteristics: The skeleton had been mostly recovered. The diastema between its carnivore tooth and the next tooth remains.", "is composed of a single bone. contains teeth that are uniform in size. contains teeth that are uniform in shape. does not usually leave a trace in the fossil record.", "Lower jaw of OH 7, a specimen found in 1960 at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, and identified by Louis …", "This species was named in 2001 from a partial skull found in Kenya with an unusual mixture of features (Leakey et al. 2001). It is aged about 3.5 million years old. The size of the skull is similar to A. afarensis and A. africanus, and has a large, flat face and small teeth." ]

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[ "Beaver homes, called lodges, are dome-like constructions built from branches and mud. They are positioned in open water for protection from predators and have underwater entrance holes.", "Domelike beaver homes, called lodges, are also constructed of branches and mud. They are often strategically located in the middle of ponds and can only be reached by underwater entrances. These dwellings are home to extended families of monogamous parents, young kits, and the yearlings born the previous spring.", "Beavers build and maintain houses called lodges. There are two main types, the conical lodge and the bank lodge. The most recognized type is the conical shaped dwelling surrounded by water. It is made from sticks, mud and rocks. One of the primary reasons beavers build dams is to surround their lodge with water for protection from predators. The second type of lodge is the bank lodge. It is typically excavated into the bank of a large stream, river, or lake where the water is too deep or fast moving to build the classic conical lodge.", "The ponds created by well-maintained dams help isolate the beavers' home, their lodge, which is also created from severed branches and mud. The lodge has underwater entrances to make entry nearly impossible for any other animal (however, muskrats have been seen living inside beaver lodges with the beavers who made it). A very small amount of the lodge is actually used as a living area. Contrary to popular belief, beavers actually dig out their den with an underwater entrance after they finish building the dam and lodge structure. There are typically two dens within the lodge, one for drying off after exiting the water, and another, drier one where the family actually lives.", "Beavers are good house guests. Their lodges typically contain two dens, one for drying off after entering the lodge under water, and a second, dryer den where the family will live and socialise.", "Dorothy Richards studied beavers at Beaversprite Sanctuary in New York's Adirondack Mountains for fifty years. She welcomed over 100,000 visitors to her house, where two consecutive beaver families lived in an addition, called the \"Y.\"  As part of her lifework to enlighten the public about this important, but shy, species, she wrote Beaversprite, My Years Building an Animal Sanctuary with the help of Hope Sawyer Buyukmihci. Mrs. Buyukmihci, who founded Beaver Defenders and  Unexpected Wildlife Refuge in New Jersey, became a founding member of our nonprofit's Advisory Board and wrote a column for our quarterly Beaversprite (her successor Sarah Summerville carries on that column).", "Intricate as that work appears to be, beavers can make a lodge in a matter of days and they move from one to another on almost an annual basis. While a large lodge in the middle of a large pond might seem to be the acme of beaver habitation, I frequently see beavers moving to lodges on the fringes of ponds. So it is the completely stand alone lodge, which we think is the pinnacle of lodge building, that is to the beaver an inconvenient stop gap built while water is rising behind a dam. When the pond is large, they like a lodge in the shade by the shore (there are usually some trees they don't cut.) And they like a lodge close to burrows into the deep earth along the shore of the pond. Recently beavers in a pond I watch responded to rising water by reoccupying a bank lodge, as evidenced by their putting mud on it,", "Beavers are best known for their dam-building. They maintain their pond-habitat by reacting quickly to the sound of running water, and damming it up with tree branches and mud. Early ecologists believed that this dam-building was an amazing feat of architectural planning, indicative of the beaver's high intellect. This theory was tested when a recording of running water was played in a field near a beaver pond. Despite the fact that it was on dry land, the beaver covered the tape player with branches and mud. [18] The largest beaver dam is 2,790 ft (850 m) in length—more than half a mile long—and was discovered via satellite imagery in 2007. [19] It is located on the southern edge of Wood Buffalo National Park in northern Alberta and is twice the width of the Hoover Dam which spans 1,244 ft (379 m). [20]", "It takes a beaver about 20 minutes to cut down a 6 in. (15.2 cm) wide aspen, by gnawing a groove around the trunk in an hourglass shape. [61]   [62] Beavers are as sensible to the danger of a falling tree as a human lumberjack. As the tree begins to fall, the beaver will run! [63] A beaver's jaws are so powerful they can cut a half-inch sapling in one bite! [64] The beaver's pond is necessary for their food and housing. If the dam breaks, they will rush around frantically to repair it. If the they do not hurry, they could lose all of the water in their pond. This would expose the underwater lodge entrances to predators. [65] Every member of the colony will work constantly to keep the dam maintained and functioning. [66] Maintenance work on the dam and lodges is particularly heavy in autumn. [67] Once the dam has flooded enough forest area to the proper depth to form a protective moat for the lodge (often covering many acres), the beaver will begin construction on the lodge. [68]   [69]   [70]", "The lodge has underwater entrances to make entry nearly impossible for any other animal (however, muskrats have been seen living inside beaver lodges with the beavers who made it). A very small amount of the lodge is actually used as a living area. Contrary to popular belief, beavers actually dig out their den with an underwater entrance after they finish building the dam and lodge structure. There are typically two dens within the lodge, one for drying off after exiting the water, and another, drier one where the family actually lives.", "Beaver who live in Kansas rivers typically do not make a lodge or a dam.  They make their home in a bank burrow with an underwater entrance.  Sometimes these become quite obvious when the river is low.  Dams are unnecessary since the rivers remain deep and unfrozen.", "Beavers can also dig into the banks of streams and large ponds, leading to the term \"bank beavers.\" They may or may not build a lodge on top. Bank dens may also be located under stumps, logs, or docks.", "The process is started by \"planting\" foundation sticks in the mud, and then building the superstructure on that. The superstructure is built using sticks, bark (from deciduous trees), rocks, mud, grass, leaves, masses of plants, and anything else available, just like a dam. [74] [75] Once the dome is completed, the beavers will approach from below the water line and dig/chew an entry tunnel and two chambers. The entry tunnels to the lodge are built so that the only access is below the water line. [76] The floor of the first chamber is a few inches above the water level. This chamber is used as an eating area and to dry off after coming out of the water, making it kind of a combination dining room and mud room. The floor of the second chamber is above the first, and is used for sleeping and caring for kits. The floor is covered with a layer of shredded wood or vegetation. This stacked chamber design reduces the weight of the walls and helps prevent cave-ins. [77]   [78] A lodge is usually occupied by only a single-family group of up to 18 beavers. This family group would include an adult pair, that year's kits, and young from the previous year. [79]", "The habitat of the beaver is the riparian zone, inclusive of stream bed. The actions of beavers for hundreds of thousands of years in the Northern Hemisphere have kept these watery systems healthy and in good repair, although a human observing all the downed trees might think that the beavers were doing just the opposite. The beaver works as a keystone species in an ecosystem by creating wetlands that are used by many other species. Next to humans, no other extant animal appears to do more to shape its landscape. Beavers fell trees for several reasons. They fell large mature trees, usually in strategic locations, to form the basis of a dam. They fell small trees, especially young second growth trees, for food. Ponds created by beavers also kill trees by drowning.", "The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone, so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose.", "Beaver have scent glands (castor glands) at the base of the tail which produce a bitter, orange-brown secretion known as castoreum, used in the making of perfumes. Most of the oil is shipped to France or Orient for processing.  The tail is important in temperature regulation, fat storage, and as a means of communication.  Rarely, a beaver will be killed by a falling tree cut by the beaver. When alarmed, beaver will slap the water surface with their tail and then submerge. Beaver, as well as other rodents, keep their incisors worn down by grinding their teeth together; not by constantly chewing wood, as is often believed. In cutting, beaver use their upper front teeth for leverage, the actual cutting being done only by the lower ones.  The outer surfaces of the large, ever-growing incisors are covered by an orange layer of enamel, harder than the enamel of most mammal�s teeth because iron is substituted for some of the calcium.  ", "The North American beaver (Castor canadensis), also called the Canadian beaver (which is also the name of a subspecies), American beaver, or simply beaver in North America, is native to Canada, much of the United States and parts of northern Mexico. The chief feature distinguishing C. canadensis from C. fiber is the form of the nasal bones of the skull. This species was introduced to the Argentine and Chilean Tierra del Fuego, as well as Finland, France, Poland and Russia.", "usy as a beaver\", goes the old saying, and that is especially true come autumn.  Beaver modify their environment for their own purposes more than any other animal except man.   Under their direction, a small stream flowing through a wooded valley will become a pond edged with shrubby second-growth forest.  Eventually, if the beavers live there long enough, the pond will fill in with detritus and soil, becoming a fertile meadow.   All this activity is a direct consequence of the ecological niche that beavers occupy.", "Beaver dams and lodges are two easily identifiable clues of beaver activity. Another clue is to look at the trees along the shoreline to see any signs of gnawed trees. Beavers have a dramatic effect on the land. The dams they create provide new habitat for fish, plants, otters, and other underwater creatures. The new ponds also provide new water sources for moose and wolves. The land that dries up near the dams also becomes reforested because of its rich, fertile soil. Beavers are extremely important for our forests.", "Beavers love to eat the bark and leaves from the trees that they fell. Their favorite trees are aspens but they will also eat birch, alder, willow, and mountain maple. They usually prefer trees between 2-6 inches in diameter. A busy beaver can chew through a 5 inch willow tree in 3 minutes! With the leftover wood they create dams and lodges. A pair of beavers takes down about 400 trees per year.", "The beavers’ ability to change and reshape their environment to fit their needs is rare in nature. Humans and elephants are the only other animals that have such a large impact on their environment. Beavers devote much of time to building and maintaining their dams. A beaver’s desire to build a dam is very instinctive; they seem to not be able to tolerate moving water, as it must be stopped. Beavers in captivity will build useless dams just so they can build. In the wild, scientists have observed beavers making repairs and additions to human-made dams. Beavers hate the sound of running water. It makes them think there could be a leak in their dam. If they hear running water, they will often work day and night to find the leak and repair it. A Jackson Hole rancher, Chancy Wheeldon, one day built a pond all, but the spillway, which he would complete the following day. The following day he awoke to find beavers had finished his dam that leaked the perfect amount to regulate stream flow.", "Although North American beavers are superficially similar to the European beaver (Castor fiber), there are several important differences between the two species. North American beavers tend to be slightly smaller, with smaller, more rounded heads; shorter, wider muzzles; thicker, longer and darker underfur; wider, more oval-shaped tails and longer shin bones, allowing them a greater range of bipedal locomotion than the European species. North American beavers have shorter nasal bones than their European cousins, with the widest point being at the middle of the snout for the former, and in the tip for the latter. The nasal opening for the North American species is square, unlike that of the European race which is triangular. The foramen magnum is triangular in the North American beaver, and rounded in the European. The anal glands of the North American beaver are smaller and thick-walled with a small internal volume compared to that of the European species. Finally, the guard hairs of the North American beaver have a shorter hollow medulla at their tips. Fur colour is also different. Overall, 50% of North American beavers have pale brown fur, 25% are reddish brown, one fifth are brown and 6% are blackish, while in European beavers 66% have pale brown or beige fur, 20% have reddish brown, nearly 8% are brown and only 4% have blackish coats. [35]", "Did you know that beavers are one of the largest rodents in North America? North American Beavers are large brown furry rodents with small eyes, small rounded ears, large orange teeth, and a large flat, scaly tail. These active animals weigh between 44 to 60 pounds. They are about 3-4 feet long. Beavers live in ponds, lakes, rivers, marshes, and streams all across North America.", "The dams, canals and lodges beaver builds have gained them the reputation as “Nature’s Engineers”. No other animal with the exception of man so significantly alters it’s habitat to suit it’s own needs and desires. Native Americans revered the beaver and referred to them as “Little People” for this reason.", "Beaver dams are created both as a protection against predators, such as coyotes, wolves and bears , and to provide easy access to food during winter. Beavers always work at night and are prolific builders, carrying mud and stones with their fore-paws and timber between their teeth. Because of this, destroying a beaver dam without removing the beavers is difficult, especially if the dam is downstream of an active lodge. Beavers can rebuild such primary dams overnight, though they may not defend secondary dams as vigorously.", "Lastly, the koalaotter's wide, flat tail suggests a possible connection to the beaver. Well-known for its habit of building river dams, beavers are large, brown rodents that live in both North America and part of Europe. Their broad, flat tails help them swim efficiently and alert other beavers to potential danger; when startled, they slap the water in warning as they dive.", "Beaver. Canada, Labrador, Alaska, and the United States furnish this strong, short-haired brown fur that has such excellent wearing qualities in both coats and trimmings. The guard hairs are plucked from all beavers; some skins are sheared to make them less bulky. The hair of sheared beaver does not mat or curl ; the unsheared variety does, but it may be easily restored to its original appearance by electrifying. Beaver is never dyed and holds its color well, the darker furs being considered most desirable.", "With their human-like family life and highly developed engineering skills, beavers have always fascinated people.  If you look carefully along the watercourses in your area, you may find evidence of these industrious rodents, and if you are very lucky, you may spy one swimming by on one of its many daily errands.", "Another species of great interest is the beaver (Castor canadensis), which is showing a great resurgence in numbers after its near extirpation for its pelt. This resurgence is bringing about a drastic alteration in habitat through the construction of dams and other structures throughout the mountains.", "Another species of great interest is the Beaver (Castor canadensis), which is showing a great resurgence in numbers after its near extirpation for its pelt. This resurgence is bringing about a drastic alteration in habitat through the construction of dams and other structures throughout the mountains.", "Once a pond is formed beavers do not have to travel far on land to gain access to new trees. The more area their dam floods, the more food they can safely access. Sometimes beavers will even excavate canals over a hundred feet long in order to bring water closer to stands of their favorite trees. This allows them to swim up close to the trees and retreat to the water quickly if they sense danger. In addition, they use the canal to float edible branches back to the pond.", "Beavers build dams across streams by packing mud with their long, flat tails. The beaver was adopted as the State animal in 1975." ]

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[ "Plants use a special tissue called phloem to transports sap — a sticky solution that contains sugars, water, minerals, amino acids, and plant hormones. Sap moves through phloem via translocation, the transport of dissolved materials in a plant. Unlike the xylem, which can only carry water upward, phloem carries sap upward and downward, from sugar sources to sugar sinks:", "In plants, Phloem is the living tissue that carries organic nutrients, known as Photosynthate, in particular, sucrose, a sugar to all parts of the plants where needed. In trees, the phloem is the innermost layer of the bark, hence the name derived from the Greek word, ‘Phloos’ means ‘bark’. The phloem is concerned mainly with the transport of soluble organic material made during photosynthesis. This is called translocation. Phloem is a type of tissue found in plants. Phloem and xylem make up the big transportation system of the vascular plants. Both these tissues are found throughout the plants each carries different substances to and from different parts of the plant. Their function is very similar to the arteries and veins in an animal body, which transmit blood to all parts of the body.  Phloem is used to transport dissolved substances, sap around the plant, while xylem transports water. Phloem cells are long, living cells with sieve plates at either end. ", "The sugar and other organic molecules are transported through the plant by means of a special layer of tissue called phloem . Phloem is composed of living cells that transport a water solution of sugars that we commonly call sap. This movement is modeled by the pressure-flow theory , a part of which is that the sugar-containing fluid is moved through sieve tubes by fluid pressure . By this means, nutrients can be moved from the photosynthetic site (the source) to the place where the sugar is being used (the sink) whether it is up or down the stem of the plant.", "The scientific name for the inner layer of bark is Phloem.  The main job of this inner layer is to carry sap full of sugar from the leaves to the rest of the tree.", "Phleom is the tissue of plants that carry nutrients and sugars from the photosynthesis process to all parts of the vascular plant. This hibiscus bush contains phleom so that all parts of the plant get the nutrients its needs.", "During the examination of the stems of herbacious plants and the young twigs of trees it is also useful to make transverse and longitudinal sections. Beginning at the outside, in a transverse section of the stem of a dicotyledon (Figures 29, 30 and 31) you will find in concentric layers: the cuticle, the epidermis, the cortex, the vascular cylinder (stele) and in some cases the pith (medulla). The cuticle is a thin layer impregnated with wax whose function is to reduce water loss. The epidermis can be composed of one or more layers of cells. In a green stem, the cortex is formed of live parenchyma cells. In the stele, the vascular tissues are found. The xylem vessels are orientated towards the inside of the stem and transport unrefined sap (water and mineral salts), whilst the phloem vessels are located towards the outside and transport processed sap (sugars and organic substances) from the leaves to the plant tissues.", "- Phloem tubes carry sugar & other organic nutrients made by plant from the leaves to the rest of the plant. ", "In vascular plants, phloem is the living tissue that carries organic nutrients (known as photosynthate), in particular, sucrose, a sugar, to all parts of the plant where needed. In trees, the phloem is the innermost layer of the bark, hence the name, derived from the Greek word (phloios) meaning \"bark\". The phloem is concerned mainly with the transport of soluble organic material made during photosynthesis. This process of transportation is called translocation. ", "    The sugars in the sap are derived from carbohydrates that accumulated in the stem during the previous season (Kramer and Kozlowski, 1960). These are converted to starch when the weather becomes cool in the autumn. The starch in living ray cells is hydrolyzed to sucrose as the temperature warms in the spring. The sugary sap is then pushed into the xylem (Milburn, 1979).", "The stipe, like a plant’s stem, carries nutrients, although in a much simpler way - it’s primarily used to deliver sugars from photosynthesis. [8]", "The watery fluid that circulates through a plant that has vascular tissues. Sap moving up the xylem carries water and minerals, while sap moving down the phloem carries water and food.", "The phloem is the living tissue that transports organic nutrients identified as photosynthates. This photosynthate is glucose, a sugar which is transported to every single fraction of the plant where it is indispensable. In trees, the phloem is the deepest layer of the bark. The phloem is concerned for the most part with translocation which is the transport of soluble organic material made during photosynthesis. The phloem is a living, compound, permanent tissue. The interior phloem is animate whereas the external phloem is dead.", "The object is to allow the plant to be bent over whilst still maintaining plant life – a quantity of tissue directly under the phloem or bast, which is just under the bark. Beneath this is another layer of plant cells called cambium where the new growth originates to feed the plant. Food for growth travels up and down these cells. Two types of cell: one enlarging, and the other dividing, form new tree tissues; the roots absorb water containing mineral salts, which are conducted up the trunk by capillary action to the leaves. The leaves take in from the air carbon dioxide. This chemical together with water manufactures starches and sugars. Photons of light on the leaves part reflected, some transmitted, others absorbed, split water into its constituent parts. This act on the chemical chlorophyll by photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and water into sugars which gives energy… this food is drawn down the phloem – the cells beneath the bark.", "Phloem sap (pronounced) consists primarily of sugars, hormones, and mineral elements dissolved in water. It flows from where carbohydrates are produced or stored (sugar source) to where they are used (sugar sinks).", "The nutrient-rich regions that supply sugars for the rest of the plant are called the sources. Sources include the leaves, where sugar is generated through photosynthesis. When they are high in supplies, the nutrient storage areas, such as the roots and stems, can also function as sources. In the sources, sugar is moved into the phloem by active transport, in which the movement of substances across cell membranes requires energy expenditure on the part of the cell.", "Mistletoe has an odd appearance: a yellowish ball hanging high up in the tree, visible only after the host tree has lost all its leaves. Mistletoe is evergreen and sustains its greenish yellow leaves throughout the winter. Its growing habit is distinctly round; its twigs branch frequently, and its elongated, oval leaves always grow in opposite pairs. The tiny, inconspicuous yellowish flowers appear in May, but the white, pea-sized, white berries don't ripen until late in the year. Birds, in particular thrushes, are responsible for their seed distribution. The berries are distinctly sticky (hence the Latin name Viscum album - \"white sticky stuff\") and easily cling to branches and soon send out a sucker rootlet that penetrates the bark of the host tree and taps its sap for nutrients and water.", "The cambium, either cork or vascular, is the tissue directlybeneath the cortex, or outer layer, of the plant.", "The trunk of the tree provides its shape and support and holds up the crown.  The trunk transports water and nutrients from the soil and sugar from the leaves.", "In photosynthesising leaves, the sugars can be transported toward the phloem sieve tubes in the veins by", "During the plant's growth period, usually during the spring, storage organs such as the roots are sugar sources, and the plant's many growing areas are sugar sinks. The movement in phloem is multidirectional, whereas, in xylem cells, it is unidirectional (upward).", "The tissue in which nutrients move is the phloem . The phloem is arranged in long, continuous strands called vascular bundles that extend through the roots and stem and reach into the leaves as veins. Vascular bundles also contain the xylem , the tissue that carries water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the shoots. When plants increase in diameter (secondary growth) they do so by divisions of a layer of cells just under the bark; this cell layer makes new xylem to the inside (forming the wood of the tree trunk) and a thin, continuous cylinder of new phloem to the outside.", "Sapwood: The outer portion of woody (xylem) tissue, located just inside the cambium and just outside the heartwood. Sapwood forms the primary highway for transmission of water and minerals from the roots up through the vine.", "Sugar sinks are plant organs such as roots, tubers (underground stems), and bulbs (swollen leaves) that consume or store sugars.", "First, let’s explore what conifer resin even is. In my years teaching about plants and their parts, I have noticed a common tendency to mislabel resins as sap, pitch, gums, latex, and various other terms. Many people call the amber colored resin exuded on the trunks of Pine trees “sap,” but this is incorrect. In fact, sap is a fluid held that transports nutrients through the body of a tree. Sap can be cooked down to create syrups, as with Birch, Maple, and Fir, and these are considered healing medicines of their own in many regions of the world. However, the substance we refer to here is specifically resin, a viscous fluid that can become solid as it ages. It’s much more frequently found in some conifer species than others, but it’s not uncommon to see golf ball sized pieces of resin at the base of Piñon Pines here in the mountains of New Mexico. In some cases, the resin will still be liquid and very sticky, dripping in thick caramel colored streams down a branch or the body of a tree, sometimes near an obvious wound or missing pieces of bark. This resin can certainly still be collected, but is messier than the solid or semi-solid chunks.", "2. The plant tissue that transports water from the roots to the leaves is the a. phloem.", "Of course if you are familiar with maple syrup then you probably realize that this comes from concentrating the sap of the maple tree, which is obtained by drilling a small hole in the trunk of the tree and collecting the clear sap that runs out of it. Maple trees are the most common tree to collect sap from, and they typically have a sap sugar content of around 2% on average—which means there is a need to concentrate the raw sap down to syrup form, which can often be at least a 40-to-1 ratio. In other words, you need to boil 40 gallons of sap down to get 1 gallon of syrup.", "The sap contains sugar and can be used as a drink or be concentrated into a syrup by boiling off the water. The syrup is used as a sweetener on many foods. It can be harvested in late winter but is not produced in economic quantities. About 25 grams of sugar is obtained from a litre of the sap. The sap can also be used to make a wine. The flow is best on warm sunny days following a frost. The best sap production comes from cold-winter areas with continental climates. The keys of the developing seeds have a sweet exudation on them and this is often sucked by children. The leaves can be wrapped round food such as buns when baking them and they impart a sweet flavour.", "immersed, exposed by peeling back or shedding of host periderm apothecium of Propolis farinosa is saprobic on dead branch of Sorbus", "The sweet gum is a tall tree with a straight trunk, four to five feet in diameter, with slender branches covered with corky bark thrown out in wing-like ridges. At first the head is regular and pyramidal, but in old age it becomes irregularly oblong and comparatively narrow. The bark is reddish brown, deeply furrowed between rough scaly plates, marked by hard, warty excrescences.", "widely effused stroma of Diatrype stigma is saprobic on dead, decorticate or with bark rolling back branch of Sorbus", "Forty to ninety feet in height, occasionally higher. Three to five feet in diameter. Fine shape, sometimes suggests elm. Fruit or \"maple-key\" with long, stiff, more than right-angled wings ripens in early summer. Leaves whitish beneath, turn showing yellow, but little or no red, in autumn.", "Carpita, N, McCann (2000) Cell Walls. Chapter 2. In Biochemistry & Molecular Biology of Plants.  Buchanan, BB, Gruissem W, Jones, RL. eds. American Society of Plant Biology, Beltsville, MD.  This is a great article!" ]

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[ "The mesophyll is the mid-section of a leaf, located between the upper and lower epidermal layers. Not only is vasculature found in the mesophyll, but also the ground tissue of a leaf. Ground tissue comprises the bulk of a plant leaf and is generally comprised of a variety of cell types, the predominant of which are parenchyma. Often less specialized than other plant cell types, parenchyma cells are surrounded by thin, flexible primary walls and execute most of the plant�s metabolic activities. The parenchyma cells present in leaves contain chloroplasts, which are the sites of photosynthesis.", "Below the epidermis of dicot leaves are layers of cells known as the mesophyll, or \"middle leaf.\" The mesophyll of most leaves typically contains two arrangements of parenchyma cells: the palisade parenchyma and spongy parenchyma . The palisade parenchyma (also called the palisade mesophyll) aids in photosynthesis and has column-shaped, tightly-packed cells. It may be present in one, two, or three layers. Below the palisade parenchyma are loosely-arranged cells of an irregular shape. These are the cells of the spongy parenchyma (or spongy mesophyll). The air space found between the spongy parenchyma cells allows gaseous exchange between the leaf and the outside atmosphere through the stomata. In aquatic plants, the intercellular spaces in the spongy parenchyma help the leaf float. Both layers of the mesophyll contain many chloroplasts.", "Mesophyll cells occur in the middle of the leaf. They have thinner cell walls containing mostly cellulose instead of tougher substance such as lignin. Two types exist: cylindrical palisade cells that lie in layers immediately beneath the epidermis and irregularly shaped cells that lie below the palisade cells in a more loosely packed tissue called spongy parenchyma. All these cells have organelles called chloroplasts where the cell makes food for the plant.", "The observation of transverse sections of leaf is very interesting (Figures 38 and 39). The leaves are the principal organs in which the process of chlorophyll photosynthesis takes place. Beginning from the upper surface of the leaf, we encounter the cuticle, the epidermis, the palisade mesophyll, the spongy mesophyll, the lower epidermis and the lower cuticle. The cuticle is a thin layer impregnated with wax. The epidermis is formed of one or more layers of cells. It is generally transparent and lacking in chloroplasts. The palisade mesophyll is formed from one or more layers of cylindrical cells arranged side by side. These cells are rich in chloroplasts which are clearly visible under the microscope and carry out an intense photosynthetic activity. The cells of the spongy mesophyll are irregular and arranged in such a way as to leave empty spaces useful for gas circulation. These cells are also rich in chloroplasts. Usually, chloroplasts adhere to the inner surface of the cell wall (Figure 40, the darker object is the nucleus). The lower epidermis is thinner than the upper epidermis. The surfaces of the leaf and in particular the lower surface are rich in stomata (Figure 41). The stomata are small openings, bordered by guard cells which regulate the amount of gas exchanged by the leaf and limit its water loss. In the centre of the leaf the vascular vessels pass and are called veins. On the undersurface of the leaf there are sometimes chambers or stomatal crypts containing hairs.", "Most plants will have anywhere from 1000 to 100,000 plasmodesmata in between cells. These bridges are 50-60nm wide at the midpoint. There are three layers, which include the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic sleeve, and the desmotubule. Plasmalemma extends continually from around the cell to form the plasma membrane, which is similar to the phospholipid bilayer. The cytoplasmic sleeve is a fluid-filled space, enclosed by the plasmalemma and cytosol. The desmotubule is a cylindrical membrane lined channel that links the cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum.", "Leaves are made up of cells that contain the green pigment, chlorophyll. Because of this pigment, leaves are the primary location where photosynthesis takes place. Leaves also have specialized surface cells that permit carbon dioxide in (for photosynthesis) and water vapor out. The evaporation of water from leaves is their primary method of temperature regulation (evaporating water cools the leaf) and is known as transpiration. ", "An appendage growing from the stem of a plant. Leaves are extremely variable in form and function according to species. For example, the needles of pine trees, the spines of cacti, and the bright red parts of the poinsettia plant are all leaves modified for different purposes. However, most leaves are flat and green and adapted to capturing sunlight and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. They consist of an outer tissue layer (the epidermis) through which water and gases are exchanged, a spongy inner layer of cells that contain chloroplasts, and veins that supply water and minerals and carry out food. Some leaves are simple, while others are compound, consisting of multiple leaflets. The flat part of the leaf, the blade, is often attached to the stem by a leafstalk.", "A young plant cell first secrets a thins and flexible wall called the primary cell wall; as the cell grows, the cellulose fibrils are oriented at right angels to the direction of cell expansion, possibly affecting the growth pattern. Between primary walls of adjacent cell is the middle lamella, which is a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides pectins. The middle lamella flues adjacent cells together. When the cell mature and stops growing, it strengthens its wall. Some plant cells do this simply by secreting hardening substances into the primary wall, but other cells add a secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and the primary wall. Then secondary wall, often deposited in several laminated layer, has a strong and durable matrix that afford the cell protection and support.", "*An upper palisade layer of vertically elongated cells, one to two cells thick, directly beneath the adaxial epidermis, with intercellular air spaces between them. Its cells contain many more chloroplasts than the spongy layer. These long cylindrical cells are regularly arranged in one to five rows. Cylindrical cells, with the chloroplasts close to the walls of the cell, can take optimal advantage of light. The slight separation of the cells provides maximum absorption of carbon dioxide. This separation must be minimal to afford capillary action for water distribution. In order to adapt to their different environment (such as sun or shade), plants had to adapt this structure to obtain optimal result. Sun leaves have a multi-layered palisade layer, while shade leaves or older leaves closer to the soil are single-layered.", "The epidermis of all aerial organs, but not roots, is covered with a cuticle made of the polyester cutin and/or the hydrocarbon polymer cutan with a superficial layer of epicuticular waxes. The epidermal cells of the primary shoot are thought to be the only plant cells with the biochemical capacity to synthesize cutin. Several cell types may be present in the epidermis. Notable among these are the stomatal guard cells, glandular and clothing hairs or trichomes, and the root hairs of primary roots. In the shoot epidermis of most plants, only the guard cells have chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll which is needed for photosynthesis.", "There are more important things happening in leaves in late summer than the formation of corky cells. The plump green blades are full of valuable substance that the tree can ill afford to spare. In fact, a leaf is a layer of the precious cambium spread out on a framework of veins and covered [Pg 18] with a delicate, transparent skin—a sort of etherealized bark. What a vast quantity of leaf pulp is in the foliage of a large tree!", "Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant. Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei. While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodeling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.", "The internal structure is studied by cutting very thin sections and examining them under a microscope. A suitable, easily obtained dicotyledon stem for study is that of the sunflower. A section of an internode cut a short distance from the tip shows the mature primary structure. The epidermal cells are regular and have a waxy cuticle on the outside. The cortex cells are simple and of the type known as parenchyma . In the outer cortical region the cells have thicker walls for extra support and are known as collenchyma cells. The inner layer of the cortex is the starch sheath whose cells have starch deposits within them. Inside this sheath is the stele, made up of vascular tissue and pith. The conducting (vascular) tissue is arranged in vascular bundles. Each bundle has on the outside a number of sclerenchyma fibers. These are elongated cells whose walls have been impregnated with various chemicals known collectively as lignin . The fibers have no cytoplasm and are therefore not living cells. They are tough and elastic, enabling the plant to stand bending by the wind. The phloem is the tissue through which manufactured food is transported. It consists of elongated sieve-tubes with large vacuoles . The ends of the tubes are perforated (sieve-plates), allowing passage of the food solutions. Each sieve tube has a companion cell alongside it which regulates its functioning. There is usually some ordinary parenchyma tissue too.", "Finally, transverse sections of the petals themselves were put under the 'scope.  Flower petals are basically leaves that have become transformed into the colorful but relatively fragile \"glory of the plant\". Many petals of flowers show their leaf likeness by possessing a few or many vein-like creases running through their structures. Figure 19, below, is a TS of the central portion of a R. missouriensis petal. A crease or dip in the section is evident. Figures 20 and 21 at 100X reveal small pockets of red pigment along their bottom edges. Figure 22 at 400X focuses on the bottom portion of the petal crease and shows both chlorophyll cellular pockets as well as a rich scattering of red pigment cells. Figures 23 and 24 continue the focus on the bottom edge and the interior cellular structures with pigment packets very much in evidence.", "Two guard cells surround little pores that penetrate the epidermis of the leaf. Their unique structural feature is their ability to swell and shrink to regulate the size of the pores.", "The leaf is the plant's main photosynthetic organ. Each leaf emerges from the center of the pseudostem as a rolled cylinder (see cigar leaf below). The distal end of the elongating leaf sheath contracts into a petiole, that is more or less open depending on the cultivar. The petiole becomes the midrib, which divides the blade into two lamina halves. The upper surface of the leaf is called adaxial while the lower one is called abaxial.", "Plasmodesmata are microscopic channels that traverse the cell walls of plant cells enabling the transport and communication between the cells. Plasmodesmata enable direct, regulated intercellular transport of substances between the cells. There are two forms of plasmodesmata, primary ones that form during cell division and secondary ones that form between mature cells. They are formed when a portion of the endoplasmic reticulum is trapped across the middle lamella as a new cell wall is laid down between two newly divided plant cells and this eventually becomes the cytoplasmic connection between the two cells. It is here that the cell wall is thickened no further and depressions or thin areas known as pits are formed in the walls. Pits usually pair up between adjacent cells.", "While leaves do come in a variety of forms depending on the type of plant, we will focus on the structures of dicot plant leaves, as these are the most complex. Before we get into the layers and functions of the dicot leaf, let's first take a look at a diagram. We will work our way from the top of the leaf down to the bottom of the leaf and look back at this diagram as we cover each layer.", "In higher forms the conducting strands of the leaves are continued downwards into the stem, and eventually come into connection with the central hydrom cylinder, forming a complete cylindrical investment apparently distinct from the latter, and exhibiting a differentiation into hydrom, leptom and amylom which almost completely parallels that found among the true vascular plants.", "Now that we have looked at the first two layers of the leaf, let's add these structures on our diagram. The top waxy layer here is the cuticle and the layer right below that is the upper epidermis.", "In plant cell, chloroplasts, central vacuole, cell wall, and plasmodesmata are present but not in animal cells. Chromatin in the plant cell is a primary protein", "I looked first at transverse slices of R. missouriensis stems that had dried-on-the-stalk. (Here in Missouri we are in a summer-long drought.) Figures 3 and 4, below, reveal a multi-sided, deep faceted dry stem with its central phloem core more than half gone and the small vascular bundles surrounding the stem are closed. Figures 5 and 6 of a healthy stem, on the other hand, show that both the fluid bearing central phloem cells and the vascular bundles are intact and functioning. The greenish areas along the stem boundary, fig. 6, contain many chloroplasts in which chlorophyll is present. Two closer views of the chlorophyll cell regions are seen in figures 7 and 8, both being composites of more than one photo. Probably the needles seen in the cells in figure 9  are calcium oxalate (a metabolic by-product) along with tiny bundles of chlorophyll-containing cells.", "* Cell division by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cytokinesis is characteristic of land plants and a few groups of algae, notably the CharophytesLewis, LA, McCourt, RM (2004) Green algae and the origin of land plants. American Journal of Botany 91, 1535–1556 and the Order TrentepohlialesLópez-Bautista, JM, Waters, DA and Chapman, RL (2003) Phragmoplastin, green algae and the evolution of cytokinesis. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 53, 1715–1718", "Exploring photosynthesis in a leaf - Chloroplasts, Grana, Stroma, Thylakoids, and other parts of a leaf.", "19) A student examining leaf cross sections under a microscope finds many loosely packed cells with relatively thin cell walls. The cells have numerous chloroplasts. What type of cells are they?", "a division of a leaf or calyx , cut to about halfway between the midrib and margin", "B) The way in which a plant cell differentiates is determined by the cell's position in the developing plant body.", "Pelaz S, Tapia‐Lopez R, Alvarez‐Buylla ER and Yanofsky MF (2001b) Conversion of leaves into petals in Arabidopsis. Current Biology 11: 182–184.", "STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS Identify the structures labeled aâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;f in the drawing of the internal structure of a leaf shown below.", "1. a membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base, 2. common to many grasses", "Leaves are slightly wrinkled, pointed at the tip and tapered at the base (Photo: P Sterry/NPL)", "A compound leaf in which the leaflets arise along a central axis, rather than from a common point." ]

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[ "The kookaburra is the largest member of the kingfisher family. One of its most distinct features is its famous laugh heard at dawn and dusk when it is marking out its territory. Because of its laughter one would think that these birds represented peace and happiness. Although its laugh is contagious don't be fooled by this daring and territorial bird.", "Laughing kookaburras are the largest member of the kingfisher family. Members of the kingfisher family are found all over the world and are some of the only bird species known to be able to hover.", "The Kookaburra of Australia is the largest member of the Kingfisher Family. Unlike other members of the Kingfisher Family, Kookaburra lives in woodlands instead of near wetlands. Perched on a tree branch to spot prey, Kookaburra will swoop down and seize a tasty Insect in his long, dagger-like bill. Instead of Fish, Kookaburra eats Insects, Worms, and Reptiles.", "The Kookaburra is the world's largest kingfisher but, unlike other kingfishers, it spends most of its time hunting non-aquatic prey. It is a stocky carnivorous bird measuring about 45 cm in length and weighing about 0.5 kg. It is also referred to as a Laughing Kookaburra because its very loud bird call sounds like human laughter.", "Stretching 43 cm (17 inches) long and weighing 465 grams (16 ounces), the largest of all kingfishers is the kookaburra, known throughout Australia for its laughing call. The kookaburra’s white head has a brown eye stripe, the back and wings are dark brown, and the underparts are white. Often found in urban and suburban areas, it can become quite tame and may be fed by hand. A member of the...", "Bird. At twilight, kookaburras make loud, long calls that sound like laughter to let all know the boundaries of their territory. The largest of the kingfishers, kookaburras mate for life, living in pairs or small family groups. Chicks are born blind and naked, taking a month for their feathers to fill in. Older siblings often help their parents with the next clutch of eggs. The birds grow up to 47 cm (18.5 in) long and weigh about .5 kg (1 lb). Their bills are as long as 10 cm (4 in). Getting all their moisture from their food, they never need to drink water. They nest in hollow trees or termite mounds. Scientific Name Lifespan Dacelo gigas About 20 years Diet Carnivore. Snakes, lizards, mice, the young of other birds, as well as insects and small reptiles. Predators and Threats Cats, dogs, foxes, and larger predatory birds such as eagles and owls. Habitat Forests, open woodlands, or on the edges of plains in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea.", "The laughing kookaburra is the world's largest kingfisher. It measures up to 46 cm from the tip of its beak to the tip of its tail. When compared to the little kingfisher, which is only 12 cm long, it is truly a giant. Its plumage is shades of whites and browns, which help it to blend easily into its environment. This makes it more difficult for prey or predators to see the bird.", "**The largest kingfisher overall is the giant kingfisher (Megaceryle maxima), at up to 48 cm long and 425 g, with a large crest and finely spotted white on black upperparts. However, the common Australian species, the laughing kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae), may be heavier still, since individuals exceeding 450 g are not uncommon. A kookaburra wingspan can range up to . ", "The truly aquatic kingfishers are represented in Southern and East Africa by the tiny Malachite Kingfisher, the similar but larger Half-collared Kingfisher, the impressive Giant Kingfisher and the gregarious Pied Kingfisher. These four species feed exclusively on fish or other aquatic creatures (the Giant is particularly fond of river crabs, and the Malachite takes a high number of tadpoles and dragonfly larvae) and are never seen far from water.All breed in a burrow excavated into the banks of a river, and the first three mentioned are strongly territorial. The Pied Kingfisher occurs in family groups, with the previous season's offspring often helping to raise their parents' next brood, and a dozen or more may gather to roost in papyrus beds at night. Accomplished at hovering, the Pied Kingfisher is able to hunt for fish far from the riverbank, even way out on an open lake or beyond the breakers along the coast. Reaching some 30cm in length, the Giant Kingfisher is the world's largest member of the family, with only the Laughing Kookaburra (a non-aquatic kingfisher of Australia) coming close.", "Melanesian Scrubfowl, Nicobar Pigeon, Pied Coucal, Song Parrot, Beach Kingfisher, Island Monarch, Ashy Honeyeater, Red-knobbed Fruit-dove, Red-knobbed Imperial-pigeon, Finsch's Imperial-pigeon, Island Imperial-pigeon, Blue-eyed Cockatoo, Eastern Black-capped Lory, Buff-faced Pygmy-parrot, Violaceous Coucal, New Britain Boobook, Bismarck Kingfisher, Black-headed Paradise-kingfisher, White-mantled Kingfisher, Bismarck Pied Monarch, Lesser Shinning Flycatcher, New Britain Friarbird, New Britain Red-headed Honeyeater, Scarlet-bibbed Honeyeater, Bismarck Flowerpecker, Buff-bellied Mannikin, Melanesian Myna & White-backed Wood-swallow", "Of the 2 species of kookaburra found in Australia, the laughing kookaburra is the best-known and the largest of the native kingfishers. With its distinctive riotous call, the laughing kookaburra is commonly heard in open woodlands and forests throughout NSW national parks, making these ideal spots for bird watching.", "Kingfishers are all classified into the family Halcyonidae. The Halcyon kingfishers, or tree kingfishers, tend to be large birds with heavy bills. They are found in a variety of habitats, although woodlands are preferred by most species. (If you enjoyed that story about Alcyone, then you might be interested to know that the river kingfishers are placed into the genus Ceyx.)", "The centre of kingfisher diversity is the Australasian region, but the group is not thought to have originated there. Instead, they evolved in the Northern Hemisphere and invaded the Australasian region a number of times. Fossil kingfishers have been described from Lower Eocene rocks in Wyoming and Middle Eocene rocks in Germany, around 30–40 million years ago. More recent fossil kingfishers have been described in the Miocene rocks of Australia (5–25 million years old). Several fossil birds have been erroneously ascribed to the kingfishers, including Halcyornis, from the Lower Eocene rocks in Kent, which has also been considered a gull, but is now thought to have been a member of an extinct family.", "Tweet of the Day is the voice of birds and our relationship with them, from around the world. Sir David Attenborough presents Australia's laughing kookaburra. At 45cm the laughing kookaburra is one of the world's largest kingfishers. Native to south and eastern Australia, they have now been introduced to Western Australia and parts of New Zealand. Although they do catch fish, they hunt mainly on land where they eat reptiles, small mammals and invertebrates. The cacophony of loud hooting laughs from which they get their Aboriginal name, is often produced by several birds in chorus. The cackling call is one of the few exotic bird sounds that is recognised around the world: a captive kookaburra named Jacko became a radio celebrity in Australia through his ability to break into that laughing call on demand. By the time of his death in 1939 he was one of the best known birds in the world.", "There are 10 kingfisher species in Australia. They are the azure, forest, collared, red-backed, sacred, little, yellow-billed, and buff-breasted paradise kingfishers, and the blue-winged and laughing kookaburras.", "      The giant fulmar, also known as the giant petrel (Macronectes giganteus), with a length of about 90 cm (3 feet) and a wingspread in excess of 200 cm (6.5 feet), is by far the largest member of the family. This species nests on islands around the Antarctic Circle and in sub-Antarctic waters. It feeds on live and dead animal matter of all kinds and is a heavy predator on the young of many colonial seabirds. Sailors call it “Nelly” and, because of its especially rank odour, “stinker.”", "kookaburra (species Dacelo novaeguineae), eastern Australian bird of the kingfisher family (Alcedinidae), whose call sounds like fiendish laughter. This gray-brown, woodland-dwelling bird reaches a length of 43 cm (17 inches), with an 8- to 10-cm (3.2- to 4-inch)...", "Unlike other kingfishers, kookaburras are territorial year-round and also sedentary (don't migrate) (Schodde & Tideman 1997)", "Rufous-bellied Giant Kingfisher - This kookaburra is unusual in that it occupies dense rainforests and does not live in family groups but in pairs. It is a white-billed bird with a black cap, blue-tinged wings, and a pale rufous belly and tail feathers.", "Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails. There are about 93 species worldwide, two in Britain.", "**The familiar domesticated species, the Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora), is (in the wild) the largest estrild, at up to and 17 cm. **The largest honeyeater, perhaps the most diverse Australasian bird family, is the crow honeyeater(Gymnomyza aubryana), at up to 290 g and 30 cm. The largest of the \"true finches\" is the collared grosbeak (Mycerobas affinis) of central and south Asia at up to 23 cm and 80 g. ", "Woodall, P.F. 2001. Family Alcedinidae (Kingfishers), pp. 130-249 in del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., & Sargatal, J., eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 6. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.", "New Holland Cassowary (now called emu - Dromaius novaehollandiae) by Sarah Stone, watercolour, c. 1790. Image courtesy of the State Library of New South Wales.", "The richest collection of kingfishers in the world, lives on the island of New Guinea.  26 species are found in Papua New Guinea along, while afurther 3, which do not extend across the border live in West Irian.", "Kusa Kap—A gigantic hornbill bird inhabiting one of the many tiny islands in the Torres Strait, which separates New Guinea from the northern tip of Queensland, Australia. With a 22-foot wingspan, this avian prodigy is said to carry dugongs aloft in its mighty claws, much as the fabled Roc is said to carry off elephants. The sound of its wings in flight is said to resemble the roar of a steam engine—a characteristic feature of the Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros), which attains a length of four feet and a wingspan of five feet.10", "The Emu is the second largest surviving species of bird. It is a heraldic bird, appearing on the Coat of Arms of Australia.", "Elephant birds were a family of large to enormous, flightless birds that once lived on the island of Madagascar, which lies about 320 km (200 mi) off the southeast coast of Africa. They became extinct, probably in the 17th or 18th century, for reasons that are unclear, although human activity is the suspected cause. Elephant birds comprised the genera Mullerornis and Aepyornis. Aepyornis was among the heaviest of birds. (The extinct Dromornis stirtoni of Australia reached a similar weight). The giant moa (Dinornis) is an extinct genus of ratite birds belonging to the moa family. Like all ratites it was a member of the order Struthioniformes. The Struthioniformes are flightless birds with a sternum without a keel. They also have a distinctive palate. It was endemic to New Zealand. Two species of Dinornis are considered valid, D. novaezealandiae of the North Island, and D. robustus of the South.", "The cassowaries () are ratites (flightless birds without a keel on their sternum bone) in the genus Casuarius and are native to the tropical forests of New Guinea (Papua New Guinea and Indonesia), nearby islands, and northeastern Australia. ", "The kea (;; Nestor notabilis) is a large species of parrot of the superfamily Strigopoidea found in forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand. About 48 cm long, it is mostly olive-green with a brilliant orange under its wings and has a large, narrow, curved, grey-brown upper beak. The kea is the world's only alpine parrot. Its omnivorous diet includes carrion, but consists mainly of roots, leaves, berries, nectar, and insects. Now uncommon, the kea was once killed for bounty due to concerns by the sheep-farming community that it attacked livestock, especially sheep. It received full protection in 1986. ", "Another Australian, but not confined to that region only. It has its roots in India as well. Also known as Tailor bird for its ability to sew leaves together to make a nest. They’re about 10cm in length from beak to tail, and weighs around 10g. Source", "any of several large, carnivorous birds of the genus Cracticus, of Australia and New Guinea, having shrikelike habits.", "The Vogelkop Bowerbird, also known as the Vogelkop Gardener Bowerbird, is a medium-sized, bowerbird of the mountains of the Vogelkop Peninsula at Western New Guinea, Indonesia." ]

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[ "«Plankton» are marine and freshwater organisms with limited swimming capabilities and which therefore drift with the prevailing currents . Generally microscopic but can also include large organisms such as jellyfish. Divided into «phytoplankton» (plankton which are plant organisms, mainlyunicellular diatoms and other microscopic algae , which form the base of the food chain in marine systems) and «zooplankton» (animal plankton, i.e. copepods, egg and larval stages of most fish and invertebrate species).", "At the basis of all marine food chain is formed by small plants (algae), when floating freely in the water collumn they are called  phytoplankton and when attached to the sea floor or rocks they are called the phytobenthos. With ocean colour remote sensing we  mainly study the floating plants: the phytoplankton.", "All sea creatures, from the largest to the microscopic organisms are, at one point or another, swallowing the seawater soup instilled with toxic chemicals from plastic decomposition. Much of ocean’s life is in the microscopic size range and zooplankton is the base of the food chain. As environmentalists remind the world’s population, “…We are eating fish that have eaten other fish, which have eaten toxin-saturated plastics. In essence, humans are eating their own waste…” (Dixit Renee Brown, WiredPress).”", "There are many other organisms, such as snails, shrimp, crabs, fish, and octopi which form a food chain of predator and prey relationships. These marine organisms do not specifically use the bacteria, but through the food chain, may benefit from the bacteria and its energy yielding capability through chemosynthesis (Goffredi et. al.).", "Marine food web with the classical food chain of phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, and whales. Note that humpback whales are  baleen whales, which strain plankton through their baleen (number 6). Seals and birds breathe air as do whales. The microbial loop [dissolved organic matter (DOM), bacteria, and protozoa] is the most recently discovered part of the marine food web. (Photographs are courtesy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Department of Commerce and the Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences.)", "Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, the majority of primary production in the ocean is performed by free-living microscopic organisms called phytoplankton. Larger autotrophs, such as the seagrasses and macroalgae (seaweeds) are generally confined to the littoral zone and adjacent shallow waters, where they can attach to the underlying substrate but still be within the photic zone. There are exceptions, such as Sargassum, but the vast majority of free-floating production takes place within microscopic organisms.", "The greatest amount of biological diversity in the abyssal zone is found near hydrothermal vents. Since there is no sunlight, chemosynthetic (chemoautotrophic) bacteria convert compounds such as hydrogen sulfide into organic matter. These microorganisms are the primary producers and basis of the food chain. They are fed upon by small crustaceans, which in turn are eaten by a variety of predators including crabs, shrimp, snails and bivalves.", "The microbe is a single celled organism that is the basis of all life in the ocean and on land. They are also known as bacteria and archaea. Manly found in the deepest parts of the ocean like underwater volcanoes and vents, microbes can be eaten by other animals or be inside creatures so they can produce their own food. There are countless trillions of microbes in the ocThis is vital in the ocean becuase without microbes, the smallest animals like shrimp would die from lack of food. This chain travels on throughout the entire food chain. This shows that with one gap in food supply, even by an organism too small for the eye to see, an entire ecosystem could dismantle and die off. ", "Plankton are microscopic plants and animals whose movements are largely dependent upon currents. Plankton are the foundation of the aquatic food web. Plankton are vital in the food supplies of fish, aquatic birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals.", "In the estuaries and oceans the natural food chain consists of primary producers, mostly algae, zooplankton, small fish and large fish. Algae are consumed by the zooplankton, which in turn are consumed by the small fish, which themselves are eaten by larger fish. In addition there are filter-feeding animals such as mussels, clams and oysters that may consume the algae directly, and many animals that eat the shellfish. Bacteria and protozoa also play an important role in the functioning of a healthy aquatic food chain.", "Organisms at the base of the food chain that photosynthesize – for example, plants and algae – use the carbon in Earth’s atmosphere. They have the same ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 as the atmosphere, and this same ratio is then carried up the food chain all the way to apex predators, like sharks.", "Blue-green algae, like true algae, make up a portion of the phytoplankton in many water bodies. However, blue-green algae are generally not eaten by other aquatic organisms, and thus are not an important part of the food chain. True algae (e.g., green algae) are very important to the food chain. They are known as \"primary producers\", a name given to living organisms that can convert sunlight and inorganic chemicals into usable energy for other living organisms. Most algae are microscopic and serve as the main supply of \"high energy\" food for larger organisms like zooplankton, which in turn are eaten by small fish. Small fish are then eaten by larger fish, and both small and large fish are eaten by mammals, raptors, and people. Green algae, shown here [PDF] , can also bloom at nuisance levels and may be mistaken for blue-green algae.", "The ocean is such a massive expanse that it might seem that there is not much order or system underwater. Surprisingly though, it’s completely the opposite! Even though there are so many different types of fish, mammals, plants and smaller creatures that make their home within the ocean, they all depend on each other very heavily. There are several levels of the oceanic food chain. At the very bottom are many tiny creatures known as phytoplankton and zooplankton; some of them are small enough to be made up of only one cell! However, these tiny organisms are not to be taken lightly. They serve an extremely important role in the food chain since they make up the bottom level, which is also the largest amount of biomass. In this way, these tiny creatures essentially support all of the life forms that are above them on the food chain. If they were to be killed, diseased or endangered, it would mean that the fish that normally feed on them would have less food and die off. Think of it as a domino effect. Each level would be affected in turn and eventually it would even reach humans and land animals that depend on the ocean for food. Without a healthy ecosystem in the ocean, we would not have fish, crabs, squid, lobster or other such foods that make up a very healthy part of our diet.", "In many terrestrial ecosystems, plants constitute the important primary-producer base of the food web, translating energy from the sun into food usable by other organisms. In the radically different environment of the ocean, tiny photosynthetic organisms like phytoplankton and algae fill this niche. While many marine creatures are carnivores, some specialize in feasting on underwater plants.", "very common resource in their habitats. While taking in algae, the nymphs take in other microscopic organisms as well. These microorganisms can be found other places in the water, which sometimes leads the larvae into eating the remains of aquatic animals such as fish and turtles. To physically consume the food, the nymphs must move their gills to suck in water, containing particles of algae and other microscopic products. Some nymphs even use their temporary mouth parts to scrape algae off of different aquatic settings and to take nutrition from the decaying animals.", "Microscopic aquatic animals similar to the rotifers, but with a more flattened body; they are planktonic organisms living among algae and debris.", "While most of the approximately 5,000–10,000 known species feed on bacteria and other food particles in the water, some host photosynthesizing micro-organisms as endosymbionts and these alliances often produce more food and oxygen than they consume. A few species of sponge that live in food-poor environments have become carnivores that prey mainly on small crustaceans.", "Zooplankton — animal planktonic forms — drift through the water grazing on the phytoplankton. These \"grazers\" include copepods and larval stages of fish and benthic, or bottom-dwelling, animals that make up the second trophic level. Copepods and other plankton, both animal and plant, nourish filter-feeding organisms that strain their food directly from the water such as bivalves, tube worms, and sponges. This third trophic level also includes other organisms which feed on plankton such as amphipods, larval forms of fish and crustaceans, jellies, and many types of small fish.", "The food chain describes who eats whom in the wild. Every living thing—from one-celled algae to giant blue whale s—needs food to survive . Each food chain is a possible pathway that energy and nutrient s can follow through the ecosystem .", "Aquatic cyanobacteria are known for their extensive and highly visible blooms that can form in both freshwater and marine environments. The blooms can have the appearance of blue-green paint or scum. These blooms can be toxic, and frequently lead to the closure of recreational waters when spotted. Marine bacteriophages are significant parasites of unicellular marine cyanobacteria. ", "Plankton (singular plankter) are a diverse group of organisms that live in the water column of large bodies of water and that cannot swim against a current. They provide a crucial source of food to many large aquatic organisms, such as fish and whales.", "Seven specimens were collected with rotenone, nearly all others by spear. All seasons are represented. Depths of collection were 30 to 80 feet. Even in fish with empty stomachs, the intestines were nearly always packed with algae (fleshy and coralline reds, as well as green and brown types). Flattened and filamentous reds predominated in occurrence and volume; next in frequency were flattened and filamentous greens. Although Macrocystis and coralline algae appeared in approximately equal frequencies, individuals containing Macrocystis usually had their digestive tracts packed with that kelp. Brown algae other than Macrocystis were least frequent. Some eelgrass (Phyllospadix) was also noted. Limbaugh (l.c.) noted ribbon kelp, giant kelp, sea lettuce, Gelidium, coralline algae, bryozoans, and sinistral worms.", "Distribution of microscopic plants and animals in our oceans mimics the distribution pattern of larger land-based plants and animals, research reveals.", "Marine algae often live alongside seagrasses , which have flattened leaves that allow easy attachment for the algae. These two types of plants combine to create diverse ecosystems. Marine animals use these mats of algae and seagrass to rest, spawn, feed, and hide from predators. Examples of such animals are pipefish and snapper, shrimps and crabs, and tiny snails and clams.", "Marine protozoans that capture food with threadlike extensions of protoplasm that radiate from skeletons of opal.", "Zooplankton: In geographic terms, a zooplankton refers to the aggregate of animals or animal-like organisms, as protozoans.", "Minute animals in water, chiefly rotifers and crustaceans, that depend upon water movement to carry them about, important prey for young fish.", "Minute animals in water chiefly rotifers and crustaceans that depend upon water movement important prey for young fish", "Although protozoans are no longer recognized as a formal group in current biological classification systems, protozoan can still be useful as a strictly descriptive term. The protozoans are unified by their heterotrophic mode of nutrition, meaning that these organisms acquire carbon in reduced form from their surrounding environment . However, this is not a unique feature of protozoans. Furthermore, this description is not as straightforward as it seems. For instance, many protists are mixotrophs, capable of both heterotrophy (secondary energy derivation through the consumption of other organisms) and autotrophy (primary energy derivation, such as through the capture of sunlight or metabolism of chemicals in the environment). Examples of protozoan mixotrophs include many chrysophytes. Some protozoans, such as Paramecium bursaria, have developed symbiotic relationships with eukaryotic algae , while the amoeba Paulinella chromatophora remarkably appears to have acquired autotrophy via relatively recent endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium (a blue-green alga ). Hence, many protozoans either perform photosynthesis themselves or benefit from the photosynthetic capabilities of other organisms. Some algal species of protozoans, however, have lost the ability to photosynthesize (e.g., Polytomella species and many dinoflagellates ), further complicating the concept of “protozoan.”", "Much of their diet consists of aquatic plants, so they spend a lot of time near water.", "Their bodies are porous. They are filter feeders; water flows in through many small openings (ostia), and out through fewer, large openings (osculum). They have inner and outer cell layers, and a variable middle layer. The middle layer often is gelatinous with spiny skeletal elements (called spicules) of silica or calcium carbonate, and fibres made of spongin (a form of collagen). Choanocytes are flagellated cells lining the inside of the body that generate a current, and trap and phagocytize food particles.", "The Lake Michigan food web is in a constant state of flux due to invasive species, pollution and changing climate. Providing the most current information on the science of Great Lakes food webs and ecosystems is necessary for creating informed policy makers and citizens. This project, in partnership with the Wisconsin Maritime Museum, has developed an outreach and education program aimed at angler and conservation groups and students. It outlines food web ecology, the structure of Lake Michigan’s food web and how it has been changed by invasive species." ]

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[ "Recently, a team of Ohio University has found something odd about flamingos: they use erectile tissue while feeding. These birds feed in a very peculiar way. They search for food only on shallow water. Flamingos introduce their beak into water, tilted upside down, and move their heads from side-to-side. Their tongues function like pumps, sucking water into the front of the bill and then squeezing it out through the sides, in a rhythm of 20 times per minute.", "The odd-looking flamingo, which appears to be all legs and all neck, has a boat-shaped beak which gives it the most unusual habit of eating with its head upside down. The flamingo lives near muddy lakes and lagoons, and gets its food from the waters there.", "What Bird Eats with Its Head Upside Down? : The flamingo is a beautiful pink bird that lives in large flocks. When a flamingo The carotene from the shrimp in its diet turns its feathers pink. The flamingo eats by putting its head upsidedown into the water looking backwards. It takes", "Which bird can eat with its head upside down : Can you answer these Birds questions? A flamingo is a bird that turns it's head upside down to eat food :) I really hope. Why do flamingos eat with their heads", "Flamingo ReadandAnswer Quiz : Flamingos eat with their heads upside down to enable them to use their tongue as a sieve to catch food. What is the name of the bird that eats upside down?", "Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually 3 to tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down.", "Finches love thistle seeds. But only goldfinches can eat upside-down. Goldfinch feeders have openings underneath perches so other birds can't elbow their way into that particular chow line.", "Surface feeding itself can be broken up into two different approaches, surface feeding while flying (for example as practiced by gadfly petrels , frigatebirds and storm petrels ), and surface feeding whilst swimming (examples of which are practiced by fulmars , gulls , many of the shearwaters and gadfly petrels). Surface feeders in flight include some of the most acrobatic of seabirds, which either snatch morsels from the water (as do frigate-birds and some terns), or \"walk\", pattering and hovering on the water's surface, as some of the storm-petrels do. [13] Many of these do not ever land in the water, and some, such as the frigatebirds, have difficulty getting airborne again should they do so. [14] Another seabird family that does not land while feeding is the skimmer , which has a unique fishing method: flying along the surface with the lower mandible in the water—this shuts automatically when the bill touches something in the water. The skimmer's bill reflects its unusual lifestyle, with the lower mandible uniquely being longer than the upper one.", "There are two species of wild pigeons in our garden: the small, forward and dull Collared Dove and the big and very shy Woodpigeon. Both species are very fond of our pond. Pigeons are remarkable birds indeed because they can actually drink water. In order to get some water most other birds just put their beak into the water and then throw their heads backwards. Pigeons don't do this, they just drink, which you can tell by the movements in their throats. Both species have a terrible monotonous song. The Woodpigeon is popular among meat eaters: weasels, goshawks and even humans appreciate them culinarily.", "It feeds by hovering from plant to plant, often upside down. The stout, pointed bill of this species allows the bird to crack open the shells and to extract the seed. Its preferred food is the Thistle’s seed, giving its French name to this bird.", "Among these different types, the birds can be grouped again into puddle, aka \"dabbling\" and diving ducks. The dabblers mostly feed in smaller bodies of shallow water or along shorelines, where they are able to tip their bodies forward to reach their food on the bottom. There are divers who feed in deeper water where they dive and pursue their quarry. Some of these birds, the Harlequin Duck for example, actually dives to the bottom of fast-flowing waters and feeds on life forms attached to rocks.", "“Dabblers” are ducks that tip up in order to feed, rooting through shallow water and mud in search of plants and insects. These ducks will also nibble along the water's surface, and they feed readily on land as well, but they very rarely dive below the water. The most common dabbling duck species is the mallard, but the northern pintail, American wigeon and different teals are also dabblers. More »", "The brown pelican is the only pelican species that hunts by diving into the water from a height. When it is diving, it tilts its head to the left to protect its esophagus and trachea from the impact. When it spots a fish, it swoops down and scoops it up into its beak. Water also gets scooped along with the fish, which the pelican later drains out of its pouch. The pelican's pouch can hold up to 3 gallons of water, which is three times the capacity of its belly! Once the water is drained, the bird tilts its head back and swallows the fish whole. At times, seagulls steal the fish from the pelican's mouth. They sit on their heads on many instances, waiting to get a hold of the fish!", "Their blood has a high haemoglobin concentration, allowing a greater capacity to store oxygen than terrestrial birds, and allowing them to remain underwater for up to at least thirty seconds,Tyler, Stephanie J.; & Ormerod, Stephen J. (1994). The Dippers. Poyser: London. ISBN 0-85661-093-3 whilst their basal metabolic rate is approximately one-third slower than typical terrestrial passerines of similar mass. One small population wintering at a hot spring in Suntar-Khayata Mountains of Siberia feeds underwater when air temperatures drop below . ", "Tweet of the Day is the voice of birds and our relationship with them, from around the world. Sir David Attenborough presents the South American hoatzin. Moving clumsily through riverside trees the funky Mohican head crested hoatzin looks like it has been assembled by a committee. Hoatzin's eat large quantities of leaves and fruit, and to cope with this diet have a highly specialised digestive system more like that of cattle, which gives them an alternative name, 'stink-bird'.", "The shape of a spoonbill's beak shouldn’t come as any surprise. They wade through shallow water, stirring up mud and debris, swinging the partly open beak from side to side through the water. When the long, flat, spatulate bill touches prey it snaps shut, before the prey is pulled from the water and swallowed.", "Hammerkops are wading birds with partially webbed feet. They usually feed alone or in pairs during the morning in shallow water sources and roost in trees at midday.", "  eats fish, but will sometimes also eat amphibians and crustaceans. Smaller fish may be eaten while the bird is still beneath the", ") is seen in marshes, wet pastures and on ponds, often walking on top of lily pads or other floating vegetation, its incredibly long toes spreading its weight and preventing it from sinking into the water. It feeds on insects, snails, frogs, fish and some vegetable matter. The adult has a black head, neck and chest with bright brown wings, belly and back and a yellow beak and forehead; the yellow under its wings is very noticeable as it flies off. More colourful is the", "These birds feed on eels, small fish, and octopuses, which they catch close to shore. They dive from the surface with a jackknife-like movement and use their large, powerful webbed feet to pursue prey.", "The type of diet a bird eats in the wild is directly related to the shape of a bird’s beak.[1]", "At night they congregate on shore and during the day they feed in the water. They have black plumage on the back and white feathers with black markings on the chest and belly. The plumage serves as camouflage to predators, with the white appearing to aquatic predators from below and the black appearing to aerial predators from above. They also have a horseshoe-shaped white band that goes around the eye from the chin towards the beak. They feed primarily on shoaling pelagic fish and can reach speeds of up to twelve miles per hour in order to catch their prey.", "The bee-eaters are almost exclusively aerial hunters of insect prey. Prey is caught either while in continuous flight or more commonly from an exposed perch where the bee-eater watches for prey. Smaller, rounder-winged bee-eaters typically hunt from branches and twigs closer to the ground, whereas the larger species hunt from tree tops or telegraph wires. One unusual technique often used by carmine bee-eaters is to ride the back of bustards. Prey can be spotted from a distance; European Bee-eaters are able to spot a bee 60 m away, and Blue-cheeked Bee-eaters have been observed flying out 100 m to catch large wasps. Prey is approached directly or from behind. Prey that lands on the ground or on plants is usually not pursued. Small prey may be eaten on the wing, but larger prey are returned to the perch to be beaten against the perch to kill them and break them up. Insects with poisonous stings are first smacked on the branch, then, with the eyes closed, rubbed to discharge the venom. This behaviour is innate, as demonstrated by a juvenile bird in captivity, which performed the task when first presented with wild bees. This bird was stung on the first five tries, but by ten bees, it was as adept at handling bees as adult birds.", "These birds feed mainly by diving or dabbling. They eat aquatic plants with some molluscs, aquatic insects and small fish. They often feed at night, and will up-end for food as well as the more characteristic diving.", "    solitary feeder. Individuals usually forage while standing in water but will also feed in fields or drop from the air, or a perch, into water.", "They forage by walking slowly in shallow water or dry grassland, and looking out for food. When the prey is located by sight, the neck is stretched before to jab and grasp the prey with the bill.", "Adults have blue-grey wings and back and a white head with a black cap and a long black plume. The face is white, with a black streak extending from behind the eye to the back of the head. They have a long neck, streaked with white, rust-brown, and black, which is generally held in a s-curve while wading, and a short tail. The beak is yellow, long, and and tapers to a point. Legs are long, and greenish-yellow in color.", "The male of the nominate subspecies, which is found throughout most of Europe, is all black except for a yellow eye-ring and bill and has a rich melodious song; the adult female and juvenile have mainly dark brown plumage. This species breeds in woods and gardens, building a neat, mud-lined, cup-shaped nest. It is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms, berries, and fruits.", "The male of the nominate subspecies, which is found throughout most of Europe, is all black except for a yellow eye-ring and bill and has a rich, melodious song; the adult female and juvenile have mainly dark brown plumage. This species breeds in woods and gardens, building a neat, mud-lined, cup-shaped nest. It is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms, berries, and fruits.", "The male of the nominate subspecies , which is found throughout most of Europe, is all black except for a yellow eye-ring and bill and has a rich melodious song ; the adult female and juvenile have mainly dark brown plumage . This species breeds in woods and gardens, building a neat, mud-lined, cup-shaped nest. It is omnivorous , eating a wide range of insects , earthworms , berries , and fruits .", "The male of the nominate subspecies, which is found throughout most of Europe, is all black except for a yellow eye-ring and bill and has a wide range of vocalisations; the adult female and juvenile have mainly brown plumage. This species breeds in woods and gardens, building a neat, mud-lined, cup-shaped nest. It is omnivorous, eating a wide range of insects, earthworms, berries, and fruits.", "They hunt their prey by staying still on a branch or perch waiting for the prey to pass by. When the prey passes by they will swoop down and land next to it taking it in their bill. They will usually bang the prey against a branch to kill it and then will swallow it whole head first." ]

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[ "Quick Facts: Like their relative the giraffe, okapi have a prehensile tongue that strips leaves from branches.  Prehensile refers to any body part used for grasping or holding- tail, tongue, lip, feet, etc.", "Okapi have large ears, a relatively long neck, and a long black tongue. Males have hairy horns, while females are sometimes have a reddish tone and usually slightly taller than males.", "Okapis, which have a black tongue designed for grasping and holding, along with distinctive stripes on their behind, are the closest living relative of the giraffe.", "The okapi is an ungulate, like a cow. Or really like a giraffe, its closest relative. It has an elegant face, a long bluish tongue, and a zebra-striped rear end. It lives in the dense rainforest of the Democratic Republic of Congo, chewing tree leaves in privacy. No one in the Western world knew the animal existed until the 20th century.", "Okapi slightly resembles to zebra because of the stripes, but it shares much more similarities with giraffe. It has long skull, large black eyes and very long, purplish tongue, just like giraffe.", "The tongue of an okapi is long enough for the animal to wash its eyelids and clean its ears: it is one of the few mammals that can lick its own ears. Male okapis have short, skin-covered horns called \" ossicones\". They have large ears, which help them detect their predator, the leopard.", "It's related to giraffes?! The okapi (pronounced oh-COP-ee) is a beautiful and unusual animal. With its white-and-black striped hindquarters and front legs, it looks like it must be related to zebras! But take a look at an okapi’s head, and you’ll notice a resemblance to giraffes. The okapi is indeed the only living relative of the giraffe. Like a giraffe, the okapi has very large, upright ears, which catch even slight sounds, helping the animal avoid trouble. The okapi also has a long, dark, prehensile tongue, just like a giraffe’s, to help it strip the buds and young leaves from the understory brush of its rain forest home.", "With black-and-white stripes, Okapis may look like zebras, but they are actually the closest living relatives of giraffes. Often called the “forest giraffe,” this shy, secretive Central African species has a lustrous, velvety coat, a 14-18-inch-long prehensile tongue.  Adults stand over six feet tall and weigh 400-700 pounds.", "This changed in 1901 when Sir Harry Johnston, the British governor of Uganda, obtained pieces of striped skin and even a skull of the legendary beast. Through this evidence and the eventual capture of a live specimen, the animal now known as the okapi (okapia johnstoni) was recognized by mainstream science. The okapi is no less unusual today: it is the only living relative of the giraffe, sharing a similar body structure and its characteristic long blue tongue. However, the markings on its back legs resemble that of a zebra’s stripes. Okapis are solitary creatures that remain captivating to scientists; although not endangered, there is still much to learn about their habits and lifestyle.", "The okapi has a similar body shape as a giraffe, however, with a much shorter neck relative to its body size. Okapis share other distinctive features with giraffe including unusual fur covered ossicones (horn-like structure), specialised teeth and tongue, and a ruminating four-chambered stomach. Interestingly, only the male okapi has ossicones.", "The okapi is a shy, solitary, elusive animal that lives among dense cover and browses on leaves , fungi , and fruit . It uses its long tongue to strip leaves from branches and supplements its diet with clay , burned wood, and bat guano . Okapis are preyed upon by leopards (Panthera pardus). Captive okapis may succumb to infection from Monodontella giraffae, a parasitic nematode that damages their bile ducts.", "If giraffes and zebras could mate, their offspring would look like an Okapi. This strange looking creature has striped legs like a zebra but the face of a giraffe. Its neck is much shorter than a giraffe, but like its cousin, it has an extremely long tongue, which can reach lengths of up to 12 inches. The okapi can use this tongue to wash its own eyelids and ears. Prior to 1901, okapis were known only to the people living in the Congo rain forest.", "Although the okapi bears striped markings reminiscent of the zebra, it is most closely related to the giraffe. Unknown to Europeans until 1901, today there are approximately 10,000 – 20,000 in the wild and only 40 different worldwide institutions display them. The tongue of the okapi is long enough for the animal to wash its eyelids and clean its ears (inside and out). Okapis have several methods of communicating their territory, including scent glands on each foot that leave behind a tar-like substance which signals their passage, as well as urine marking. Males are protective of their territory, but allow females to pass through their domain to forage.", "Surprisingly, the Okapi was known to the ancient Egyptians before the Europeans. This was proven when an ancient carved image of an animal, which presumably looked like and Okapi, was discovered in Egypt. Europeans in Africa recall that for years the Okapi was called the, \"African Unicorn.\" Initially after their European discovery many tried to capture them and force them into zoos; which caused a high fatality rate due to the lengthy travels. Also strange is that the okapi is the only animal capable of cleaning its ears with its tongue. The name \"Okapi\" is a combination of the Lese language words \"Oka\" meaning \"to cut\" and \"kpi\" meaning to decorate stripes on arrows. Therefore the mysterious \"African Unicorn,\" is said to decorate itself with stripes.", "The okapi shows several adaptations to its tropical habitat. The large number of rod cells in the retina facilitate night vision, and there is an efficient olfactory system. The large auditory bullae lead to a strong sense of hearing. The dental formula of the okapi is . Teeth are low-crowned, fine-cusped and efficiently cut tender foliage. The large caecum and colon help in microbial digestion, and a quick rate of food passage allows for lower cell wall digestion than in other ruminants.", "Although okapi have a well developed sense of smell, they rely mainly on hearing in the dense forest. They make sounds that are audible to humans, including a cough call, or “chuff,” and the young may bleat and whistle to their mother. In addition, okapi have vocalizations that are below the frequency range that humans can hear.  The low frequency, calls can travel long distances through the forest. They provide a way for okapi to converse without being heard by their potential enemies.", "Made for a rain forest: The okapi's home is in the tropical rain forest in the northeast region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire). Why does the okapi have zebra-like stripes? These markings, which seem very bold to us, give the animal great camouflage when hiding in the partial sunlight that filters through its dense rain forest habitat. The stripes may also help a young okapi follow its mother through the dark forest, and they may help adults find each other, too. The okapi’s dark purplish or reddish brown fur is dense and feels like velvet. It’s also oily, so water slides right off, keeping the okapi dry on rainy days. Only the males have horns, which are covered by skin and are short and slant backwards so they won’t get tangled in forest branches. ", "The okapi is active during the day, using fixed, well-trodden paths through the jungle.  To locate breeding partners, okapis use their well-developed sense of smell.  While usually silent, okapis may make a soft cough during the rut.  Young animals, on the other hand, have a wide repertoire of noises, including coughs, bleats, and whistles.  The number of these vocalizations increase when the mother and child are separate.  Mothers are very protective of their young, defending it vigorously.  Before fighting begins, the female sends out a threat by beating on the ground with her forelegs.  Estimated population densities range from 0.8-2.3 animals per square kilometer.  Okapis have individual home ranges of about 2.5-5 square kilometer, which they move through at the rate of about a kilometer per day as they forage.  The okapi finds the minerals its body needs by eating a sulfurous clay found along river banks..", "They have long tongues that measure 18-21 inches long. The inner part of the tongue is pink in color, and then changes to a purplish-black color for the last 6 inches that are commonly visible. ……… I wish you see them browse on the acacias.", "The name \"Okapi\" is a portmanteau of two Lese words, oka a verb meaning to cut and kpi which is a noun referring to the design made on Efé arrows by wrapping the arrow with bark so as to leave stripes when scorched by fire. The stripes on the legs of the Okapi resemble these stripes on the arrow shafts. Lese legend says the okapi decorates itself with these stripes, adding to the okapi's great camouflage.", "  Okapi Found in Africa, this giraffe relative has a reddish-brown body, white face & striped legs", "The scientific name of the okapi is Okapia johnstoni. It was first described by British zoologist Ray Lankester in 1901. The generic name Okapia derives from the Lese Karo name o'api, while the specific name (johnstoni) is in recognition of the British Governor of Uganda, Sir Harry Johnston, who first acquired an okapi specimen for science from the Ituri Forest while repatriating a group of Pygmies to the Belgian Congo. The animal was brought to prominent European attention by speculation on its existence found in press reports covering Henry Morton Stanley's journeys in 1887. Remains of a carcass were later sent to London by the English adventurer and colonial administrator Harry Johnston and became a media event in 1901. ", "Okapi is the only living relative of the giraffe. This beautiful animal lives in the northern, central and eastern parts of the Congo (Africa). Okapi prefers dense and damp vegetation, so it inhabits rainforests. Okapi was discovered in 1900, with 45 000 animals that lived in the wild at the time. Intensive deforestation during the 20th century and high susceptibility toward fungal, bacterial and viral infections reduced the number of okapis to around 10 000. At the moment they are listed as \"near threatened\", which means that they could easily become endangered in the near future.", "I have already talked about the Okapi, but it would be wrong to leave it out of this list. The Okapi was well known to the Ancient Egyptians (although it was not native to Egypt) and of course, to the pygmies who lived in the same central African forests. Europeans, however, didn’t believe the pygmies’ stories; they considered the okapi to be a mythical creature, and even called it “The African Unicorn”! In 1890, Henry Stanley explored the jungles of the Congo and he became interested in a native word, “okapi” (which he misheard and wrote as “atti”). The pygmies used the word both for the non-native domestic horse, and for another, large animal they occasionally caught and ate.", "Though Johnston did not see an okapi himself, he did manage to obtain pieces of striped skin and eventually a skull. From this skull, the okapi was correctly classified as a relative of the giraffe ; in 1902, the species was formally recognized as Okapia johnstoni.", "Okapis inhabit canopy forests at altitudes of 500 -. They are endemic to the tropical forests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where they occur across the central, northern and eastern regions. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the okapi as Endangered. Major threats include habitat loss due to logging and human settlement. Extensive hunting for bushmeat and skin and illegal mining have also led to a decline in populations. The Okapi Conservation Project was established in 1987 to protect okapi populations.", "White Oak has developed a significant captive breeding program for the okapi.  Dedicated facilities and trained staff provide excellent care in which the okapi thrive.  Specific research projects have been developed to learn more about the species’ unique biology and captive requirements and to allow us to provide optimal health, husbandry, and nutrition for the okapi.  White Oak also imported okapi from the Okapi Project in Africa, which have reproduced well in the climate and okapi management facilities here. These animals have contributed greatly to the growing captive okapi population, and serve as ambassadors and help generate support for the important wild okapi population and rainforest habitats and diversity in Africa.", "Examination of okapi feces has revealed that the charcoal from trees burnt by lightning is consumed as well. Field observations indicate that the okapi's mineral and salt requirements are filled primarily by a sulfurous, slightly salty, reddish clay found near rivers and streams.", "Native only to the Ituri Forest of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), survival of the Okapi is seriously threatened by unsettled political conditions and rebel military actions in that part of the DRC. Wild population estimates for the species are extremely difficult to determine because the forest is so dense, but scientists believe there are between 10,000 and 50,000 individuals. Their numbers are believed to be declining, and Okapis are classified as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Additional threats come from habitat loss and hunting.", "STATUS: Okapi are listed as endangered as of 2015, per the IUCN Red List. Because of their secretive life in the dense forest, population assessments are difficult. It is estimated that there are only 10,000 to 20,000 okapis remaining in the wild. The leopard is a natural predator. The bushmeat trade now threatens all large forest animals.", "On June 8, 2006, scientists reported that evidence of surviving okapis in Congo's Virunga National Park had been discovered. This had been the first official sighting since 1959, after nearly half a century.", "The animal's exact status is still a mystery, however, and it remains under threat, the ZSL said. Okapi meat reportedly poached from the park is now regularly on sale at the nearby town of Beni -- and if hunting continues at the same rate, okapi could become extinct within the park within a few years, the ZSL said." ]

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[ "Baleen whales eat baitfish, herring, pollock, plankton and krill. There are 12 species of baleen whales. The group gets its name from the plates of baleen fiber in their mouths that act as teeth.", "Baleen whales, some of which are the largest animals to have ever lived on earth, eat some of the smallest, most abundant life in the oceans: plankton. Some baleen whales also eat small schooling fishes, and a variety of crustaceans such as krill, copepods, and amphipods.", "In general, baleen whales feed low on the food chain, primarily eating zooplankton and small fishes, which they encounter in large swarms or schools.", "Baleen whales tend to eat small manageable prey since they swallow their food whole and consume large quantities of small prey:", "On one side of the plates are coarse bristles, the fringed mustache we mentioned earlier. These bristles vary in length and thickness, but they all help the whales to trap small fish , krill and plankton. These prey items are abundant in colder waters, and the baleen's large size allows it to take advantage of the abundant prey and store the energy. The larger baleen whales eat approximately 4 percent of their body weight each day [source: SeaWorld ]. Each type of baleen whale has a specific prey and a particular method of obtaining it. In other words, one filter does not feed all.", "Mysticetes have hundreds of comb-like plates of baleen hanging from their upper jaw. Baleen whales feed by gulping large amounts of water containing hundreds or thousands of fish or plankton, then forcing the water out in between the baleen plates , leaving the prey inside to be swallowed whole.", "All Whales are either Baleen or Toothed, and there are plenty of differences that set them apart. Of course the Toothed Whales are those that have teeth while the Baleen ones don’t. So how do Baleen Whales consume food? They have a filtering system that is built into their lower jaw area. They can graze through the water at low speeds and take in plenty of water and food. The water is removed from it and they swallow the food.", "Baleen whales use baleen to strain food from the water. Some feed by swimming with their mouths wide open. Others open their mouths and take in huge amounts of water. When they dose their mouths, the water is forced out through the baleen, and food gets trapped in the fringe mat. After all the water is gone, the whale swallows its meal.", "Blue whales are a type of baleen whale known as a rorqual . Despite their huge size, baleen whales like blue whales feed on small organisms. The blue whale feeds primarily on krill, and may eat 2 to 4 tons of krill per day during their feeding season. Their skin is a beautiful gray-blue color, often with a mottling of light spots.", "Cetaceans, a scientific order of entirely aquatic mammals, are divided into two major groups: baleen whales and toothed whales. Baleen whales tend to be larger, and they feed on plankton and other small marine animals that they sieve from the water using their “baleen,” or triangular pieces of whalebone that hang down from their upper jaws in transverse plates. Toothed whales — which include the orca, sperm whale, and all the dolphins and porpoises — feed on fish, squid, other cetaceans, and marine mammals, such as sea lions and fur seals.", "Scientists estimate that large baleen whales eat about 4% of their body weight each day during the feeding season. Food intake during the feeding season exceeds daily requirements, and excess energy is stored as fat, much of it in the blubber.", "Baleen whales are very large, have paired blow holes, and characteristic baleen plates used for filtering food from the ocean. Baleen whales are the largest animals on earth, yet they feed on some of the smallest animals in the ocean.", "Called mysticetes—a word derived from the Greek for “mustache” and “whales”—baleen whales are toothless. They feed by using their unique baleen—fringes of keratin hanging from the roof of their mouths—to help keep vast numbers of tiny prey (such as krill) in and filter water out. Blue whales, humpback whales, and gray whales are all mysticetes.", "Baleen whales have bristles made of keratin instead of teeth. The bristles filter krill and other small invertebrates from seawater. Grey whales feed on bottom-dwelling mollusks. Rorqual family (balaenopterids) use throat pleats to expand their mouths to take in food and sieve out the water. Balaenids (right whales and bowhead whales) have massive heads that can make up 40% of their body mass. Most mysticetes prefer the food-rich colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, migrating to the Equator to give birth. During this process, they are capable of fasting for several months, relying on their fat reserves.", "Coarseness or fineness of baleen reveals what a whale feeds on. The fine baleen on display in the exhibition comes from a right whale, which feeds on zooplankton – near-microscopic animals. Gray whales have the coarsest baleen, as they filter sediment from the seafloor for crustaceans.", "Blue whales filter their food through their baleen plates. Blue whales eat krill (euphausiids) and copepods.  A blue whale can eat up to 8,000 lbs. of krill during its peak consumption period. It is estimated to take 2,200 lbs. of food to fill a blue whale's stomach.", "Blue whales are baleen whales, which means they have fringed plates of fingernail-like material, called baleen, attached to their upper jaws. The giant animals feed by first gulping an enormous mouthful of water, expanding the pleated skin on their throat and belly to take it in. Then the whale's massive tongue forces the water out through the thin, overlapping baleen plates. Thousands of krill are left behind—and then swallowed.", "Baleen whales practice filter feeding , and the tools for filter feeding are their baleen plates. Baleen plates are made of keratin, which is the same material found in our fingernails and our hair. The baleen plates are worn down by the whale's tongue, but they also grow back like fingernails. Whales have hundreds of baleen plates. For example, the humpback whale has 400 baleen plates, each of which is 25 inches to 30 inches long (64 cm to 76 cm), 13 inches (33 cm) wide and less than 0.2 inches (0.5 cm) thick [source: MacMillan ].", "Baleen whales use this filtering mechanism in three different ways. Grey whales, as mentioned above, use their short, coarse baleen to strain their prey from sediment. Larger whales, like bowheads and right whales , use finer and longer (up to 4 metres) baleen to skim their food from the water column. Humpback whales use short, fine baleen to filter euphausiids (krill) from the water. These whales exert themselves in bursts to secure massive mouthfuls of their quick moving prey.", "A baleen whale probably uses its huge tongue for moving food trapped inside the baleen, for squeezing water out of the mouth, and for swallowing.", "Mysticeti any cetacean possessing unique epidermal modifications of the mouth called baleen, which is used to filter food from water. Baleen whales seek out concentrations of small planktonic animals. The whales then open their mouth and take in enormous quantities of water. When the mouth is closed, they squeeze the water out through the sides, catching...", "Mysticetes filter feed using baleen plates (hence their other name - Baleen Whales), which hang down from the roof of the mouth. Baleen is made out of keratin (the same material as our fingernails) and is both tough and flexible. Baleen plates are shaped like thin, long triangles, which grow down from the gum (although they are not related to teeth). Internally the baleen is composed of minute elongate tubes that are exposed as hairs along the worn inner edge of the plate. Successive rows of baleen plates are arranged like the teeth of a comb one row along each side of the mouth. Inside the mouth the hairs intertwine, forming a sieve like mat that traps small food particles. The number, size and colour of baleen varies with different species - Humpbacks have 270-400 plates on each side of their mouth, the largest of which is 70cm long and 30cm wide.", "Here is a list containing some of the most common founds consumed by baleen whales and toothed whales.", "Beluga whales are opportunistic feeders. They prey on about 100 different kinds of primarily bottom-dwelling animals. They eat octopus; squid; crabs; snails; sandworms; and fishes such as capelin, cod, herring, smelt, and flounder.", "Despite being the largest living animal in the world the blue whales diet primarily consists of krill (a small crustacean  that generally measures in at mere 1 – 2 centimeters in size, however a few species of krill can grow to lengths of up to 6 inches long).", "Beluga whales are diverse eaters, with more than 100 prey species identified including salmon, capelin, herring, shrimp, Arctic cod, flounder, and even crab.  They feed in both open water (pelagic) or on the bottom (benthic) and in shallow and deepwater habitats. ", "Toothed whales often gather in pods and work cooperatively to feed. They prey on animals such as fish, cephalopods , and skates.", "Toothed whales (or \"odontocetes\") are so named because of the teeth in their mouths. However, a whale's teeth look very different from human or even dog teeth, for that matter. Most toothed whales have cone-shaped teeth. A toothed whale also uses its teeth very differently than most other mammals. Usually, the whale doesn't use its teeth to chew. Instead, it often eats its food whole. Some toothed whales, like the narwhal, only have a single tooth. Toothed whales with very few teeth often eat squid, which they can suck down whole, without any chewing at all.", "Killer whales don't chew their food. They swallow their food whole, or they may tear or shred it.", "Baleen whales tend to be much larger than Toothed Whales. You will notice that the Baleen Whales have two blow holes while the Toothed Whales only have one. They also can’t swim as rapidly in the water as the Toothed Whales can. Most of the Baleens have no dorsal fins, and those that do have very small ones. All Toothed Whales have at least one dorsal fin.", "In their southern range, especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay, Canadian polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt from. Here, their food ecology shows their dietary flexibility. They still manage to consume some seals, but they are food-deprived in summer as only marine mammal carcasses are an important alternative without sea ice, especially carcasses of the beluga whale. These alternatives may reduce the rate of weight loss of bears when on land. One scientist found that 71% of the Hudson Bay bears had fed on seaweed (marine algae) and that about half were feeding on birds like sea ducks, especially the oldsquaw (53%), common eider, long-tailed duck or dovekie by swimming underwater to catch them. They were also diving to feed on blue mussels and other underwater food sources like the green sea urchin. 24% had eaten moss recently, 19% had consumed grass, 34% had eaten black crowberry and about half had consumed willows. This study illustrates the polar bear's dietary flexibility but it does not represent its life history elsewhere. Most polar bears elsewhere will never have access to these alternatives, except for the marine mammal carcasses that are important wherever they occur.", "Well, perhaps they do and perhaps they don't but I have never tried them nor even seen them. However, I have often eaten sheep's eyes, whenever we had sheep's head, and yes, I did from when I was very young. They have a nice chewy texture without being tough, a little like that of squid but without the slipperiness. The secret is to remove the inky, black middle bit without bursting it before you bite into the gelatinous eye socket. I have also eaten fish eyes which are equally delicious but not those of whales, which the Japanese consider choice morsels. The Eskimos eat seal eyes and here is what Høygaard wrote in 1941 of the Angmagssalik Eskimos: \"The central nervous system and the eyes are considered very good and usually fall to the lot of the hunter who has caught the animal.\"" ]

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[ "The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is a South American bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae and is the only member of the genus Vultur. Found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America, the Andean condor is the largest flying bird in the world by combined measurement of weight and wingspan. It has a maximum wingspan of exceeded only by the wingspans of four seabirds/water birds—the roughly maximum of the wandering albatross, southern royal albatross, great white pelican and Dalmatian pelican. ", "Condors are types of vulture that live in the Americas. One of the world’s largest flying birds, the Andean condor, has a wingspan of up to 3 metres (more than 10 feet). It uses its enormous wings to soar and glide above the mountains, relying on thermals, warm, rising air currents, to keep it aloft. It may fly more than 200 kilometres (120 miles) per day in search of carrion, mostly domesticated animals, such as llamas or cattle . Some will even look out for beached whales on the coast.", "The Andean Condor is considered the largest bird of prey with an enormous wingspan of 3 meters and weight up to 15 kgs. They primarily live in mountainous regions where there is an abundant amount of wind to help their massive body in flight. The Andean Condor is considered a vulture, so they mostly feed on large carrion. This species is considered engendered but they are in much better shape than the California Condor.", "When the Spanish conquistadors arrived in South America in the 16th century, the giant vulture (Vultur gryphus) was a common sight. The bird flourished throughout its range from the northern tip of Venezuela down the spine of the Andes to the southern tip of Tierra del Fuego in Argentina.", "Cathartidae - New World vultures. There are 7 species in the family and they are found in open country and forests from southern Canada to southernmost South America. Like Old World vultures, they're primarily carrion eaters and have more or less unfeathered heads. Unlike Old World vultures, they don't have a syrinx (voice box), don't build nests, and their septum (the structure that separates the two nostrils) is perforated. The Andean (Vultur gryphus) and California condors (Gymnogyps californianus), turkey vulture (Cathartes aura), and black vulture (Coragyps atratus) are in this family.", "The Andean Condor is the largest of the vultures with a wingspan of up to 12 feet. In North America, the Turkey Vulture is the most common. The California Condor however is now on the verge of extinction. It once had a range from British Columbia to Florida but has now been reduced to about 60 individuals. Some native tribes believe that this reduction is the cause behind the increased number of diseases and viruses of unknown origins now affecting mother earth.", "The King Vulture inhabits an estimated 14 million km2 (5.4 million mi2) between southern Mexico and northern Argentina. In South America, it does not live west of the Andes, except in western Ecuador, north-western Colombia and far north-western Venezuela. It primarily inhabits undisturbed tropical lowland forests as well as savannas and grasslands with these forests nearby. It is often seen near swamps or marshy places in the forests. This bird is often the most numerous or only vulture present in primary lowland forests in its range, but in the Amazon rainforest it is typically outnumbered by the Greater Yellow-headed Vulture, while typically outnumbered by the Lesser Yellow-headed, Turkey and American Black Vulture in more open habitats. King Vultures generally do not live above 1500 m (5000 ft), although are found in places at 2500 m (8000 ft) altitude east of the Andes, and have been rarely recorded up to 3300 m (10000 ft) They inhabit the emergent forest level, or above the canopy. Pleistocene remains have been recovered from Buenos Aires Province in central Argentina, over 700 km (450 mi) south of its current range, giving rise to speculation on the habitat there at the time which had not been thought to be suitable.", "The common rhea is the largest of all South American birds. Head-body length is about 1.3 m, height 1.6 m and the body weight 20-25, occasionally up to 30 kg. The grey feet have three forward-directed toes. The feathers are loose and soft.", "a New World vulture that is common in South America and Central America and the southern United States", "**The largest extant species is the Eurasian black vulture (Aegypius monachus), attaining a maximum size of 14 kg, long and across the wings.Christie, David A. & Ferguson-Lee, James, Raptors of the World. Princeton University Press (2006), ISBN 978-0-691-12684-5 Other vultures can be nearly as large, with the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis) reaching lengths up to thanks in part to its long neck. ", "There are 8 species of Vultures in Africa including the Hooded Vulture, Lappet-faced Vulture, White headed Vulture, Egyptian Vulture, Palmnut Vulture, Cape Griffon, Ruppel’s Griffon and White-backed Vulture.", "Black vulture wing’s size is 3.1 meters.This is a powerful vulture birds which is inhabitant of North and South America. There is no danger as far as its extinction is concerned. It is scavenger who eats carrion, eggs and old plants. Farmers don’t like it because Black Vulture is predator of new born farm animals.", "In addition to the California and Andean condor s, other notable New World vultures include the black vulture (Coragyps atratus), a New World vulture sometimes called a black buzzard or, inappropriately, a carrion crow . The black vulture, the most abundant vulture species of all, is a resident of the tropics and subtropics that often wanders far into temperate regions. It is a chunky black bird about 60 cm (24 inches) long, with a very short tail, short wings, a bare black head, and a feathered hindneck.", "Vultures are medium to large sized Raptors or birds of prey. There are two types of Vultures, the Old World Vultures who belong to the Accipitridae family along with Buzzrds, Kites and Eagles who are found in Africa, Asia and Europe, and New World Vultures who belong to the Cathartidae family which also includes Condors who are found in the Americas.", "The lappet-faced vulture makes the wildebeest look like a beauty queen. Its featherless head looks old and haggard, an effect only amplified by the hanging skin flaps, or lappets, that give the vulture its name. The lappet is rather large, sometimes reaching nearly four feet in size, and is an ominous sight, with black feathering striped with white. Other vultures find the approach of lappet disconcerting, since the bird is the largest of the vultures in Ngorongoro, and will drive off any competitors.", "The lappet-faced vulture (Torgos tracheliotus), sometimes called the eared, or Nubian, vulture, is a huge Old World vulture of arid Africa. Being a metre tall, with a 2.7-metre (8.9-foot) wingspan, it dominates all other vultures when feeding. It is black and brown above and has a wedge-shaped tail; there is white down on the underparts. Large folds of skin hang from the sides of its bare head. The face is pink or reddish.", "The Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) is a large raptorial bird that is distributed through much of Eurasia. It is also known as the Black Vulture, Monk Vulture, or Eurasian Black Vulture. It is a member of the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as kites, buzzards and harriers. It is one of the two largest old world vultures. This bird is an Old World vulture, and is only distantly related to the New World vultures, which are in a separate family, Cathartidae, of the same order. It is therefore not directly related to the much smaller American Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus) despite the similar name and coloration.", "The western mountains are home to different animals. These include the llama, guanaco, vicuña, among the most recognizable species of South America. Also in this region are the jackal , andean cat, and the largest flying bird in the New World, the condor.", "These vultures are found only in the New World of North and South America, from Canada to Argentina as well as in the Caribbean. They belong to the scientific family Cathartidae , and include seven species of vultures and condors. These birds are most closely related to storks and herons rather than other true raptors, though they are often discussed as birds of prey because of their carnivorous diets . New World vultures typically have an excellent sense of smell, though the degree they use their sense of smell varies among the different species.", "The western mountains are home to different animals. These include the llama, guanaco, vicu�a, among the most recognizable species of South America. Also in this region are the fox, Andean Cat, and the largest flying bird in the New World, the condor.", "Vulture is the name given to two groups of scavenging birds of prey: the New World vultures, including the Californian and Andean condors; and the Old World vultures, including the birds that are seen scavenging on carcasses of dead animals on African plains. Research has shown that some traditional Old World vultures (including the bearded vulture) are not closely related to the others, which is why the vultures are to be subdivided into three taxa rather than two. New World vultures are found in North and South America; Old World vultures are found in Europe, Africa and Asia, meaning that between the two groups, vultures are found on every continent except Australia and Antarctica.", "The Andean condor is native to the Andes mountain chain that extends north to south along the entire length of western South America, but also can be found over the coasts of Peru and Chile and the Patagonian steppe of Argentina.", "These unusual birds are divided into two groups: New World vultures, which are from North, Central, and South America; and Old World vultures, which live in Africa, Asia, and Europe.", "any of 22 species of large, carrion-eating birds that live predominantly in the tropics and subtropics. The seven species of New World vultures include condor s, and the 15 Old World species include the lammergeier and griffons. Although many members of the two groups appear similar, they are only...", "The New World vultures and condors found in warm and temperate areas of the Americas are not closely related to the similar Accipitridae, but belong in the family Cathartidae, which was once considered to be related to the storks. However, recent DNA evidence suggests that they should be included among the Accipitriformes, along with other birds of prey. However, they are still not closely related to the other vultures. Several species have a good sense of smell, unusual for raptors, and are able to smell dead animals from great heights, up to a mile away.", "a very large Old World vulture with grayish-black plumage streaked with white and a tuft of bristles over the nostrils and under the bill; bearded ...", "LEFT: A comparison between the sizes and the skeletons of an adult Pteranodon longiceps and a California Condor - Gymnogyps californianus.   The wing spread of the Pteranodon is about 24 feet, while that of the Condor is about 10 feet.", "Vultures are generally solitary animals although they will fly in focks when circling prey. Vultures can fly at speeds of 48 kilometres per hour (30 miles per hour).", "The sky's the limit. To find their food, Andean condors use their excellent eyesight and can spot a meal from high up in the air. They also look for clues to their next meal, such as other raptors gathering in one area on the ground or circling in the sky. Condors can glide over large areas while using little energy. These huge birds are too heavy to fly without help. They use warm air currents (thermals) to help them gain altitude and soar through the sky. By gliding from thermal to thermal, a condor may need to flap its wings only once every hour. When a condor stretches out its wings, the wing feathers look like outstretched fingertips. These “fingertips” let the condor make fine adjustments in flight, like wing flaps on an airplane.", "Wheeling and soaring over high mountains, windswept upland plains and lowland desert areas, the condor looks for signs of other scavengers gathering over carrion. It avoids forests, where locating carcasses and landing is difficult for such a broad-winged bird.", "This large scavenger can be seen soaring over high montane canyons and peaks throughout the Andes or along the coast in the southern part of its range. It often soars over open grassland areas as it searches for food.", "Because the condor locates carcasses by sight, rather than by smell, it tends to avoid forested or brushy areas where spotting dead animals could be difficult or impossible. Areas such as these might also present problems with the bird getting airborne again, too. The Andean condor will sometimes fly 120 kilometres in a day in search of food." ]

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[ "Like all insects, beetles bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra). The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility.", "Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra). The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility. The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages may vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.", "Beetles are generally characterized by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings (elytra). The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates, called sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design provides armored defenses while maintaining flexibility. The general anatomy of a beetle is quite uniform, although specific organs and appendages may vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Like all insects, beetles' bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.", "Beetles are generally characterised by a particularly hard exoskeleton and hard forewings ( elytra ). The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates called sclerites , separated by thin sutures. This design creates the armoured defences of the beetle while maintaining flexibility. The elytra are not used for flight, but tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second pair of wings (alae). The elytra must be raised in order to move the hind flight wings. A beetle's flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing, often along these veins, and are stored below the elytra.", "Adephaga contains about 10 families of largely predatory beetles, includes ground beetles (Carabidae), Dytiscidae and whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae). In these beetles the testes are tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of the exoskeleton) is divided by the hind coxae (the basal joints of the beetle's legs).", "In a sense, an insect has its skeleton outside its body. The insect's body wall is hardened (the technical term is sclerotized) so that it becomes like a shell over the insect's body. Since insects don't have bones, the shell serves as the body's skeleton. Because the skeleton is outside the body, it's called an exoskeleton (\"exo-\" means \"outside.\"", "Staff Writer (2/6/2014): Common east of the Mississippi, Stag Beetles are noted for their large size and ferocious appearance, complete with a durable exoskeleton and imposing, pincer-like mandibles. The mandibles on the female are much shorter than that of the male, whose mandibles can be about the size of their heads. Among males, younger males have shorter mandibles than older ones. This species is different from other Stag Beetles thanks in part to the orange or yellow coloring at the base of each leg. Its exoskeleton appears very smooth and glossy with a rich dark red or brown hue to it.", "Beetles vary in size from minute to very large ( Goliathus) . Beetles have hard sclerotized bodies, 3 pairs of thoracic legs (legs attached to the thorax) and mouthparts that are adapted for chewing (unlike the Hemiptera mouthparts that are adapted tubes for sucking). They usually have 2 pairs of wings. Unlike other insects where both pairs are flexible or membranous, the fore wings are modified into hardened covers called elytra. When the animal is at rest, the hind wings are folded under, and protected by, the elytra. For flight, the elytra are lifted and the hind wings unfold and flap while the elytra are held up and act a stabilisers. However, not all beetles fly. In some cases the elytra are fused, the females are wingless or the hind wings are insufficiently developed for flying.  ", "Beetles are a group of insects that form the order Coleoptera. The word \"coleoptera\" is from the Greek , koleos, meaning \"sheath\"; and , pteron, meaning \"wing\", thus \"sheathed wing\", because most beetles have two pairs of wings, the front pair, the \"elytra\", being hardened and thickened into a shell-like protection for the rear pair and the beetle's abdomen. The order contains more species than any other order, constituting almost 25% of all known life-forms. About 40% of all described insect species are beetles (about 400,000 species), and new species are discovered frequently. The largest taxonomic family, the Curculionidae (the weevils or snout beetles), also belongs to this order.", "Arthropods are segmented, and generally there are distinct boundaries between the segments. For example, animals belonging to Class Insecta have three distinct segments: the head, the thorax (often grouped together with the head as the cephalothorax), and the abdomen. The rhinoceros beetle in the adjacent image has a head and thorax that are fused (a cephalothorax) and a large abdomen. Typically, these different body regions have distinct functions and often contain various types of jointed appendages. Jointed appendages afford the animal with a greater degree of movement. In addition to locomotion, the appendages may be adapted for other functions (e.g., feeding, sensory perception, copulation, and defense).", "Very variable in shape, but usually with very long antennae, often longer than body. These beetles vary from 3 to 150 mm in length, are often brownish, but can have bright and varied colouration. Head lacks beak, and is slightly to strongly deflexed; antennae usually 11 segmented, but a few have 10 segments, while others may have 20-25 or more segments. The pronotum is variable in shape, and the elytra are usually not abbreviated. Legs in most species have the femora somewhat swollen, and the tibiae usually have apical spurs; tarsal formula 5-5-5, but often appearing as 4-4-4 because of the minute fourth segment lying hidden in the cleft of the bilobed third segment.", "Adult beetles have 6 legs. Each of the segments of the thorax bears 1 pair of legs. The legs are jointed, and the last segment of the leg bears a small claw.", "Adult Click Beetles are long skinny beetles with grooves running down their wing covers. Most adult Click Beetles are 12-30 mm long, a few species get up to 45 mm. The front of their heads and the back end of their wing covers are rounded. Unlike most beetles, the connection between the first and second section of the thorax is flexible, they can move their heads and first pair of legs separately from the rest of the body. This lets them do the trick that they are named for. They can snap the two sections, making a loud click sound, and flipping themselves over if they are lying on their backs.", "Ovate to broadly-ovate, flattened, aquatic beetles, 2.5 to 15 mm long; black, stream-lined and rather glabrous. Most often found swimming on the water surface. Head prognathous and retracted into prothorax; eyes characteristically divided into two, with the upper pair remaining above the water-line, and the lower pair below the water-line when swimming on the surface. Prothorax with notopleural and pleurosternal suture distinct; prosternal process short; scutellum exposed or concealed. Anterior legs long and adapted for grasping prey on the water surface; fore tarsi of male with segments elongate and broad and adapted for grasping female; middle and hind femora and tibia short, wide and paddle-like, with long setae for swimming; tarsal formula is 5-5-5. Elytra striate or smooth, truncated, exposing one or two posterior abdominal terga. Abdomen with six visible sterna.", "These are primitive weevils, greatly resembling snout beetles, but the beak is broad and the antennae are not geniculate. The body shape is quite diverse, being elongate and depressed to oval and convex, 0.4 to 16 mm long. The beetles are quite setose, with setae often scale-like. The head is large, with rostrum if present, broad and flattened; antennae are 11-segmented, with apical three segments forming a club. The pronotum anteriorly is usually narrower than the head, with setae directed anteriorly. Elytra have the apices always locking into a longitudinal groove in the base of the pygidium. Legs have somewhat swollen femora, and a 5-5-5. tarsal formula, although this appears 4-4-4, owing to the very small fourth segment, not visible in dorsal view.", "The most distinctive feature of beetles is their wing covers which are also called elytra. These covers are actually the thickened and hardened fore wings. The wing covers have lost their wing venation but often have closely spaced grooves or rows of punctures. Beetles use their more delicate hind wings for flying. When they are not being used they are folded beneath the wing covers which meet in a straight line down the back. Most beetles have wing covers that cover the whole of their abdomen. Some have shortened wing covers leaving one or often more segments of the abdomen exposed.", "Marsh beetles are round to oblong, 1.5 to 12 mm long (usually 2 to 8 mm) and somewhat flattened, yellow to black, sometimes with orange or red markings. The narrow head has a sharp ridge under each eye, which fits against the front coxae when the head is deflexed. The antennae are usually thread-like and 11-segmented; the first segment is large. The pronotum is short and transverse, normally concealing the head; the elytra are often ridged. The tibiae have distinct outer keels and the tarsi are segmented 5-5-5, with segment 4 lobed beneath. Some species have enlarged hind femora.", "Most adult beetles are compact with a heavily armoured body. They usually have mouthparts with a strong pair of jaws designed for chewing. Take care if you try to pick up a large longhorned beetle, their powerful jaws can deliver a painful bite.", "In zoology a skeleton is any fairly rigid structure of an animal, irrespective of whether it has joints and irrespective of whether it is biomineralized. The mesohyl functions as an endoskeleton in most sponges, and is the only skeleton in soft sponges that encrust hard surfaces such as rocks. More commonly the mesohyl is stiffened by mineral spicules, by spongin fibers or both. Spicules may be made of silica or calcium carbonate, and vary in shape from simple rods to three-dimensional \"stars\" with up to six rays. Spicules are produced by sclerocyte cells, and may be separate, connected by joints, or fused.", "Beetles have mouthparts similar to those of grasshoppers. Of these parts, the most commonly known are likely the mandibles, which appear as large pincers on the front of some beetles. The mandibles are a pair of hard, often tooth-like structures that move horizontally to grasp, crush, or cut food or enemies (see Predation , below). Two pairs of finger-like appendages are found around the mouth in most beetles, serving to move food into the mouth. These are the maxillary and labial palpi.", "19. COLEOPTERA (beetles). This is the largest order of insects. Beetles usually have two pairs of wings. The fore wings (called elytra) are hard and thick and meet in a straight line down the back when at rest. When present, the hind wings are membranous and used for flight. At rest, they fold beneath the elytra. Some beetles have only elytra or have reduced, flightless hind wings. Some beetles are entirely wingless. They have chewing mouthparts. There are so many different beetles that nearly every habitat is home to some species.", "Notable feature: Long-bodied, uniformly black beetle with an extended exposed powerful abdomen with shortened wing cases", "Derodontids are elongate, oval, dorsally convex and ventrally flattened beetles ranging from 1.5 to 4 mm in length. The rough-looking surface ranges from brown to black; some species are mottled. The head bears paired ocelli and the 11-segmented antennae have a 3-segmented club. The prothorax in some species (Derodontus) has its lateral ridges distinctively toothed. Except in Peltasticta, which has raised tubercles, the elytra are striate. The tarsal formula is 5-5-5 and the tibial apex bears two small spurs; in Laricobius the tibiae have apical combs.", "Narrow, elongate, subcylindrical or slightly flattened beetles, 1.5-13 mm long; generally subglabrous; antennae 10-11 segmented, with apical 1-3 segments forming a club; antennal insertion exposed. Pronotum laterally convex, at least in part. Legs with apex of tibiae expanded and spinose; tarsal formula 4-4-4.", "Anatomy is a subdiscipline of morphology concerned with naming and describing the structure of organisms based on gross observation, dissection, and microscopical examination. Morphology and anatomy are not synonyms. Morphology is concerned with the form and function of anatomical structure; because anatomy is an expression of organic evolution, morphology seeks to investigate possible explanations for organic diversification observed in nature. Before 1940, insect morphology focused on naming and describing anatomical structure. The need for this activity has not diminished, as there is much about insect anatomy remains to be revealed, described, and understood. This article focuses on the anatomical structures of the three major tagmata of the insect body: head, thorax, and abdomen, and on the external genitalia. A hypothetical ground plan for major structures is given, followed by themes in anatomical variation based on adaptation observed in the Insecta.", "This elongated beetle has a dark brown thorax and a brown, ridged back. On close inspection its antennae appear toothed. ", "Differing mostly in their body parts, insects, such as ants, flies, wasps and dragonflies, have tri-segmented bodies consisting of the head, thorax and abdomen; crustaceans, such as crabs, lobsters, shrimps and crayfish, have only two body segments --- the head and thorax. These two segments fuse together into a cephalothorax and an abdomen. Insects have three pairs of legs attached to their thoracic region. Crustaceans have more than three pairs of legs --- usually five pairs in most species; however, this is highly variable as many species have more pairs.", "In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main divisions (or tagmata) of the creature's body, each of which is in turn composed of multiple segments. It is the area where the wings and legs attach in insects, or an area of multiple articulating plates in trilobites. In most insects, the thorax itself is composed of three segments; the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the metathorax. In extant insects, the prothorax never has wings, though legs are always present in adults; wings (when present) are restricted to at least the mesothorax, and typically also the metathorax, though the wings may be reduced or modified on either or both segments. In the Apocritan Hymenoptera, the first abdominal segment is fused to the metathorax, where it forms a structure known as the propodeum. Accordingly, in these insects, the functional thorax is composed of four segments, and is therefore typically called the mesosoma to distinguish it from the \"thorax\" of other insects.", "There are many examples of flightless beetles (such as the weevils of the genus Lucanidae) which retain perfectly formed wings housed underneath fused wing covers. All of these examples can be explained in terms of the beneficial functions and structures of the organisms' predicted ancestors ( Futuyma 1998 , pp. 122-123).", "Dorsal view of the last (9th) abdominal segment of the mature larva of the click beetle Alaus oculatus (Linn.).", "What name is given to the part of an insect�s body that bears the wings and legs?", "You are: Home > Insects > Insect fact files > Insect groups > Beetles (Order: Coleoptera)" ]

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[ "Plants 'breathe' too, but they do it through tiny openings in leaves called stomata (singular: stoma). Stomata open and close to allow the intake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen. It's very important that they do this, because this is the very oxygen that we ourselves need to breathe!", "Did you know that plants 'breathe' through their leaves? Tiny openings called stomata allow plants to exchange gases necessary for cellular processes, such as photosynthesis.", "Water enters the root and is transported up to the leaves through specialized plant cells known as xylem vessels. Land plants must guard against drying out and so have evolved specialized structures known as stomata to allow gas to enter and leave the leaf. Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the protective waxy layer covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter the leaf through the stoma (the singular of stomata), flanked by two guard cells. Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis can only pass out of the leaf through the opened stomata. Unfortunately for the plant, while these gases are moving between the inside and outside of the leaf, a great deal of water is also lost. Cottonwood trees, for example, will lose 100 gallons (about 450 dm3) of water per hour during hot desert days.", "Within this layer are very important structures known as stomata. These are pores in the leaf that allow for gas exchange. A way to remember this is that the root word, stoma, means 'mouth' in Greek. This mouth can open and close to allow the exchange of gases.", "Leaves have many structures that prevent water loss, transport compounds, aid in gas exchange, and protect the plant as a whole.", "The photosynthetic pigments are contained in the membranes of subcellular organelles called chloroplasts (Figure 3), which reside inside leaf cells. The interior air spaces of the leaf are connected to the outside atmosphere through tiny pores called stomata, which allow for the inward movement of CO2 and the outward movement of O2. The double membrane surrounding the chloroplast is permeable to small uncharged molecules such as CO2 and O2, thereby allowing for exchange of these gases during photosynthesis.", "A scanning electron micrograph of open stomata on the underside of a rose leaf. Stomata are breathing pores scattered over the leaf surface that regulate the exchange of gases between the leaf's interior and the atmosphere. (Reproduced by permission of", "The leaves of many temperate broadleaf plants have small, jagged points called teeth along the blade edge. Birch and elm trees have such leaves. Some plants have hydathodes, tiny valvelike structures that can release excess water from the leaf. The teeth of young leaves on many plants, including cottonwood and pin cherry trees, bear tiny glads. These glands produce liquids that protect the young leaf from plant-eating insects.", "Stomata – these are pores (holes) in the leaves that are responsible for the exchange of gases between the plant leaves and the atmosphere.  Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere and oxygen is released.", "In order for leaves to obtain water and minerals from the roots and for food manufactured in mature leaves to be transported to the roots and other nonphotosynthetic regions, each leaf must be connected to the overall vascular structure of the plant. Accordingly, the main vascular bundle of xylem and phloem present in the stem of a plant bifurcates into leaf traces, which are branches of vascular tissue that supply leaves. Each leaf trace further branches into the familiar veins that can often be seen along the surface of leaves, and the veins repeatedly subdivide as well. The vascular components, which serve as a basic skeletal structure in addition to functioning in the transport of materials, extend throughout the mesophyll so that the xylem and phloem are brought into propinquity with leaf tissues that carry out photosynthesis.", "Chloroplasts are generally absent in epidermal cells, the exception being the guard cells of the stomata. The stomatal pores perforate the epidermis and are surrounded on each side by chloroplast-containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts, forming a specialized cell group known as the stomatal complex. The opening and closing of the stomatal aperture is controlled by the stomatal complex and regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the leaf. Stomata therefore play the important role in allowing photosynthesis without letting the leaf dry out. In a typical leaf, the stomata are more numerous over the abaxial (lower) epidermis than the adaxial (upper) epidermis and are more numerous in plants from cooler climates.", "Pavement cells are the most numerous epidermal cells, irregularly shaped and the least specialised. They do not contain chlorophlasts. Because they are transparent, light can penetrate into the interior of stems and leaves, where photosynthesis occurs. Pavement cells are tightly packed together to prevent water loss. The epiderms if leaves and stems is covered by a waxy cuticle, which also helps prevent water loss. However, the epidermis is also perforated by openings called stomata, which permit gas exchange. Specialised cells called guard cells control the opening and closing of these stomata, regulating the exchange of gases and water vapour between the outside air and the interior of the leaf. A stoma is open when the guard cells surrounding it are swollen (turgid) with water, and closed when the guard cells lose water and become flaccid. ", "The outermost layer of the leaf is the epidermis. It consists of the upper and lower epidermis, which are present on either side of the leaf. Botanists call the upper side the adaxial surface (or adaxis) and the lower side the abaxial surface (or abaxis). The epidermis aids in the regulation of gas exchange. It contains stomata, which are openings through which the exchange of gases takes place. Two guard cells surround each stoma , regulating its opening and closing. Guard cells are the only epidermal cells to contain chloroplasts.", "Angiosperms are vascular plants, containing xylem (going up) and phloem (bringing down) in various bundled patterns.  They have true roots, for holding the plants firm as well as for taking in water and nutrients;  they have true stems, for support and for moving materials up and down;  they have leaves, usually flat, for most of their photosynthesis.  Leaves , and sometimes stems, have pores called stomates that can be opened or closed.  When open, carbon dioxide for photosynthesis enters air spaces inside the leaf through which it gets to photosynthetic cells, but water is also lost (this is the main source of transpiration from angiosperms).  By controlling the pores, a plant can get enough carbon dioxide for its needs and minimize its water losses.  Clusters of xylem and phloem, plus a reinforcing sheath to help support the leaf, are called veins.", "An appendage growing from the stem of a plant. Leaves are extremely variable in form and function according to species. For example, the needles of pine trees, the spines of cacti, and the bright red parts of the poinsettia plant are all leaves modified for different purposes. However, most leaves are flat and green and adapted to capturing sunlight and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. They consist of an outer tissue layer (the epidermis) through which water and gases are exchanged, a spongy inner layer of cells that contain chloroplasts, and veins that supply water and minerals and carry out food. Some leaves are simple, while others are compound, consisting of multiple leaflets. The flat part of the leaf, the blade, is often attached to the stem by a leafstalk.", "Stomata are pores found on the leaf surface that regulate the exchange of gases between the leaf's interior and the atmosphere. Stomatal closure is a natural response to darkness or drought as a means of conserving water.", "In cross section there are three major regions to see in the inside of a leaf: epidermis, mesophyll and veins—or vascular bundles. The epidermal layer is one cell thick and covers the entire surface of the leaf. On the lower surface of the leaf blade, the epidermis is interrupted by stomata. Which will be discussed shortly. From the top, the epidermal cells look like jigsaw puzzle pieces fit tightly together.  The guard cells in the lower epidermal layer contain chloroplasts, but otherwise the epidermal cells do not have any chloroplasts and function as primary protection for the cells beneath. Most leaves have a thin covering of waxy cuticle.", "(singular: stoma) tiny openings on the surface of leaves that control the exchange of gases in a plant.", "To photosynthesize, plants must absorb from the atmosphere. However, this comes at a price: while stomata are open to allow to enter, water can evaporate. Water is lost much faster than is absorbed, so plants need to replace it, and have developed systems to transport water from the moist soil to the site of photosynthesis. Early plants sucked water between the walls of their cells, then evolved the ability to control water loss (and acquisition) through the use of stomata. Specialized water transport tissues soon evolved in the form of hydroids, tracheids, then secondary xylem, followed by an endodermis and ultimately vessels.", "a tubular structure, often made of leaves or bracts, which surround a stem or other plant organ", "Epidermal cells have two features that prevent the plant from losing water: they are packed densely together and they are covered by a cuticle (a waxy layer secreted by the cells). The epidermis usually consists of a single layer of cells, although the specialized leaves of some desert plants have epidermal layers that are several cells thick. The epidermis contains small pores called stomata, which are mostly found on the lower leaf surface. Each individual stoma (pore) is surrounded by a pair of specialized guard cells. In most species, the guard cells close their stomata during the night (and during times of drought) to prevent water loss. During the day, the guard cells open their stomata so they can take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and give off oxygen as a waste product.", "Chloroplasts are give plants their characteristic green colour and are the site of photosynthesis. Like a mitochondrion, a chloroplast has an outer and inner membrane, with an intermembrane space between them. Within the inner membrane lies the stroma, which contains the thylakoid membranes - the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoid membranes form a series of flattened, fluid-filled, interconnected tubules that are often stacked on top of each other to form a structure called a granum. The photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll , are located in the thylakoid membranes.", "Leaves: The stalks of the plants have superimposed layers flowing to form flat, tightly wrapped green leaves.", "A typical leaf is an outgrowth of a stem and has two main parts: the blade (flattened portion) and the petiole (pronounced PET-ee-ole; the stalk connecting the blade to the stem). Some leaves also have stipules, small", "Cross section of a leaf, showing the anatomical features important to the study of photosynthesis: stoma, guard cell, mesophyll cells, and vein. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates ( www.sinauer.com ) and WH Freeman ( www.whfreeman.com ), used with permission.", "Fronds are compound leaves attached by a short stalk called the stipe to the underground stem or rhizome", "A compound leaf structure with a feather-like formation of leaflets arranged in pairs or alternating along the main stem.", "Tracheae are deep invaginations in the body surface and are lined with a thin layer of chitin, which forms a supportive spiral filament that prevents collapse of the tubule walls. In insects and solpugids, extremely slender branchings of the tracheae, tracheoles, thread through the entire body, entwining the organs and even penetrating the interiors of some cells. Thus, oxygen is delivered directly to the site where it is required, and gases are exchanged without the help of a circulatory system.", "Most of the Viscaceae bear evergreen leaves that photosynthesise effectively, and photosynthesis proceeds within their green, fleshy stems as well. Some species, such as \"Viscum capense\", are adapted to semi-arid conditions and their leaves are vestigial scales, hardly visible without detailed morphological investigation. Therefore their photosynthesis and transpiration only take place in their stems, limiting their demands on the host's supply of water, but also limiting their intake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Accordingly their contribution to the host's metabolic balance becomes trivial and the idle parasite may become quite yellow as it grows, having practically given up photosynthesis.", "Leaves are slightly wrinkled, pointed at the tip and tapered at the base (Photo: P Sterry/NPL)", "Chloroplasts are the organelles that conduct photosynthesis. They capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH. They are observed as flat discs usually 2 to 10 micrometers in diameter and 1 micrometer thick. The chloroplast is contained by an envelope that consists of an inner and outer phospholipid membrane. Between these layers is the intermembrane space. The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma and it contains many molecules of small, circular DNA (though it is often found in branched linear form, such as in corn). Within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids, which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana. A thylakoid has a flattened disk shape and has an empty space called the thylakoid space or lumen. The process of photosynthesis takes place on the thylakoid membrane. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are antenna complexes that consist of the light-absorbing pigments, such as chlorophyll and carotenoids, as well as the proteins that bind the pigments. These complexes increase the surface area for light capture and allows the capture of photons with a wider range of wavelengths. The energy of the incident photons is absorbed by the pigments and funneled to the reaction center of the complex through resonance energy transfer. From there, two chlorophyll molecules are ionized, which produces an excited electron which passes on to the photochemical reaction center.", "(Botany) One of the small overlapping plate-like parts that make up the modified leaf of cedars" ]

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[ "The gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, Cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. The term \"gymnosperm\" comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος (γυμνός gymnos, \"naked\" and σπέρμα sperma, \"seed\"), meaning \"naked seeds\", after the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). Their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, often modified to form cones, or at the end of short stalks as in Ginkgo.", "a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetales. The term \"gymnosperm\" comes from the Greek word gymnospermos, meaning \"naked seeds\", after the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). Their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary.", "The plant kingdom is further classified into divisions. Trees are included in the division Spermatophyta. Spermatophytes include all plants that have seeds. Divisions are further broken down into subdivisions. Spermatophytes are divided into two subdivisions, Angiospermae (encased seeds) and Gymnospermae (naked seeds). Trees are included in both of these subdivisions.", "����������� The third important terrestrial adaptation of seed plants is, of course, the seed itself. A seed consists of a plant embryo packaged along with a food supply within a protective coat. Seeds develop from structures called ovules (Figure 16.16). In conifers, the ovules are locate on the scales of female cones. Conifers and other gymnosperms, lacking ovaries, bear their seeds \"naked\" on the cone scales ( though the seeds do have protective coats, of course). Once released from the parent plant, the resistant seed can remain dormant for days, months, or even years. Under favorable conditions, the seed can then germinate, its embryo emerging through the seed coat as a seedling. Some seeds drop close to their parents. Others are carried far by the wind or animals.", "gymnosperm any vascular plant that reproduces by means of an exposed seed, or ovule —unlike angiosperms, or flowering plants, whose seeds are enclosed by mature ovaries, or fruits. The seeds of many gymnosperms (literally “naked seeds”) are borne in cones and are...", "The seeds of gymnosperms are “naked” or only partly enclosed by tissues of the parent plant. An example would be a conifer cone.  Conifer cone seeds are wind pollinated and seeds form on the scales of the female cones.", "����������� The fourth major episode in the evolutionary history of plants was the emergence of flowering plants, or angiosperms (\"seed container\"). The flower is a complex reproductive structure that bears seeds within protective chambers (containers) called ovaries. This contrasts with the bearing of naked seeds by gymnosperms. The great majority of modern-day plants are angiosperms.", "A series of changes in the reproductive biology among some heterosporous plants during the Late Devonian overcame this environmental restriction and allowed them to colonize a much wider range of habitats. These changes also led to the evolution of seed plants. In seed plants, the megaspore is retained in the megasporangium and the microspore is taken to a pollen chamber at the tip of this organ. The megasporangium is then sealed, and gametophyte development and fertilization occur within a protected environment. When such a megasporangium is enclosed in a seed coat, the structure with its enclosed embryo is called a seed. Seeds of the earliest such plants were exposed to the external environment; those “naked seed” plants are referred to as gymnosperms .", "The gymnosperms have 'naked seeds', i.e. their ovules and seeds (fertilized ovules) are exposed on the surface of sporophylls and analogous structures. The megagametophyte (female gametophyte, n) develops from the functional megaspore (n) within the nucellus (megasporangium, 2n). The megagametophyte of the gymnosperms is homologous to the megaprothallium (n) of the ferns and is sometimes called primary endosperm (n). The megagametophyte of seed plants is retained and nourished by the parent plant within the ovule. Ovule = megagametophyte + megasporangium (nucellus) + integument (seed coat). The megagametophytes of the gymnosperms produce several archegonia (n) with egg cells (n). Fertilization by the sperm from the pollen grain (microgametophyte, male gametophye, n) often leads to the development of several embryos (2n) within a single ovule. Polyembryony of gymnosperm seeds is a known phenomenon. In most cases only one embryo survives and therefore relatively few fully developed gymnosperm seeds contain more than one embryo.", "evergreen trees and shrubs of the botancial group gymnosperms; plants which produce naked seeds usually in cones.", "Achenium (n.) A small, dry, indehiscent fruit, containing a single seed, as in the buttercup; -- called a naked seed by the earlier botanists.", "Plants (pines, spruces, redwoods, and their relatives) whose seeds are exposed on cones rather than covered, like the seeds of flowering plants.", "a member of the division of seed plants with the ovules and hence seeds, borne on a sporophyll or cone scale, and not borne in an ovary. cf. angiosperm", "����������� The second period of plant evolution was the diversification of vascular plants (plants with vascular tissue that conducts water and nutrients). The earliest vascular plants lacked seeds. Today, this seedless condition is retained by ferns and a few other groups of vascular plants.", "The first seed plants, Pteridosperms (seed ferns), now extinct, appeared in the Devonian and diversified through the Carboniferous. In these the microgametophyte is reduced to pollen and the megagametophyte remains inside the megasporangium, attached to the parent plant. A megasporangium invested in protective layer called an integument is known as an ovule. After fertilisation by means of sperm deposited by pollen grains, an embryo develops inside the ovule. The integument becomes a seed coat, and the ovule develops into a seed. Seed plants can survive and reproduce in extremely arid conditions, because they are not dependent on free water for the movement of sperm, or the development of free living gametophytes.", ", any plant of the order Cycadales, tropical and subtropical palmlike evergreens. The cycads, ginkgoes, and conifers comprise the three major orders of gymnosperms, or cone-bearing plants (see cone and plant). The cycads first appeared in the Permian period.", "The relationship of ginkgo to other plant groups remains uncertain. It has been placed loosely in the divisions Spermatophyta and Pinophyta, but no consensus has been reached. Since its seeds are not protected by an ovary wall, it can morphologically be considered a gymnosperm. The apricot-like structures produced by female ginkgo trees are technically not fruits, but are seeds that have a shell consisting of a soft and fleshy section (the sarcotesta), and a hard section (the sclerotesta).", "lycophyte: Commonly known as club mosses, lycophytes were among the first seedless plants to appear on Earth. Along with horsetails and ferns, these made the planet more hospitable for the first animals.", "Cycads - Cycads are an ancient group of seed plants characterized by a large crown of compound leaves and a stout trunk. They are evergreen, gymnospermous, dioecious (having male reproductive organs in one individual and female in another) plants having large pinnately compound leaves. They are frequently confused with and mistaken for palms or ferns, but are unrelated to either, belonging to the order Cycadales. They flourished especially during the Jurassic and are represented by four surviving families of palm-like tropical plants. Source: Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.); Wikipedia", "Most familiar are the multicellular land plants, called Embryophytes. They include the vascular plants, plants with full systems of leaves, stems, and roots. They also include a few of their close relatives, often called Bryophytes, of which mosses and liverworts are the most common.", "   Fern.—According to a curious notion fern-seed was supposed to possess the power of rendering persons invisible. Hence it was a most important object of superstition, being gathered mystically, especially on Midsummer Eve. It was believed at one time to have neither flower nor seed; the seed, which lay on the back of the leaf, being so small as to escape the detection of the. hasty observer. On this account, probably, proceeding on the fantastic doctrine of signatures, our ancestors derived the notion that those who could obtain and wear this invisible seed would be themselves invisible; a belief which is referred to in \"1 Henry IV.\" (ii. 1)—", "Iris is a genus of 260–300 species of flowering plants with showy flowers. It takes its name from the Greek word for a rainbow, referring to the wide variety of flower colors found among the many species. As well as being the scientific name, iris is also very widely used as a common name for all Iris species, though some plants called thus belong to other closely related genera. A common name for some species is 'flags', while the plants of the subgenus Scorpiris are widely known as 'junos', particularly in horticulture. It is a popular garden flower. The often-segregated, monotypic genera Belamcanda, Hermodactylus, and Pardanthopsis are currently included in Iris.", "The shapes of the seeds fascinated me. They were not only small, oval or round like the garden seeds, they took many shapes and sizes.  Some seeds were encased in berries; others were encased in cones or grew in long clusters. Some were round, some were square and a large number were geometrically shaped like small geodesic domes.  Every seed was unique and held a mystery within it. Every seed had adapted so it could survive a more or less competitive environment. I learned that plants disperse their seeds because they do not want new plants nearby competing for water, light and nutrients.  The fruits or pods that contain the seeds have adapted to different dispersal methods.  For instance, the acorn of the White Oak has a fruit that looks like a seed, but the outside of the acorn has a tough wall to protect the seed within. When the acorn falls to the ground it rolls away from the parent plant.  The acorn is very attractive to animals.  The squirrel will carry the acorn away and bury it. How convenient that the squirrel “plants” the acorn in the ground.", "The name Schcenocaulon indicates the habit of the scape, meaning 'a rush' and 'a stem.' The name Asagrcea commemorates Professor Asa Gray of Harvard University, the most distinguished of living American botanists. It is not quite certain whether the seeds are obtained from the Veratrum Sabadilla, a plant 3 or 4 feet high, or from the V. officinale, differing slightly in appearance and construction. The seeds are black, shining, flat, shrivelled and winged, odourless, with a bitter, acrid, persistent and disagreeable taste, the pale grey, amorphous powder being errhine and violently sternutatory. The seeds were known in Europe as early as 1752, but officially only as the source of veratrine.", "They are named after an 18th century English agriculturalist. He invented a seed drill which planted seeds in rows. Before they adopted the name, they were known as \"The Blades.\"", "In botany, a seed plant embryo is part of a seed, consisting of precursor tissues for the leaves, stem (see hypocotyl), and root (see radicle), as well as one or more cotyledons. Once the embryo begins to germinate — grow out from the seed — it is called a seedling (plantlet).", "1830 Robert Brown published the first account of a cellular nucleus, which he called the \"aureole\" in what is also the first publication describing the growth of pollen tubes from the stigma to the ovule: \"On the organs and modes of fecundation in Orchideae and Asclepiadae,\" in The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. (HNT)", "One could speculate that silphion has somehow survived and is now known by another name. Some think that it is a member of genus Laserpitium (named after the ancient spice), other consider it more similar to Ferula, where asafetida belongs to. However, the description of Theophrastus emphasizes that silphion avoids cultivated soil: It is typical for this plant, he writes,", "The seed ferns (Lyginopteridposida, Pteridosperms) are a paraphyletic group of extinct gymnosperms. An interesting group, the \"medullosan seed ferns\" were abundant trees in Carboniferous floodplains end extend well into the Permian. This group includes Trigonocarpus, Pachytesta, Rhynchosperma, Medullosa and Stephanospermum.", "In the 17th century, Juan Balme, a renowned botanist, noted the Poinsettia in many of his writings. The botanical name, Euphorbia pulcherrima, was assigned to the Poinsettia by German botanist, Carl Ludwig Willdenow. The plant grew through a crack in his greenhouse. Dazzled by its color, Willdenow gave it the botanical name, Euphorbia pulcherrima meaning \"very beautiful.\"", "The last, however, are a basal grade of rather primitive members of this family, not closely related, but simply retaining many plesiomorphic traits. Instead of a subfamily, most ought to be treated as genera incertae sedis, but Corrigiola and Telephium might warrant recognition as Corrigioleae. The Alsinoideae, on the other hand, seem to form two distinct clades, perhaps less some misplaced genera. Finally, the Silenoideae appear monophyletic at least for the most part, if some of the taxa misplaced in Alsinoideae are moved there; it may be that the name Caryophylloideae would apply for the revised delimitation. ", "bear their seeds in cones. have vascular bundles that are arranged in a circle. do not produce flowers. have parallel venation." ]

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[ "ginkgo American Heritage Dictionary] (both pronounced), or as the maidenhair tree, is the only living species in the division Ginkgophyta, all others being extinct. It is found in fossils dating back 270 million years. Native to China, the tree is widely cultivated and was introduced early to human history. It has various uses in traditional medicine and as a source of food. The genus name Ginkgo is regarded as a misspelling of the Japanese gin kyo, \"silver apricot\".", "Ginkgo biloba is the only living species in this group of seed-bearing plants, although the \"ginkgophytes\" are known in the fossil record dating back to the last period of the Paleozoic Era. The group reached its apparent height of diversity and distribution in the Mesozoic Era with fossils known virtually world-wide. The common name for this species is the \"Ginkgo\" or the \"maidenhair tree\". Although commonly planted and cultivated, Ginkgos are not native to Wise County. In fact, whether or not there are any remaining wild populations anywhere in the world, continues to be an unsettled question. It may be that the species owes its current existence to cultivation. Ginkgo biloba is a dioecious species, meaning that male and female reproductive structures are produced on separate trees. The fleshy seed coatings produced on female Ginkgos produce butyric acid. This compound is also produced by some anaerobic bacteria in animal digestive tracts and is responsible (in part) for the \"distinctive\" smell of vomit. For this reason, female Ginkgo trees are considered (by some) to be less desirable for cultivation than their male counterparts.", "The Gingko or Maidenhair-tree (Gingko biloba) is among the most interesting of trees, owing to its being, like the Araucaria, a survival of the vegetation prevailing when the aspect of our globe was very different from that which it bears now. Both Gingko and Araucaria were classed as conifers by the older botanists; but certain archaic features in each have been recognised as justifying their rearrangement in two separate natural orders.", "a widely planted ornamental Chinese gymnosperm tree, Ginkgo biloba, with fan-shaped deciduous leaves and fleshy yellow fruit: phylum Ginkgophyta. It is used in herbal remedies and as a food supplement Also called maidenhair tree", "34. • • •• • ••Ginkgo biloba, Ginkgo Known as the Maidenhair Tree, is a unique species of tree with no close living relatives. The old popular name \"Maidenhair tree\" is because the leaves resemble some of the pinnae of the Maidenhair fern. The tree is widely cultivated and introduced, since an early period in human history, and has various uses as a food and traditional medicine. The leaves are unique among seed plants. Ginkgos are dioecious, with separate sexes, some trees being female and others Ginkgo leaves in autumn being male. It is one of the best-known examples of a living fossil, because Ginkgoales other than Ginkgo tree in autumn G. biloba are not known from the fossil record after the Pliocene. Extreme examples of the Ginkgo's tenacity may be seen in Hiroshima, Japan, where six Ginkgo biloba trees growing between 1–2 km from the Eocene leaf 1945 atom bomb explosion were among the few living things in the area to survive 34 the blast .The trees are alive to this day.", "BOTANICAL NAME : Ginkgo biloba. Also known as the maidenhair tree for its foliage form. It is a unique species of tree with no close living relatives. The ginkgo is a living fossil, recognisably similar to fossils dating back 270 million years. Native to China, the tree is widely cultivated and introduced early in human history, and has various uses as a food and in traditional medicine. Male & female trees, the female bears fruit that smell like rotten eggs, very powerful. A female tree was growing in Emily Place in Auckland City and fruited heavily. The fruit is globular, black when ripe.", "Pteridaceae the maidenhair fern family, containing about 50 genera and approximately 950 species, in the division Pteridophyta (the lower vascular plants). Members of Pteridaceae are distributed throughout the world, especially in tropical and warm-temperate regions....", "Sequoiadendron giganteum (Wellingtonia), Platanus orientalis (Oriental Plane), Quercus x hispnaica (Lucombe Oak), Quercus ilex (Holm Oak), Juglans nigra (Black Walnut), Gleditsia sinensis (Chinese Honey Locust), Cercis siliquastrum (Judas tree), Catalpa bignonioides (Indian Bean), Koelreuteria paniculta (Golden Rain Tree), Corylus colurna (Turkish Hazel), Cedrus atlantica (Glauca), Pinus sylvestris (Scots Pine), Pinus pinaster (Maritime Pine), Thuja orientalis (Flabelliformis), Garrya elliptica, Pyrus salicifolia (Pendula), Calycanthus occidentallis (Californian all spice), Morus nigra (Mulberry), Cotinus coggygria (Wig Tree), Liriodendrum tulipifera (Tulip Tree), Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Dawn redwood), Laurus noblis (BayTree laurel), Ginko biloba (Maidenhair Tree of China), Aesculus flava (Yellow Buck-eye), Tillia x petiolaris.", "The class Pinopsida is characterized by generally small, always simple leaves and by the active secondary growth of stem and root. Many members of this group flourished from Lower Carboniferous times to the Permian age. Plants of the order Pinales (conifers) occur in the Northern Hemisphere; a few species occur within the tropics at sea level. Conifers are the most numerous of living gymnosperms and form large and relatively pure forests. Common examples of conifers are the pines, firs, spruces, redwoods, cedars, junipers, hemlocks, and larches. The wood of conifers is used extensively for construction of all kinds. It has no vessels and thus differs from the wood of angiosperm trees. Although conifers are called softwoods and angiosperm trees hardwoods, the wood of some pines is much harder than that of some angiosperms. Most conifers are monoecious, i.e., the male and female cones occur on the same tree. The microspores, or pollen grains, are produced in such vast abundance that clouds of pollen, carried on the wind, have settled on ships far at sea. In plants of the order Taxales ( yews ) the seeds, produced individually on short shoots, are surrounded by a conspicuous, fleshy covering.", "Henna (Lawsonia inermis, also known as hina, the henna tree, the mignonette tree, and the Egyptian privet) is a flowering plant and the sole species of the Lawsonia genus. The English name \"henna\" comes from the Arabic (ALA-LC: ḥinnāʾ; pronounced) or, colloquially , loosely pronounced as.", "The class Ginkgoopsida contains the contains the ginkgo , Ginkgo biloba, the last surviving species of a once large and flourishing group of gymnosperms. The class Gnetopsida contains three genera in separate orders, all of great botanical and evolutionary interest. Gnetum is a tropical tree or shrub with broad leaves much like those of an angiosperm. Ephedra is a low shrub with scalelike leaves that grows in arid regions of western North America and in China; from it is produced the traditional Chinese herbal medicine ma huang and the drug ephedrine . Welwitschia, a desert plant of SW Africa, typically has only two large, leathery leaves that persist for the life of the plant, which can be as long as 1,500 years.", "21 June 2008 Tradescantia (also known as Spiderwort Lily) with its silky flowers with its three petals surrounding spidery stamens; Dactylorhiza or Marsh Orchid, one of the easiest of hardy orchids to grow; Balkan Holidays Airbus A320, one of the many charter holiday flights serving Scottish airports; Lilac flowers in the walled garden at Cambo Estate in the East Neuk of Fife; Balgonie Castle in Fife, built originally in the 14th century and visited by King James IV and Mary Queen of Scots; Foxgloves (Digitalis) are wild flowers and one of the few tall plants (up to six feet in height) that can produce a colourful show in damp, shady borders; Cirsium; a cultivated variety of Thistle that grows to a height of four or five feet.", "Birch, any of about 40 species of short-lived ornamental and timber trees and shrubs constituting the genus Betula (family Betulaceae), distributed throughout cool regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Ivory birch (family Euphorbiaceae) and West Indian birch (family Burseraceae) are not true birches. The name bog birch is applied to a species of buckthorn, as well as to B. glandulosa.", "It is uncertain whether the maidenhair tree still persists in the wild and at present there are no conservation projects in place. Cultivated trees, however, are found throughout the world, and a multi-million dollar industry has cashed in on the medicinal properties of the leaves. As a result, it is likely that this ancient tree will stand the test of time.", "Taxus baccata (the common yew)The common yew — Taxus baccata — grows across much of the European continent. Ironically, it was simultaneously related to death (its leaves and seeds are toxic to humans and to livestock, though not to game) and to immortality since it is a very long-lived evergreen. Incredibly, the Llangernyw Yew, which grows in a churchyard in Llangernyw village in northern Wales, is thought to be more than four thousand years old, making it one of the world’s oldest living organisms. As for the oak, in the modern world it is often associated with the construction of fine furniture or the production of alcoholic beverages, for instance oak barrels for maturing wine, whiskey or cognac. In Celtic and Germanic cultures, that mighty tree was recognized as a cosmic axis mundi linking people with the sky and the gods:", "HOLLY (Ilex Aquifolium), the European representative of a large genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order Ilicineae, containing about 170 species. The genus finds its chief development in Central and South America ; is well developed in Asia , especially the Chinese -Japanese area, and has but few species in Europe , Africa and Australia . In Europe, where I. Aquifolium is the sole surviving species, the genus was richly represented during the Miocene period by forms at first South American and Asiatic, and later North American in type (Schimper, Paleont. veget. iii. 204, 1874). The leaves are generally leathery and evergreen , and are alternate and stalked; the flowers are commonly dioecious, are in axillary cymes, fascicles or umbellules, and have a persistent fourto five-lobed calyx, a white, rotate fouror rarely fiveor six-cleft corolla, with the four or five stamens adherent to its base in the male, sometimes hypogynous in the female flowers, and a twoto twelve-celled ovary; the fruit is a globose, very seldom ovoid, and usually red drupe, containing two to sixteen one-seeded stones.", "The genus includes annual, biennial and perennial herbaceous plants and soft-wooded shrubs, growing from 1–3 m tall. The leaves are spirally arranged, and palmately lobed. The flowers are conspicuous, 4–12 cm diameter, with five white, pink or red petals; they are produced in terminal clusters. ( link )", "Buddleja, or Buddleia (also historically given as Buddlea) commonly known as the butterfly bush is a genus comprising over 100 species of flowering plants endemic to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The generic name bestowed by Linnaeus posthumously honoured the Reverend Adam Buddle (1662–1715), an English botanist and rector, at the suggestion of Dr. William Houstoun. Houstoun sent the first plants to become known to science as buddleja (B. americana) to England from the Caribbean about 15 years after Buddle's death.", "This is the first monograph published on this plant group. Accounts are given of all known birches found in Europe, Asia and North America, both white and brown barked, and a key for their identification. The extensive fossil record and recent molecular work are reviewed and, together with new data not previously published, used to provide information for a discussion of what can be deduced of the evolutionary relationships of the species and species groups. From the authors’ experience of growing and propagating almost all species, accounts are given of the cultivation requirements and landscape use of Betula species.", "The fruit is a long, thin legume-like pod, 20–40 cm long and 10–12 mm diameter; it often stays attached to the tree during winter (and can be mistaken for brown icicles). The pod contains numerous flat, light brown seeds with two papery wings. It is closely related to southern catalpa, and can be distinguished by the flowering panicles, which bear a smaller number of larger flowers, and the slightly broader seed pods. The wood is soft, like white pine, and light, weighing only 26 pounds per cubic foot when dry. It also does not rot easily.", "In Oklahoma and Arkansas and eastern Texas the burning bush becomes a good-sized tree and its hard, close-grained wood is peculiarly adapted to making spindles, knitting needles, skewers, and toothpicks. \"Prickwood\" is the English name. Chinese and Japanese species have been added to our list of flowering trees and vines. Two shrubby species of Euonymus belong to the flora of North America, but the bulk of the large family is tropical.", "The tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) is descended from an extremely remote ancestry, and remains one of the stateliest denizens of the North American river valleys, ranging from 150 to 190 feet high. The form of its leaves is unique among those of forest trees, being lyrate, ending in two pointed or rounded lobes considerably longer than the midrib. Ruskin declared it to be the only leaf which did not display one form or other of a Gothic arch—round or pointed. These leaves turn a beautiful clear yellow in autumn, and in summer the flowers, in size and shape like those of a tulip, attract numbers of bees. If only they were a little more gaily painted, the tulip tree would be among the showiest of park trees; but the petals are of a dull greenish white, with a splash of orange at the base of the interior of each, where one can't see it—unless one happens to be a bee.", "Berberis x stenophylla 'Corallina Compacta'. Berberidaceae. (From the alteration of Medieval Latin - barberis barberry, from Arabic barbaris ) A genus of about 450-500 species of deciduous and evergreen shrubs with thorny shoots, found throughout the temperate and subtropical regions of the world (apart from Australia). Species diversity is greatest in South America, Africa and Asia; Europe has a few species, and North America two. There are but a few species which are eminently suitable for the rock garden.", "Thuja plicata, commonly called western or Pacific redcedar, giant or western arborvitae, giant cedar, or shinglewood, is a species of Thuja, an evergreen coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae native to western North America. The provincial tree of British Columbia, it has extensive applications for Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest. ", "BROOM: (Genista scoparius syn. Cytisus scoparius and Sarothamnus scoparious) Also known as Scotch Broom, and Irish broom. A Druid Sacred Tree, it is a many-branched erect shrub with simple or trifoliate leaves, and golden \"sweet-pea\" flowers. A flowering sprig of Broom was a heraldic battle device of Henry II of England who is said to have taken the family name Plantagenet from this medieval \"planta genista\".", "44. Chionanthus virginicus, White Fringetree • Chionanthus virginicus (White Fringetree) is a tree native to the eastern United States, from New Jersey south to Florida, and west to Oklahoma and Texas. • It is a deciduous shrub or small tree growing to as much as 10–11 m tall, though ordinarily less. • Said to be Thomas Jefferson’s favorite tree, it is covered by fleecy panicles of white blossoms in late May and early June. Female blossoms produce dark ege shaped fruit, called drupes, which are quite noticeable in August. • The dried roots and bark were used by Native Americans to treat skin inflammations.FlowersFoliageFruits44", "It is a large deciduous shrub or small tree, up to tall, with gray bark often coated with lichens and mosses. It typically is multi-trunked, with a crown as broad as it is high. Trees are long lived, with an estimated lifespan between 250-280 (300 maximum) years. The leaves are dark green, palmately compound with five (rarely seven) leaflets. Each leaflet is long, with a finely toothed margin and (particularly in spring) downy surfaces. The leaves are tender and prone to damage from both spring freezing or snow and summer heat and desiccation.", "Soapwort, or \"bouncing Bet,\" is an easy perennial to grow and, unlike most herbs, tolerates moist or dry, poor soil and some shade. It produces white blooms in the summer. Its name comes from the use of its leaves as a mild, sudsing soap-like solution used even in these times for cleaning fine tapestries and other old fabrics (the term \"wort\" is from the Old English wyrt, meaning root, plant, or herb). It can be propagated from either divisions or seed, and will self-sow.", "A small tree 20 to 30 feet high, with many opposite slender drooping branches, bark smooth grey-brown. Young twigs glabrous; leaves opposite, without stipules, petiole slender, about 1/2 inch long, blade 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches long, oval, ovate-oval or lanceolate, acute or obtuse at apex, tapering at base into petiole entire, smooth on both sides, glaucous beneath. Flowers small, numerous, shortly stalked in small pyramidal erect terminal and axillary, trichotomus paniculate, cymes panicle, branches smooth, bracts small passing into leaves below.", "This article pays a tribute to several trees which have managed to survive and prosper over thousands of years.", "The climbing fetterbush (Pieris phillyreifolia) is a woody shrub-vine which climbs without clinging roots, tendrils, or thorns. It directs its stem into a crevice in the bark of fibrous barked trees (such as bald cypress) where the stem adopts a flattened profile and grows up the tree underneath the host tree's outer bark. The fetterbush then sends out branches that emerge near the top of the tree. ", "any of numerous trees of north temperate regions having light soft wood and flowers borne in catkins" ]

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[ "The term hibernation is also used to delineate the dormant state only during winter. In arid regions a reverse phenomenon is seen in which the animal becomes torpid during the hot, dry, barren summer; such hibernation is called estivation . As a means of avoiding environmental stresses, hibernation and estivation are not common devices among warm-blooded animals and they are far less common among birds than among mammals.", "A precise, fixed definition of hibernation is somewhat elusive. A common way of explaining hibernation is to call it a state of winter dormancy, a period of inactivity in which an animal will conserve energy by maintaining a lowered body temperature for most of the winter. Yet there are also creatures, such as the North American desert tortoise, that employ a comparable state of dormancy and body temperature regulation to protect themselves against extreme heat. This may be called aestivation. There is another term, however, brumation, that refers to a winter state of sluggishness in certain reptiles and amphibians, which don’t maintain a high body temperature. Body temperature, then, may be somewhat misleading as a telltale indicator of hibernation. Perhaps the best way to look at hibernation, given the circumstances, is as a set of seasonal adaptations that animals employ to survive regularly occurring periods of famine. Here is a closer look at the adaptations of five animals that face the challenges of a winter climate:", "In biology, a state of relative metabolic inactivity in a plant or animal, such as is seen both in winter (hibernation) and summer (aestivation). The notion is particularly used for the state in which viable seeds and buds fail to germinate even under favourable conditions. Dormancy is a period in an organism's life cycle when development is temporarily suspended. Dormancy tends to be close…", "Hibernation is a mechanism used by many mammals to escape cold weather and food shortage over the winter. Hibernation may be predictive or consequential. An animal prepares for hibernation by building up a thick layer of body fat during late summer and autumn that will provide it with energy during the dormant period. During hibernation, the animal undergoes many physiological changes, including decreased heart rate (by as much as 95%) and decreased body temperature. Animals that hibernate include bats, ground squirrels and other rodents, mouse lemurs, the European hedgehog and other insectivores, monotremes and marsupials. Although hibernation is almost exclusively seen in mammals, some birds, such as the common poorwill, may hibernate.", "With all deep hibernators, except the bats, hibernation is seasonal, usually occurring during the cold winter months. In all cases, it occurs in animals which would face extremely difficult conditions if they had to remain active and search for food. During a preparation period for hibernation, the animals either become fat, like the woodchuck, or store food in their winter quarters, like the chipmunk and hamster. Prior to hibernation, there is a general involution of the endocrine glands, but at least part of this occurs soon after the breeding season and is not directly concerned with hibernation. Animals such as ground squirrels become more torpid during the fall, even when kept in a warm environment, indicating a profound metabolic change which may be controlled by the endocrine glands. In most hibernators lack of food has little if any effect, and the stimulus for hibernation is not known. It has been reported that an extract from the blood of an animal in hibernation will induce hibernation when infused into an active potential hibernator, indicating that the factor which produces hibernation may be bloodborne.", "aestivation ; estivation ((zoology) cessation or slowing of activity during the summer; especially slowing of metabolism in some animals during a hot or dry period)", "This course examines hibernation, a special form of adaptation that animals can make to the ecological demands of remaining in a chosen habitat in winter. Hibernation is a state which enables energy-efficient survival when ambient temperatures are so low that foraging or simply maintaining normal core body temperature and basal metabolic rate are either energetically too costly or impossible.", "Most of the reptiles and many small rodents and insects go into an inactive state of hibernation during the winter. However, winter is the time of greatest bird concentrations in the park, because of the presence of many migrant species.", "(hī'bərnā`shən) [Lat.,= wintering], practice, among certain animals, of spending part of the cold season in a more or less dormant state, apparently as protection from cold when normal body temperature cannot be maintained and food is scarce. Hibernating animals are able to store enough food in their bodies to carry them over until food is again obtainable. They do not grow during hibernation, and all body activities are reduced to a minimum: there may be as few as one or two heartbeats a minute. Cold-blooded animals (e.g., insects, reptiles, amphibians, and fish) must hibernate if they live in environments where the temperature—and hence their own body temperature—drops below freezing. Some insects pass their larval stage in a state of hibernation; in such cases hibernation is closely associated with the reproductive cycle (see larva larva,", "As winter sets in and temperatures become too low and food sources are greatly reduced in availability, desert reptiles head into a hibernaculum to hibernate (or brumate) through the coldest winter months. Just as being too hot can ultimately be lethal, so can being too cold, so care must be taken when altering the reptile's environment to promote a period of hibernation or brumation", "The importance of timing in the annual rhythm of activity and dormancy can be demonstrated: when hibernators are exposed to cold temperatures in spring and summer, they react as do all homoiotherms by increasing their thyroid activity and metabolic rate to maintain normal body temperature. But if they are exposed to cold temperatures in the fall, the thyroid activity and metabolic rate of hibernators are lowered. In some species, a combination of decreased food and lower ambient temperature is required to reduce activity of the thyroid gland and to produce hibernation, although cold alone is sufficient in ground squirrels and the dormouse.", "The fact that some seasonal hibernators can undergo such profound physiological remodeling even in the absence of external input from environmental cues provides strong evidence that the ability to hibernate is driven by a molecular genetic mechanism rather than being an acute physiological response to periodic food scarcity and/or low ambient temperatures. Since the work of Dubois ( 81 ) and others in the late 1800s, scientists have studied and speculated on the mechanisms of mammalian hibernation. Although there is now a considerable amount of information detailing various aspects of the morphological, physiological, and biochemical changes that are associated with hibernation, the cellular and molecular bases of mammalian hibernation are still poorly understood. This review focuses on the latter topic and as such, we do not include information on organ and systemic physiology of hibernation unless it is pertinent to illustrate hibernation-specific effects at the cellular and molecular levels. Parallels can be drawn between mammalian hibernators and other nonmammalian organisms that undergo extended periods of metabolic depression as part of their normal life cycles. Several reviews and conference proceedings are available for aspects of hibernation biology ( 28 , 45 , 98 , 100 , 117 , 120 , 153 , 167 , 169 , 186 , 247 ), for mammals that undergo daily torpor and its comparison to hibernation ( 100 , 165 , 256 ), and for nonmammalian metabolic depression ( 26 , 109 , 112 ) that are not detailed here.", "Fat-storing hibernators eliminate food ingestion during the hibernation season and instead rely on the products of lipid hydrolysis (fatty acids and glycerol) obtained from white adipose tissue (WAT) as their primary fuel source. In contrast, food-storing hibernators such as chipmunks and hamsters used cached food that is ingested during periodic arousals and subsequently metabolized ( 136 ). Hibernation in bears is characterized by metabolic depression and extended fasting, yet their minimal Tb values during torpor remain only a few degrees below normal euthermic values (30-34°C). The seasonal increase in WAT by fat-storing hibernators can lead to a near doubling of body weight from spring emergence to fall immergence. Impressive as this fuel storage is, mammalian hibernators could not survive the 5- to 8-mo hibernation season on fatty acid metabolism alone if metabolic rate remained at active, euthermic levels. Thus the profound metabolic depression characteristic of the torpid state significantly reduces energy costs and is therefore a critical component of the hibernating phenotype.", "Often associated with low temperatures, the function of hibernation is to conserve energy during a period when sufficient food is unavailable. To achieve this energy saving, an endotherm will first decrease its metabolic rate, which then decreases body temperature. Hibernation may last several days, weeks, or months depending on the species, ambient temperature, time of year, and individual's body condition.", "When an animal hibernates, it isn't as simple as the animal just sleeping for a long time. When an animal sleeps, the animals brain is still active so the animal is able to move around in their sleep and can also wake up quickly. When an animal hibernates, the animals heart rate slows down, the animals body temperature drops as it is exposed to cold surroundings and the animals breathing slows down meaning that the animal takes longer than usual to wake up. The animal spends the months before it hibernates eating lots of food to make sure its body has enough energy to survive the winter. Some animals are in hibernation for the duration of the winter meaning they don't wake up at all, others wake up every few weeks to have a snack and walk about before going back into hibernation.", "The physiological and biochemical changes that occur in mammalian hibernators are similar in some respects to those observed in lower vertebrates and invertebrates that undergo estivation and other forms of dormancy. These include the seasonal deposition of fuel reserves, typically in the form of lipid; the switch from carbohydrate to lipid oxidation during periods of metabolic depression; depression of RNA and protein synthesis and degradation; use of reversible phosphorylation of enzymes and other proteins as means to rapidly control metabolic processes; and evidence of increased oxidative stress and antioxidant defenses in certain tissues ( 108 , 109 , 112 , 121 , 227 ).", "Hibernation: an energy-conserving lowering of metabolism, respiration, heart rate, and body temperature while the body survives on accumulated fat supplies. See Estivation.", "Israeli hedgehogs will hibernate during the colder winter weather, though the east European species will generally do so only for a few days a time during extremes of cold, remaining active for much of the winter. By contrast North African desert hedgehogs, hibernate during the fierce Saharan summer, while Israeli desert hedgehogs due so during the chilliest days of winter.", "• This species is active all year long however during winter or periods of cold activity decreases significantly. [3]", "Some animals hibernate (go into a deep sleep) so they can survive throughout the cold season when the weather is freezing and the food is scarce. Hibernation truly is a clever survival mechanism. Here is a list of 10 animals that hibernate.", "There appears to be a relationship between sleep and hibernation; available evidence suggests that hibernation is entered into from a state of sleep. If hibernation is to be considered a form of sleep, then it must be considered a remarkably complex one. Hibernation and sleep are somewhat similar in that essential body processes continue during both periods at a lowered level. In sleep, the heart beats less rapidly, and breathing is slower; the body produces less heat, necessitating that a sleeping person be protected from the cold.", "If the weather conditions are mild adults can remain active and survive a second winter. Alternatively they will burrow underground and hibernate until the following March.", "The nervous system of hibernators also is acclimated; certain specific structures and pathways are seemingly maintained to regulate and coordinate metabolism as temperatures drop. This adaptation of the nervous system enables changes in the environment to be perceived, even when the animal is torpid. In the Arctic ground squirrel, measurements of the general electrical activity of the brain indicate a 90 percent reduction when the animal is in hibernation, at which time brain temperatures approximate 6 °C (43 °F). During hibernation, both the peripheral nervous system (all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord, which constitute the central nervous system) and the spinal cord have an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli; in addition, the areas of the brain that regulate temperature as well as cardiac (heart) and respiratory function remain active at ambient temperatures, below which the mammalian nervous system normally ceases to function.", "• Before the onset of winter, the animal eats a lot of food and stores it in the body in the form of fat. When it undergoes hibernation, the animal uses this fat to survive the chilling days.", "The annual cycle that governs entry into and exit from hibernation is also under the control of internal physiological systems. For example, as the bodies of hibernating male squirrels return to normal in the spring, a sustained, increased secretion of sex hormones prevents return to hibernation.", "Notes: They wake from hibernation and torpor to eat some and then return to sleep. (Torpor is an advanced stage of hibernation where about 75% of the chipmunk’s functions cease. This decreases energy usage, but can cause temporary brain damage [3] .)", "Studies in arctic and 13-lined ground squirrels suggest that plasma ascorbate may function as an antioxidant during the hibernation season ( 77 , 237 ). Plasma ascorbate increased three- to fourfold in both species during torpor and returned to euthermic levels upon arousal, an effect that appeared to be due to changes in oxygen consumption rather than Tb ( 77 ). In contrast, tissue ascorbate concentrations increased significantly during arousal in liver and spleen, which may reflect a redistribution of plasma ascorbate pools to counter increased ROS production generated by the rapid increase in mitochondrial activity during this time ( 237 ). The activities of several antioxidant enzymes are also increased in certain tissues of European ground squirrels during hibernation. BAT, which undergoes dramatic increases in mitochondrial activity and blood flow during arousal, displayed higher activities of superoxide dismutase, ascorbate, and glutathione peroxidase during hibernation. Glutathione peroxidase was also increased in liver, and ascorbate levels were higher in plasma during hibernation ( 42 - 44 ).", "These animals were reported to hibernate from November until February or March Source: Encyclopedia of Life", "give definitions of the terms ‘hibernation’, ‘torpor’ and ‘adaptive hypothermia’, and the three physiological processes that underlie them", "As an Arctic ground squirrel prepares for hibernation, its heart rate and its blood pressure decrease. Both may be detected before a decrease in body temperature can be noted. When the animal enters hibernation, temperatures of both the heart and abdominal regions are identical, indicating an even blood flow between the anterior (front) and posterior (rear) parts of the body. As the body temperature drops, the resistance to blood flow in the peripheral parts of the circulatory system increases because of the increased viscosity (resistance to flow) of the chilled blood and the constriction of the distal arterioles (small arteries) of the body. This peripheral resistance maintains blood pressure at relatively high levels in the deeply hibernating squirrel, even when the heart beats only three or four times a minute.", "Regardless of where they occur, there is a similarity in their habits. In the fall, they hibernate by burying themselves in the sand. They emerge in the spring when the sun's rays have reached a certain temperature. The first few hours of the day are spent basking, usually flattened against a rock or on slanting soil, so their back is exposed to the sun. At times, while warming up, they may flatten and tilt their bodies toward the sun to obtain maximum radiation.", "obligate hibernator = hibernates every year. facultative hibernator = in response to conditions and food supply." ]

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[ "The scorpion is an eight-legged carnivorous anthropod, Scorpions are members of the class Arachnida and are closely related to spiders, mites, and ticks. Scorpions are sometimes referred to as ancient animals as scorpions have been on Earth for over 400 million years, meaning that scorpions already existed on Earth when the dinosaurs arrived.", "In his book \"The Stars in Our Heaven – Myths and Fables,\" (Pantheon Books, 1948) author Peter Lum writes: \"The scorpion is essentially a creature of darkness, a furtive little animal that lurks in the shadows, hides under stones or in any dark crevice and cannot bear to face the light … only at night does it come out in search of its prey. Although seldom fatal (its sting) is extremely painful; hence the scorpion is usually disliked, feared and avoided by anyone who has ever come in contact with him.\"", "Scorpions are generally nocturnal animals meaning that they spend the day under rocks and in crevices and then come out to hunt in the safety of darkness. Scorpions are carnivorous animals and paralyze their prey using the venomous sting on the end of their tail so that the scorpion can eat it.", "Scorpions are arthropods , they have eight legs, two pedipalps , and a tail with a venom-injecting barb. Scorpions have two venom glands that produce venom used in hunting and self defense. Scorpions do not have bones instead they have an exoskeleton made of chitin , which is similar to the shell of a shrimp.", "SYMBOL The Scorpion: A secretive, deadly creature that can poison its enemies. Its sting is often fatal.", "Scorpions are predatory arachnids of the order Scorpiones. They have eight legs and are easily recognized by the pair of grasping pedipalps and the narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger. Scorpions range in size from 9 mm / 0.3 in. (Typhlochactas mitchelli) to 23 cm / 9 in. (Heterometrus swammerdami). ", "Like spiders, scorpions are predators that feed on smaller animals, especially insects and other invertebrates.  They use their venomous stingers and pincers to capture their prey.  Although they appear formidable, small scorpions like the ones found in Kentucky are not well equipped to defend themselves from larger animals, and are often eaten by lizards, birds, spiders, and other scorpions.", "Scorpions are predatory arthropods germane to the Arachnida class, open all now the world, miss now Antarctica besides New Zealand. crack are approximately 2000 species of scorpions in the world. They most regularly inhibit areas shelter temperature ranging from 68°F to 99°F, but monopoly some cases incubus survive much more extreme temperatures. These nocturnal creatures mostly feed on smaller arthropods again insects.", "This type of scorpion is translucent and yellow in appearance, and is among the most venomous animals of the Sahara desert, and the entire world. They look ephemeral and fragile, but they are incredibly dangerous, capable of causing respiratory failure and death.", "Scorpion. Any member of the arachnid order Scorpionidae; they have an elongate body and a poison sting at the end of abdomen.", "*In South Africa and South Asia, the scorpion is a significant animal culturally, appearing as a motif in art, especially in Islamic art in the Middle East. A scorpion motif is often woven into Turkish kilim flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting. The scorpion is perceived both as an embodiment of evil and a protective force that counters evil, such as a dervish's powers to combat evil. In another context, the scorpion portrays human sexuality. Scorpions are used in folk medicine in South Asia especially in antidotes for scorpion stings.", "Whilst not a spider, it seems worthwhile to include this very nasty scorpion in our list. Up to three inches long and a sandy brown colour, it is often difficult to spot until it’s too late. The scorpion hunts insects and small lizards at night, and its poison causes localised swelling, intense pain, circulatory problems and in extreme cases shock and death. It has been reportedly responsible for many deaths with one attack accounting for five deaths out of 28 people bitten; a strike rate of around 16%. Consider yourself lucky though for the same scorpion inhabits North Africa where for some unknown reason its venom is many times more potent.", "One of the more infamous varieties of dangerous scorpions roaming the American Southwest is the Arizona bark scorpion (Centruroides sculpturatus). Deaths have been attributed to the venom of these dangerous creatures, but the numbers are uncertain.", "Spiders and scorpions are members of one chelicerate group, the arachnids. Scorpions' chelicerae have three sections and are used in feeding. Spiders' chelicerae have two sections and terminate in fangs that are generally venomous, and fold away behind the upper sections while not in use. The upper sections generally have thick \"beards\" that filter solid lumps out of their food, as spiders can take only liquid food. Scorpions' pedipalps generally form large claws for capturing prey, while those of spiders are fairly small appendages whose bases also act as an extension of the mouth; in addition, those of male spiders have enlarged last sections used for sperm transfer.", "Scorpions are preyed upon by large centipedes, tarantulas, lizards, birds (especially owls), and mammals such as bats, shrews, and grasshopper mice.", "Scorpions use different ways to get a meal, which may be an insect, spider, or even a small mouse or lizard. Many species wait by their burrow with pedipalps open and stinger raised until their unsuspecting prey wanders by. Others forage for their prey, and some species may even dig pitfall traps in the sand for prey. Scorpions have such sensitive hairs on their pedipalps that they can even locate and snap up an insect in flight. Once the prey is within reach, it is grabbed with the pincers and crushed. Most scorpions use their venomous sting only if needed, as it takes a lot of body energy to produce more venom. Younger and smaller scorpions may use their stinger more often than older and larger ones. ", "Whip scorpions are carnivorous, nocturnal hunters feeding mostly on insects but sometimes on worms and slugs. The prey is crushed between special teeth on the inside of the trochanters (the second segment of the leg) of the front legs. They are valuable in controlling cockroach and cricket populations.", "One of the most fascinating things about scorpions is that they fluoresce under ultraviolet light, probably due to the complex substance in the epidermis that makes it impermeable. To truly appreciate the lives of scorpions, take a black light out to the desert on a warm, moonless night. You�ll be amazed at how common scorpions are in the undisturbed Arizona Upland habitat. You can also use this technique to observe these ancient nocturnal arachnids as they detect and capture prey, court and mate, and dig burrows. These behaviors are never seen when scorpions are encountered by turning over rocks and other materials where they spend the daylight hours. Not only can you find scorpions in nature using ultraviolet light, you can use this same technique to look for scorpions in and around your home.", "Scorpions breathe by means of 4 pairs of book lungs in the ventral blood sinus. Paired coxal glands, opening in the coxae of the third pair of legs, provide for excretion. They do not lay eggs, but give birth to active young. These climb upon the back of the mother and remain fastened by their pincers until after the first molt, nourished by yolk material stored in their bodies. All scorpions are venomous, but most species are not dangerous. In Arizona, however, there is a species that has caused more deaths over a 36-year period than all other venomous animals of that state, including rattlesnakes (see chapter 9 , Opening paragraphs).", "Another dangerous member of the scorpion family is the aptly named death stalker (Leiurus quinquestriatus). It is native to both the northern and southern hemispheres of Africa and is commonly found in its deserts. Its venom has been proven to be potent.", "Scorpions have a very tiny mouth and can only suck up liquid, so prey that is caught is mashed up and bathed in enzymes that dissolve the prey's insides, a process that may take up to an hour. Scorpions don't eat every day like we do, and some species in drier habitats have been known to go without food for up to 12 months, as long as they have water. Usually, scorpions find a meal at least every two to three weeks and play an important role in their ecosystem by keeping insect populations low.", "These are arachnids in the order Thelyphonida, and are commonly referred to vinegaroons, or vinegarroons. The name whip scorpions came about because most of them resemble true scorpions due to their whip-like tails. Thelyphonids were previously in the Uropygi order, so in the scientific community they are also often called Uropygids. Whip Scorpions range mostly between 1 to 3 1/3 inches (25 - 85 mm) in length and are not as big as the largest of the scorpions.", "It is up to 10.5 cm incl. tail and is found in North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt, Sinai, Middle East, India. It feeds on insects that it can get hold of, and baby mice, and it can survive up to a year without food and water. They live in dry areas, and avoid areas near the coast. Scorpio does not dig deep burrows, unlike many other species, preferring to hide under stones, or cavities. The fat-tailed scorpion is unfortunately very common in populated places, and are often hidden in different cavities in the house.", "Scorpion lifespans range from three to five years, though some species are thought to live 10-15 years. Some kinds of scorpions show more sophisticated social behaviors, like colonial burrowing, and living in familial groups that may share burrows and food.", "The scorpion’s anatomy is composed of two segments called the cephalothorax—also known as the abdomen/opisthosoma. It is composed of an extended body and a segmented, erectile tail, which ends with the stinger. A hard, bony outer covering known as the carapace protects the cephalothorax. This covering supports a pair of median eyes at the top center.", "Scorpions (formally the order Scorpiones) are characterised by a metasoma (tail) comprising six segments, the last containing the scorpion's anus and bearing the telson (the sting). The telson, in turn, consists of the vesicle, which holds a pair of venom glands and the hypodermic aculeus, the venom-injecting barb. The abdomen's front half, the mesosoma, is made up of six segments. The first segment contains the sexual organs as well as a pair of vestigial and modified appendages forming a structure called the genital operculum. The second segment bears a pair of featherlike sensory organs known as the \"pectines\"; the final four segments each contain a pair of book lungs. The mesosoma is armored with chitinous plates, known as tergites on the upper surface and sternites on the lower surface.", "Scorpions have \"hairs\" on their legs and other body parts that are sensitive to vibrations in the air. To avoid the extreme heat of the daytime they will shelter in the shade and come out at night to hunt for food. In the winter months they will hibernate, often congregating in large groups.", "Kern,  W. H. Jr. and Mitchell, R. E.  Giant Whip Scorpion  (EENY-493) Featured Creatures Article.  Gainesville:  IFAS/University of Florida, May, 2011.  http://entnemdept.ifas.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/misc/giant_whip_scorpion.htm   or  http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in890  ", "Scorpions are numerous in many regions but are rarely seen, due to their nocturnal and secretive nature. Even so, many cultures have myths involving scorpions and their powers. Some people believe that scorpions commit suicide by stinging themselves when threatened by fire. This is not true, as they are immune to their own venom. ", "f you want to find it, go outside after dark and look due south quite low down near the horizon and you will see a bright, red coloured star called Antares. Antares makes up the red eye of the scorpion, above and slightly to the right is the head of the scorpion with its two pincers either side of the head. Now follow the head star back down through Antares and continue following the line of stars that point down to the horizon and you will see that before they reach the horizon they curve up to the left and form the tail of the scorpion’s ‘sting’.", "The average scorpion probably lives three to five years, but some species have been known to live up to 25 years. A few will even display social behaviors outside of their association with their mother. Some will participate in social aggregations, and colonial burrowing as well as live sometimes in extended family groups that share burrows and food. Are scorpions poisonous?", "One fascinating thing about these scorpions is they have the ability to glow in the dark and confuse their predators:" ]

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[ "The root of valerian, a perennial herb native to North America, Asia, and Europe, is used most commonly for its sedative and hypnotic properties in patients with insomnia, and less commonly as an anxiolytic. Multiple preparations are available, and the herb is commonly combined with other herbal medications. This review addresses only studies that used valerian root as an isolated herb. As with most herbal products available in the United States, valerian root extracts are not regulated for quality or consistency. Independent testing laboratories (such aswww.consumerlab.com) generally use valeric acid content as a marker for pharmacologic activity and represent one source for reliable information to support product choice.", "VALERIAN, COMMON (Lus nan tri bhilean) Valeriana officinalis P  90cm. Sweet-scented prolific flesh-pink flowers. A natural sedative, the rhizome being effective for promoting sleep and calming nerves.", "Two categories of constituents have been proposed as the major source of valerian's sedative effects. The first category comprises the major constituents of its volatile oil including valerenic acid and its derivatives , which have demonstrated sedative properties in animal studies [ 6 , 20 ]. However, valerian extracts with very little of these components also have sedative properties, making it probable that other components are responsible for these effects or that multiple constituents contribute to them [ 21 ]. The second category comprises the iridoids , which include the valepotriates. Valepotriates and their derivatives are active as sedatives in vivo but are unstable and break down during storage or in an aqueous environment, making their activity difficult to assess [ 6 , 20 , 22 ].", "Valerian is a common ingredient in products promoted as mild sedatives and sleep aids for nervous tension and insomnia.", "Valerian Root, Valeriana officianalis, when added to bath water, helps relieve nervousness and induce sleep. It has been used for  for thousands of years in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine to relieve anxiety, nervousness and insomnia. Valerian was a very popular sleep sedative in the United States until it was displaced by synthetic drugs after World War II.", "Valerian is the name of a herb or dietary supplement prepared from roots of the plant, which, after maceration, trituration, dehydration processes may be used for certain effects including sedation and anxiolytic effect.", "A possible mechanism by which a valerian extract may cause sedation is by increasing the amount of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter ) available in the synaptic cleft . Results from an in vitro study using synaptosomes suggest that a valerian extract may cause GABA to be released from brain nerve endings and then block GABA from being taken back into nerve cells [ 23 ]. In addition, valerenic acid inhibits an enzyme that destroys GABA [reviewed in 24]. Valerian extracts contain GABA in quantities sufficient to cause a sedative effect, but whether GABA can cross the blood-brain barrier to contribute to valerian's sedative effects is not known. Glutamine is present in aqueous but not in alcohol extracts and may cross the blood-brain barrier and be converted to GABA [ 25 ]. Levels of these constituents vary significantly among plants depending on when the plants are harvested, resulting in marked variability in the amounts found in valerian preparations [ 26 ].", "Valerian – Valerian is a sedative herb that promotes sleep and reduces anxiety. It is non-addictive and natural. Valerian binds to the benzodiazepine sites in the brain, increasing GABA levels and stopping the neurons from firing away. This calms the body and provides a natural sedative effect.", "Members of the genus Valeriana are herbaceous perennials widely distributed in the temperate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. The hollow stemmed plant can grow up to 2 m and is branched at the terminal end with opposite leaves and small white or pink flowers. Fruits are oblong, 4-ridged, and single seeded. Of approximately 200 known species, the Eurasian Vakeruaba officinalis is most often cultivated for medicinal use. The dried rhizome used in valerian extracts has numerous rootlets and one or more stolons and contains a volatile oil with a distinctive, unpleasant odor. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4", "Valerian is a strong nervine helpful for insomnia. It contains an essential oil and alkaloids which combine to produce a sedative effect. It can be used as a tranquilizer, and will leave one feeling refreshed rather than sluggish. It is safe and non-narcotic and has been recommended for anxiety. Valerian is commonly used with other herbs for nervous tension, and is usually recommended for short term use, as prolonged use can cause mental depression. It is seldom recommended for small children.", "Leathwood PD, Chauffard F, Heck E, Munoz-Box R: Aqueous extract of valerian root (Valeriana officinalis L.) improves sleep quality in man. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 17: 65-71, 1982. [ PubMed abstract ]", "A derivative of dried rhizomes and plant roots, valerian root is an extract used in teas for its mildly tranquilizing properties and to calm insomnia, hysteria, restless and nervous states and a nervous stomach.  It also is used for menstrual issues and as an anticonvulsive and hypotensive.", "25. Hattesohl M, Feistel B, Sievers H, Lehnfeld R, Hegger M, Winterhoff H. Extracts of Valeriana officinalis L. s.l. show anxiolytic and antidepressant effects but neither sedative nor myorelaxant properties. Phytomedicine . 2008;15(1-2):2-15.", "Several studies have shown valerian's efficacy in patients who do not have sleep disturbances. A small study 7 of 10 patients at home and eight patients at a sleep laboratory who received two different dosages (450 and 900 mg) of an aqueous extract of valerian root demonstrated that both groups experienced a greater than 50 percent improvement in sleep latency and wake time after sleep onset. The efficacy results were based on questionnaires, self-rating scales, and nighttime motor activity. Electroencephalographic recordings in the laboratory section of the study showed no differences in efficacy between valerian and placebo, and data indicated a dose-dependent mild hypnotic effect of the valerian extract. 7", "Valerian is a traditional herbal sleep remedy that has been studied with a variety of methodologic designs using multiple dosages and preparations. Research has focused on subjective evaluations of sleep patterns, particularly sleep latency, and study populations have primarily consisted of self-described poor sleepers. Valerian improves subjective experiences of sleep when taken nightly over one- to two-week periods, and it appears to be a safe sedative/hypnotic choice in patients with mild to moderate insomnia. The evidence for single-dose effect is contradictory. Valerian is also used in patients with mild anxiety, but the data supporting this indication are limited. Although the adverse effect profile and tolerability of this herb are excellent, long-term safety studies are lacking.", "In a double-blind study, 5 eight subjects who described themselves as having lengthy sleep latency wore a wrist activity meter and provided subjective sleep ratings in a study of the effects of valerian. Participants received either a 450- or 900-mg dose of an aqueous extract of valerian root or placebo. Single-dose (450 and 900 mg) valerian extract resulted in significant decreases in measured and subjective sleep latency and more stable sleep during the first quarter of the night, with no effect on total sleep time. The 900-mg dose produced increased sleepiness on awakening compared with placebo.", "Although valerian is a popular herbal medicine used for treating insomnia, there is no good evidence it is effective for this purpose, and there is some concern it may be harmful.", "Wagner, H., Jurcic, K., and Schaette, R. [Comparative studies on the sedative action of Valeriana extracts, valepotriates and their degradation products (author's transl)]. Planta Med. 1980;38(4):358-365. View abstract.", "Ross, S. M. Sleep disorders: a single dose administration of valerian/hops fluid extract (dormeasan) is found to be effective in improving sleep. Holist.Nurs Pract 2009;23(4):253-256. View abstract.", "Muller SF, Klement S. A combination of valerian and lemon balm is effective in the treatment of restlessness and dyssomnia in children. Phytomedicine 2006;13:383-7. View abstract.", "A another study conducted in Russia, researchers reported that valepotriates inhibited caffeine-stimulated motor activity and prolonged barbiturate-induced sleeping time in mice and rats. This translates to anti-anxiety and sedative activities. In other research, valerenic acid and related sesquiterpens have been found to inhibit the breakdown of the neurotransmitter, aminobutyric acid.", "Valerian has been used as a medicinal herb since at least the time of ancient Greece and Rome. Hippocrates described its properties, and Galen later prescribed it as a remedy for insomnia. In medieval Sweden, it was sometimes placed in the wedding clothes of the groom to ward off the “envy” of the elves.", "Gessner B, Klasser M, and Völp A. [Long term effect of a valerian extract (harmonicum much) in persons with sleep disorders]. Therapiewoche 1983;33:5547-5558.", "Oxman AD, Flottorp S, Håvelsrud K, et al. A televised, web-based randomised trial of an herbal remedy (valerian) for insomnia. PLoS One. 2007 Oct 17;2:e1040. View abstract.", "In a randomized, double-blind study, 75 participants with documented nonorganic insomnia were randomly assigned to receive 600 mg of a standardized commercial valerian extract (LI 156) or 10 mg oxazepam (a benzodiazepine medication) for 28 days [ 16 ]. Assessment tools used to evaluate the effectiveness and tolerance of the interventions included validated sleep, mood scale, and anxiety questionnaires as well as sleep rating by a physician (on days 0, 14, and 28). Treatment result was determined via a 4-step rating scale at the end of the study (day 28). Both groups had the same improvement in sleep quality but the valerian group reported fewer side effects than did the oxazepam group. However, this study was designed to show superiority, if any, of valerian over oxazepam and its results cannot be used to show equivalence.", "Santos, M. S., Ferreira, F., Cunha, A. P., Carvalho, A. P., and Macedo, T. An aqueous extract of valerian influences the transport of GABA in synaptosomes. Planta Med. 1994;60(3):278-279. View abstract.", "Valerian is also capable of alleviating a number of symptoms of nervousness, such as quivering, fear, tremor as well as perspiration. In addition, the herb is an effective remedy for sleeplessness or insomnia induced by fretfulness or excessive stimulation. Valerian also loosens up excessively spasmodic muscles and is particularly beneficial for shoulder and neck stress, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, muscle contractions, colic (paroxysmal pain in the abdomen or bowels) and even painful menstruation.", "As it is a calmative, people who take valerian should not drive, operate heavy machinery, or engage in activity, which requires alertness.", "Donath F, Quispe S, Diefenbach K, et al. Critical evaluation of the effect of valerian extract on sleep structure and sleep quality. Pharmacopsychiatry 2000;33:47-53. View abstract.", "Donath F, Quispe S, Diefenbach K, Maurer A, Fietze I, Roots I: Critical evaluation of the effect of valerian extract on sleep structure and sleep quality. Pharmacopsychiatry 33: 47-53, 2000. [ PubMed abstract ]", "Use of valerian in anxiety and sleep disorders: what is the best evidence? Nunes, A., Sousa, M. Medicina Geral e Familiar, Unidade Local de Saude de Matosinhos, Portugal. Acta Medica Portuguesa, 2011 Dec;24 Suppl 4:961-6", "Houghton PJ. The scientific basis for the reputed activity of Valerian. J Pharm Pharmacol 1999;51:505-12. View abstract." ]

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[ "Plants 'breathe' too, but they do it through tiny openings in leaves called stomata (singular: stoma). Stomata open and close to allow the intake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen. It's very important that they do this, because this is the very oxygen that we ourselves need to breathe!", "Did you know that plants 'breathe' through their leaves? Tiny openings called stomata allow plants to exchange gases necessary for cellular processes, such as photosynthesis.", "All parts of the plant respire, the leaves, the stem, the roots and even the flowers. The parts above the soil get their oxygen directly from the air through pores. The pores in the leaves are called stomata (singular: stoma). The pores in the branches of trees are called lenticels.", "It has a membranous skirt on the upper part of the stem and a cup-like structure around the base of the stem (called a volva).", "Our respiratory system includes structures involved in our breathing. When you take a breath, air is drawn into your mouth and nose and into a tube called the trachea, or windpipe. Let's follow the path of the air as it travels through the trachea and into your lungs.", "Root systems that arch high over the water are a distinctive feature of many mangrove species. These aerial roots take several forms. Some are stilt roots that branch and loop off the trunk and lower branches. Others are wide, wavy plank roots that extend away from the trunk. Aerial roots broaden the base of the tree and, like flying buttresses on medieval cathedrals, stabilize the shallow root system in the soft, loose soil. In addition to providing structural support, aerial roots play an important part in providing oxygen for respiration. Oxygen enters a mangrove through lenticels, thousands of cell-sized breathing pores in the bark and roots. Lenticels close tightly during high tide, thus preventing mangroves from drowning.", "The internal structure of the stem reflects the function (see Figure 1). There are conducting and supporting tissues. These are basically the same in all parts of the plant and the description given here will cover roots and leaves as well. It is in the arrangement of the tissues that roots and stems mainly differ.", "A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes:", "Thin, pencil-like pneumatophores emerge from the thick mud substrate in which the tree is found, an adaption that allows A. germinans to colonize anaerobic substrates (Thibodeau and Nickerson 1986). These root structures aid in gas exchange when they are exposed to the air, a mechanism that allows this tree to flourish even though the substrate conditions fail to provide the tree with necessary oxygen (Tomlinson 1994). The pneumatophores are connected to a horizontal root system that allows the tree to send roots wide in search of nutrients and oxygen, but not deep into the anaerobic soil (Zuchowski 2007).", "Wood gives structural strength to the trunk of a tree; this supports the plant as it grows larger. The vascular system of trees allows water, nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around the plant, and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do. Trees, as relatively tall plants, need to draw water up the stem through the xylem from the roots by the suction produced as water evaporates from the leaves. If insufficient water is available the leaves will die. The three main parts of trees include the root, stem, and leaves; they are integral parts of the vascular system which interconnects all the living cells. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.", "Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata.", "Xylem tissue is organized in a tube-like fashion along the main axes of stems and roots. It consists of a combination of parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids, and ray cells. Longer tubes made up of individual cells are vessels (tracheae), while vessel members are open at each end. Internally, there may be bars of wall material extending across the open space. These cells are joined end to end to form long tubes. Vessel members and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. They do not have end openings such as the vessels. The tracheids ends overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water to pass from cell to cell. ", "The living tree breathes—inhales oxygen and exhales carbonic-acid gas. Because the leaves exercise the function [Pg 9] of respiration, they may properly be called the lungs of trees, for the respiration of animals differs in no essential from that of plants.", "The longitudinal section of a stem is also useful for distinguishing the xylem vessels from those of phloem. In the vascular bundles, the xylem is located towards the inside and the phloem towards the outside. In the angiosperms, the xylem is composed of tracheids and tracheae (mature dead cells that can also form continuous vessels) and the phloem is formed of sieve-tube cells associated with companion cells. In the gymnosperms, the xylem is composed only of tracheids and the phloem only of sieve-tube cells.", "Cone (strobilus).   Aggregation of sporangia-bearing structures at tip of the stem (either sporophylls or scales in the Gymnosperms)", "The stems of these organs are found to be tubular, {31}and at the point of junction with the head the base is spread out (as shown at fig. 15), forming what engineers call a \"flange,\" to afford sufficient support for the long column above.", "Vascular plants; sporophyte lacking roots and often leaves; stems with small enations, dichotomously branched; vascular tissue forming a central core in stem (protostelic); sporangia fused into synangiate structure, apparently terminal on short stem; homosporous; gametophytes subterranean, with motile sperm; representative genus, Psilotum .", "Diaphragm-  is a large skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. It is the main structure in  respiration. Bronchiole-  the bronchi branches off into smaller tubes that end up in the pulmonary alveolus Pharynx-  Is a tube at the back of the nasal cavity and the mouth. It contains a passageway for both food and air. Epiglottis-  is a flap of elastic cartilage that acts as switch between the trachea and the esophagus", "Stems serve as conduits (pipelines) for carrying water and minerals from the roots upward to the leaves utilizing the xylem tissue and for carrying food from the leaves (where food is manufactured through the process of photosynthesis) down to the roots utilizing the phloem tissue.", "The stems of monocotyledons are not organised in concentric layers like those of the dicotyledons, but the vascular bundles are distributed throughout all of the fundamental tissue (�scattered� bundles, Figure 32). The pith generally contains reserve substances, but this can also be found desiccated and with the cells empty. Also in this case, in order to better identify the different parts of which the stem is composed and to understand their function, it is a good idea to read the corresponding charter of a biology textbook [001].", "The stem has been described as a “central axis” to which all other parts are attached. In most plants the stems are conspicuous aboveground, but in some species they are hidden below the ground. Based on various criteria, there are other more classifications of the stem.", "The thallus is perennial with an irregular or disc-shaped holdfast or with haptera. The erect portion of the thallus is dichotomous or subpinnately branched, flattened and with a distinct midrib. Gas-filled pneumatocysts (air-vesicles) are present in pairs in some species, one on either side of the midrib. The erect portion of the thallus bears cryptostomata and caecostomata (sterile surface cavities). The base of the thallus is stipe-like due to abrasion of the tissue lateral to the midrib and it is attached to the rock by a holdfast. The gametangia develop in conceptacles embedded in receptacles in the apices of the final branches. They may be monoecious or dioecious.", "All stems of the angiosperms, including those which are highly modified, are recognizable from other plant organs by their presence of nodes, internodes, buds and leaves. A node is a point on the stem from which leaves or buds arise. The portion between two successive nodes is the internode.", "As we head into the lungs, the trachea branches into two main sections, each called a bronchus. There is a right primary bronchus that goes into the right lung, and a left primary bronchus that goes into the left lung. Each of these bronchi (plural for bronchus) then branch into more bronchi. Those, in turn, branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles. All of this branching eventually results in a structure that truly resembles an upside-down tree. The trachea is the trunk, with all of the branches coming from it. For that reason, it is known as the bronchial tree.", "Xylem is the tissue responsible for supporting the plant as well as for the storage and long-distance transport of water and nutrients, including the transfer of water-soluble growth factors from the organs of synthesis to the target organs. The tissue consists of vessel elements , conducting cells, known as tracheids , and supportive filler tissue, called parenchyma . These cells are joined end-to-end to form long tubes. Vessels and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. It is the thick walls of the tracheids that provide support for the plant and allow it to achieve impressive heights. Tall plants have a selective advantage by being able to reach unfiltered sunlight and disperse their spores or seeds further away, thus expanding their range. By growing higher than other plants, tall trees cast their shadow on shorter plants and limit competition for water and precious nutrients in the soil. The tracheids do not have end openings like the vessels do, but their ends overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water to pass horizontally from cell to cell.", "stele - central conducting strand of tracheids or xylem found within roots and stems of plants", "At the left you can see Poison Ivy vines climbing up a tree trunk. At the right you can see a Japanese Honeysuckle vine twining around a tree branch. Notice at the top, right in the picture how the vine twists around the tree branch. If you think about it, having a climbing stem is a kind of sneaky adaptation. Essentially it enables the climbing plant to reach toward the sun without having to invest its own energy in building stiff, strong trunks or stems capable of holding themselves erect.", "TRACHEA is the scientific word for the windpipe, the tube that connects the nose and pharynx to the lungs.", "alveolar-septal structure - micromorphology of calcareous soils, with thin micritic compartments filled with sparry calcite, thought to form around fungi associated with roots", "high. Root sometimes resembling human form, spindle-shaped or forked. At the top of the stem are", "Specialized corky outgrowths from the bark of twigs that serve as passage for gas exchange. May be round or elongate.", "Structures which are derived from the same body part in a common ancestor but may have difference appearances and functions are called:" ]

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[ "Rhubarb leaves are seriously poisonous because they contain very high amounts of Oxalic Acid. Always discard the leaves.", "Rhubarb leaves contain poisonous substances, including oxalic acid, which is a nephrotoxic and corrosive acid that is present in many plants. Humans have been poisoned after ingesting the leaves, a particular problem during World War I when the leaves were mistakenly recommended as a food source in Britain. The toxic rhubarb leaves have been used in flavoring extracts, after the oxalic acid is removed by treatment with precipitated chalk.", "I should note here that only the stalks are to be eaten, NOT the leaves on the end of the stalks. Rhubarb leaves contain oxalic acid at levels that can be poisonous. However, while the leaves contain high concentrations of this compound, the levels found in the stalks are very low and not considered hazardous. For that matter, oxalic acid is also found in low levels in many other vegetables we eat including spinach, cabbage, beet greens, and to some degree potatoes and peas. Some references indicate that stalks with cold damage (soggy soft areas) or those with significant frost damage to their leaves should also be avoided, but this situation is more common on fall harvested rhubarb in the north and is generally not seen here in Texas during our spring harvest time.", "The rhubarb is a very tart member of the buckwheat family. It is generally eaten as a fruit but is actually a vegetable. It is used in sauces, jams, and desserts. Rhubarb leaves contain the toxin \"oxalic acid\" and should not be eaten.", "Rhubarb leaves have a comparatively high oxalic acid content of around 0.5 grams per 100 grams of leaves. This is present in the form of oxalic acid, and also in the form of calcium and potassium oxalate salts, and is at a level much higher than that found in other portions of the plant such as the stem. The suggested lethal dose of oxalic acid is in the region of 15-30 grams, meaning you’d have to eat a fair few kilograms of the leaves to reach this dose, but lower doses can still cause nausea and vomiting.", "The leaves on a rhubarb contain oxalic acid that form deadly crystals in your kidneys. Symptoms include trouble breathing, nausea, diarrhoea, eye pain, red urine and burning in the mouth or throat. So don’t put them in your pie! ", "All parts of Rhubarb are toxic with oxalic acid, however it is the green leaves that should not ever be eaten. The leaves make a wonderful organic insecticide that wipes out aphids as it suffocates them. Please see here. http://www.wikihow.com/Make-Rhubarb-Garden-Spray", "Oxalic acid does its dirty work by binding to calcium ions and yanking them out of circulation. In the worst-case scenario, it removes enough essential calcium from the blood to be lethal; in lesser amounts, it forms insoluble calcium oxalate, which can end up in the kidneys as kidney stones. In general, however, rhubarb leaves don’t pose much of a threat. Since a lethal dose of oxalic acid is somewhere between 15 and 30 grams, you’d have to eat several pounds of rhubarb leaves at a sitting to reach a toxic oxalic acid level, which is a lot more rhubarb leaves than most people care to consume.", "Rhubarb contains oxalate, which have been reported to cause poisoning when large quantities of raw or cooked leaves are ingested.", "Rhubarb is a common plant grown for edible consumption, and is also known as the pie plant. The leaves contain soluble oxalate crystals, with less of the crystals being prevalent in the stalk. That’s why rhubarb stems are edible, but the leaves are not. Rhubarb is a soluble oxalate-containing plants contain oxalic acid and oxalate salts, and must be differentiated from insoluble oxalate plants (which are less toxic). Examples of other soluble calcium oxalate-containing plants include: star fruit and the shamrock plant. In general, soluble calcium oxalate poisoning is more commonly associated with large animals (from livestock chronically grazing). However, when ingested in large enough quantities in small animals, it can result in poisoning in dogs, cats, and even humans.", "Fresh rhubarb stalks can be readily available in the markets from April until August. If you are growing them in the backyard, harvest its leaf petiole (stalk) by grabbing at its base, simultaneously pulling and twisting as you do it while shearing celery stalks. Immediately separate the petiole from its leaf part (leaf blade). Green tops of rhubarb contain oxalic acid as well as poisonous glycosides. Additionally, greens drain away nutrients from its stalk.", "Rhubarb - Rhubarb is technically a vegetable (although the United States Customs Court in New York ruled it a fruit in 1947) and belongs to the Polygonaceae family.  It is a perennial plant (rheum rhaponticum) originating in northern Asia.  The first rhubarb plants had green stalks, some with a touch of red.  The color, size, season, and oxalic acid content of rhubarb can vary.  However, do not eat the leaves of the rhubarb plant as they are inedible and toxic.  The rhubarb you find in markets today can be either field grown or hothouse grown.  Field grown rhubarb is identified by its bright rosy red and green tinged stalks with green leaves and has a very pronounced tart flavor.  Hothouse rhubarb, on the other hand, has pale pink to pale red stalks and yellow green leaves.  The stalks are not as tart as field grown but has the advantage of being available year round.... More about Rhubarb", "\"Oxalates are contained in all parts of rhubarb plants, especially in the green leaves. There is some evidence that anthraquinone glycosides are also present and may be partly responsible. It is not clear as to the exact source of poisoning from rhubarb, possibly a result of both compounds. The stalks contain low levels of oxalates, so this does not cause problems.\"", "Oxalates are contained in all parts of rhubarb plants, especially in the green leaves. There is some evidence that anthraquinone glycosides are also present and may be partly responsible. It is not clear as to the exact source of poisoning from rhubarb, possibly a result of both compounds. The stalks contain low levels of oxalates, so this does not cause problems.", "Rhubarb is a very underrated plant – it produces some of the nicest tasting puddings and is incredibly easy to grow at home. Rhubarb is something of a wonder plant – in addition to an unknown poison in its leaves, they also contain a corrosive acid. If you mix the leaves with water and soda, it becomes even more potent. The stems are edible (and incredibly tasty) and the roots have been used for over 5,000 years as a laxitive and poop-softener.", "Rhubarb hit by a frost or freeze can still be eaten provided the stalks are still firm and upright. Leaf injury may be noticeable with some brown or black discoloration on the edges. If the stems appear soft and mushy, do not eat them. Severe cold injury may cause the oxalic acid crystals in the leaves to migrate to the stalks increasing the likelihood of poisoning problems. If in doubt about the safety of eating the stalks, don't. Cut those stalks off and compost them. Allow new stalks to develop before eating, or if it is the end of the growing season, try forcing some rhubarb indoors (see Forcing in winter ).", "Oxalic Acid - Oxalic acid is found naturally in many plants, but is poisonous in excessive amounts. Spinach, rhubarb, sorrel all contain measurable amounts of oxalic acid. It actually forms insoluble compounds with calcium and iron which inhibit their absorption by the human body, thus diminishing the purported nutritional value of some vegetables, particularly spinach.", "Another visitor stated, as fact, that the mixture of rhubarb and pineapple is deadly. This is not so. There are numerous recipes available for rhubarb/pineapple pie. The suggestion is that the acid in pineapple combines with the small amount of oxalic acid in rhubarb stems to produce a harmful strength. The acids in pineapples, which are not oxalic acid, could break down the cell walls of rhubarb and increase the bioavailability of the small amount of oxalic acid in the rhubarb. This could increase the acid taste but would not affect the absorption.", "Though the stalks are widely eaten as a dessert, the leaves are highly toxic. They contain oxalic acid in the form of oxalates which is widely believed to be the poison but there is evidence that these are insufficient to cause the known fatalities. There are reasons to believe that it is anthraquinone alkaloids which are to blame but the mechanisms have not been fully studied.", "In Maunders' Treasury of Botany Rhubarb leaves are mentioned as a pot-herb. Green (Universal Herbal, 1832) says: 'The leaves are also used by the French in their soups, to which they impart an agreeable acidity, like that of Sorrel.' Reference has recently been made in the press to a letter which appeared in the Gardeners' Chronicle for 1846, in which the gardener of the Earl of Shrewsbury at Alton Towers, Staffordshire, told how rhubarb leaves had been used there for many years as a vegetable. He also mentioned that the flower of the plant (before the leaves expanded) could be used like broccoli. A subsequent note by him makes it clear, however, that the leaf-stems were meant, for he then says:", "I've heard that rhubarb leaves are poisonous, and that you can even die from rhubarb poisoning. Is that true?", "Human consumption of the rhubarb leaf results in gastroenteritis, cramps. nausea, vomiting, weakness, respiratory difficulties, irritation of the mouth and throat, poor clotting of the blood, internal hemorrhaging, coma, and death. In hogs the symptoms are staggering, salivation, convulsions, and death.", "Important: Rhubarb leaves are poisonous. Cut the stalk at the base of the leaf and discard the leaves.", "Rhubarb: This old-fashioned perennial plant is actually a vegetable, but is eaten as a fruit. Give it a large space in full-sun and keep the soil moderately moist. Harvest rhubarb in mid spring to early summer, but don’t eat the leaves, which are toxic.", "Symptoms of rhubarb poisoning are said to be, weakness, burning in the mouth and throat, breathing difficulty, pain in the eyes and stomach, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, seizures, red coloured urine and kidney stones. Death from eating rhubarb leaves occurs quickly and is preceded by drowsiness, possibly leading to coma, convulsions, internal bleeding and nosebleeds as coagulation is inhibited. Symptoms may begin within an hour of ingestion though in some older cases onset took much longer.", "A pigment found in rhubarb called parietin, has been identified from an FDA database of 2,000 known suppressors of 6PGD, to have killed half the human leukemia cells over two days in the laboratory. The pigment also slowed the growth of other human cancer cells in mouse models. A more-potent derivative of the parietin called S3 may even cut the growth of lung cancer cells implanted in mice by two-thirds, over the course of 11 days. Rhubarb contains lycopene which helps to reduce your risk of heart disease. ", "RHUBARB NUTRITION FACTS: One cup of diced rhubarb contains Vitamin C (10 mg), Folate (8.5 mcg), Calcium (105 mg), Magnesium (14.5 mg), Phosphorus (17 mg), Potassium (351 mg).", "Mrs Grieve talks about a letter in the Gardeners Chronicle for 1846 in which the gardener of the Earl of Shrewsbury at Alton Towers, Staffordshire, told how rhubarb leaves had been used there for many years as a vegetable. Then he wrote again to correct it and say it was the leaf-stalks he meant. It is possible that this error might have been passed down leading to the misuse of the leaves.", "First for those gardeners who are not at all familiar with rhubarb, let�s get to know this new-to-us vegetable. Rhubarb is a cousin of buckwheat and garden sorrel. It is native to China where historical records dating back to about 2700 B.C. detail its use as a medicinal herb for various ailments. Marco Polo brought it to fame in the West as a medicinal plant. For a period of time in the late 1700s through early 1800s, as a result of political conflicts, Chinese emperors forbade its export to the west. ", "Since humans and animals do not normally ingest matter from a compost, rhubarb leaves should be able to be added safely to the compost.", "On the website of the Canadian Poisonous Plants Information System you find the following about rhubarb:", "The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked andded to salads, or used as a potherb. The plant is an ingredient of the drink Vermouth." ]

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[ "Gymnosporangium is a type of rust fungus. Rust fungi are biotrophic pathogens—they infect, grow, and sporulate in living plant tissue. Even though biotrophs require living host tissue for their growth and reproduction, they can be devastating pathogens by reducing the photosynthetic surface and increasing water loss in the host plant. Rust fungi attack a wide range of plants, and often require two, unrelated hosts in order to complete their life cycles. Rust fungi are so-named because of the abundant orange spores that are formed on plants that are infected by these fungi; infected plants often look as though they are rusting.", "Crown gall, canker, dieback, root knot nematode, powdery mildew, lesion nematode, mushroom root rot, tar spot, rust, twig blight, and heart rot can occur. Caterpillars, borers, aphids, and scale insects can attack plants.", "The plant pathogen Aecidium magellanicum causes calafate rust , seen here on a Berberis shrub in Chile.", "There are rust fungi (species unknown) that affect grasses, but they do not constitute a serious pest for the adapted subtropical and tropical forage plants. They have, however, been observed to affect imported temperate grasses, such as sorghum. Slugs also can become a pest.", "The best way to avoid rust is to remove and discard withered leaves.  Rust is a soil borne fungus, and if infected leaves are not permitted to decay in the garden, the life cycle of the fungus is disrupted.  Stands of Iris fulva in the wild are often infested with rust.  This is not due to gardeners who applied too much nitrogen, but rather by their unavailability to clean up and dispose of the infected foliage.", "According to Dr David Hodson, of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in Addis Ababa, the disease’s threat lies in its ability to cause “large- scale destruction in a very short period of time over very large cultivated areas”. Rust epidemics could be compared to a forest fire, Dr Hodson said. Once it manages to gain ground it can very quickly spread out of control. The fungus reproduces millions of wind-borne spores, each of which is capable of starting a new infection.", "One historically important rust fungus is black stem rust of wheat, a disease that was well known to the ancient Romans. Black stem rust , caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, infects wheat and barberry (Berberis species). Since the barberry host is required for the pathogen to complete its life cycle, early control measures in the United States and Canada were aimed at eliminating this host, not the economically important host, wheat. We now know that this method of eradication was of limited success because rust spores can be carried long distances—for example, from northern Mexico to the U. S. -Canada border—by wind currents via the \" Puccinia pathway \" (Nagarajan and Singh 1990).", "Plant roots are attacked by a great range fungi, from simple organisms parasitic on a single cell to ones attacking an entire root system. Many live inconspicuously in the root, inflicting little damage on the host. Others, such as the species of Armillaria at left, probably A. ostoyae, can attack entire root systems of trees, causing the whole plant to die. Armillaria species often grow harmlessly on the rotting wood various trees but under certain conditions can spread to living roots. This spread is accomplished by means of dark shoestring-like structures called rhizomorphs . When a rhizomorph of this fungus encounters a root it will penetrate and begin to develop between the wood and the bark, eventually colonizing up to the root collar (the part of the trunk where the roots arise. The growth beneath the bark forms a white mat of mycelium that will eventually kill the tree. Armillaria root rot is a major forest disease that particularly affects young conifers, such as those planted during reforestation efforts or in Christmas tree plantations.", "In heteroecious rusts, this important spore stage is called the \"repeating stage,\" because urediniospores are the only rust spores that can infect the host plant on which they are produced. Under favorable environmental conditions, multiple, repeated infections of the same wheat plant and neighboring wheat plants can result in explosive epidemics.", "A rust fungus ( Gymnosporangium cornutum ) which infects  juniper  (Juniperus communis) spends its aecial or spore phase on rowan, where it produces  galls  which take the form of yellowish pustules on the upper surface of the leaves.", "* Puccinia spp. (causal agents of severe rusts of virtually all cereal grains and cultivated grasses)", "Because they do not produce toxins biotrophs may have longer and less damaging relationships with their hosts. In the figure at right the rust fungus Chrysomyxa ledi has formed several sites of sporulation on the underside of a leaf of Labrador tea. These areas of sporulation are confined within zones defined by veins. No yellowing or senescence of the host leaf due to this infection is visible although there appears to have been some damage from a necrotroph on the upper margin.", "If disease develops in individual foci within a wheat field, the source of urediniospores is probably overwintering mycelia and/or uredinia. Rusted plants in foci from overwintering sources have heavy infection in lower leaves and less infection in the younger leaves formed higher on the wheat plants.", "Rust affects bluegrass, ryegrass and fescues. It appears in warm to hot, dry periods when grasses are growing slowly or not at all. It is promoted by low fertility. It is favored when plants are under moderate soil moisture stress and receiving heavy morning dews and frequent light rains.", "\"For all bacterial, fungal and viral attacks on plants, flowers and fruit, simply spray diluted colloidal silver on the leaves; also, add to water, mixing one tablespoon per liter. I put silver in my hydroponic system to eradicate root rot. A friend of mine grows very rare orchids; these are sold overseas for a large amount of money. He was getting a fungus growing on some of them and they became worthless. We came up with the idea that the silver might eradicate the fungus, as it does on humans and animals. So why not give it a try? It worked and he is a very happy man. he has now put a spray system in and all his flowers are sprayed at regular intervals and have never had any trouble since.\"", "Berberis spp. Barberry. [Alternate host of wheat rust (Puccinia graminis), a serious fungus disease of wheat.]", "The plant is very liable to attack from certain fungi: at times, a species of Puccinia settles on it, the result being that the stalks of infected leaves grow rapidly, high above the others, though the leaves themselves dwindle and lose their divisions. A species of Sclerotinia attacks the swollen tubers of the root, doing still more harm, for in the spring there arise not the delicate white flowers, but the ugly fructifications of the fungus.", "In the South, the stem rust disease cycle starts with urediniospores that infect winter wheat seedlings after the fall planting. Most, if not all, of the primary inoculum is local. It comes from volunteer wheat plants that sprouted and became infected in the summer. Spread of urediniospores from north to south is not likely to be important. Spring wheat in the North is harvested in August, long before the new winter wheat crop has emerged in the South, where planting may not start until October or later. Barberry plants do not become infected in the South, so they are not a factor in stem rust epidemics there. This is because P. graminis teliospores will not germinate unless exposed to extended periods of freezing temperatures.", "In North America, stem rust epidemics can occur in temperate regions even if barberry is not present (Figure 17). In the absence of barberry, the first spores of P. graminis to reach wheat in the spring are windborne urediniospores produced on winter wheat crops to the south (Figure 18). The mild climate along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico allows P. graminis to survive and spread in fields of winter wheat. Prevailing southerly winds in the spring carry the urediniospores north into the central Great Plains where they infect other winter wheat plants. Weather in the central Great Plains is usually too cold to permit stem rust infections during the winter. When spring wheat begins to grow in the northern Great Plains, it may be infected by windborne urediniospores from either the central or southern Great Plains. The stem rust disease cycle in the North ends with the wheat harvest.", "Ribes plants are susceptible to an array of diseases, including white pine blister rust and mildew. There are, however, new varieties being developed, or have already been developed, to overcome some of these diseases.", "A fungus, Cycloconium oleaginum, can infect the trees for several successive seasons, causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. oleae, induces tumour growth in the shoots. Certain lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the leaves and flowers.", "In regions with temperate climates, wheat may be planted either in the fall (winter wheat) or the spring (spring wheat) depending on the severity of the winters (Figure 12). For example, few winter wheat varieties can survive well through the severe winters of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Manitoba, so most of the wheat grown there is spring wheat. The first rust spores to infect wheat in the spring in temperate regions may be aeciospores from barberry, the alternate host, or urediniospores from infected wheat in distant regions with milder winters. Therefore, we describe two disease cycles for stem rust - with or without barberry.", "Schumann, G.L. and K.J. Leonard. 2000. Stem rust of wheat (black rust). The Plant Health Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2000-0721-01", "A wide range of plant parasitic nematodes have been reported associated with cassava worldwide. These include Pratylenchus brachyurus, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Helicotylenchus spp., Scutellonema spp. and Meloidogyne spp., of which Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne javanica are the most widely reported and economically important. Meloidogyne spp. feeding produces physically damaging galls with eggs inside them. Galls later merge as the females grow and enlarge, and they interfere with water and nutrient supply. Cassava roots become tough with age and restrict the movement of the juveniles and the egg release. It is therefore possible that extensive galling can be observed even at low densities following infection. Other pest and diseases can gain entry through the physical damage caused by gall formation, leading to rots. They have not been shown to cause direct damage to the enlarged storage roots, but plants can have reduced height if there was loss of enlarged root weight. ", "pathologically developed cells in plants by hypertrophy and hyperplasia stimulated by a foreign organism like a gall insect ", "A gall disease of Euonymus caused by a bacteria. Forms large tumorous, disfiguring growths on the stems of the plants.", "Rusts:- Rusts (Pucciniales, previously known as Uredinales) shows greatest complexity in their life-cycle. Five different types of spores are formed on two different hosts in two unrelated host families. Such rusts are heteroecious (requiring 2 hosts) and macrocyclic. Autoecious rusts complete their life-cycles on one host intead of two. In order to complete its life history, this species produces the following five spore stages:-", "Singh, R.P., D.P. Hodson, J. Huerta-Espino, Y. Jin, P. Njau, R. Wanyera, S.A. Herrera-Foessel, and R.W. Ward. 2008. Will stem rust destroy the world's wheat crop? Advances in Agronomy 98:272-309. (a pdf file of this reference can be found at http://ddr.nal.usda.gov/bitstream/10113/36520/1/IND44295123.pdf", "Kauserud H, Schmidt O, Elfstrand M, Högberg N (2004b) Extremely low AFLP variation in the European dry rot fungus (Serpula lacrymans): implications for self/nonself-recognition. Mycol Res 108:1264–1270 PubMed Google Scholar", "Another species of bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis) also referred to as BT, has natural insecticidal properties. This common soil bacterium produces proteins that are especially toxic to alkaline insect stomachs, but not to the acidic stomachs of mammals. These BT proteins have been found to be remarkably effective against a wide range of caterpillars and worms, including peach tree borers, European corn borers, cotton boll worms, cabbage worms and loopers, tomato and fruit hornworms, tent caterpillars, fall webworms, leaf miners, alfalfa caterpillars, leaf rollers, gypsy moth larvae and cankerworms.", "Interesting article on plants own self-defense against other plants and how it might be used in agriculture. From Science News Online :", "Samojlov, Y. K., Lemza, V. D, Buchkov, P. P, and Loban, L. L. Biological protection of hop-plant. Progress in Plant Protection 2010;50(4):2013-2016." ]

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[ "The dominant stage of the life cycle of a fern is the sporophyte, which consists of large compound leaves called fronds. Fronds fulfill a double role; they are photosynthetic organs that also carry reproductive organs. The stem may be buried underground as a rhizome from which adventitious roots grow to absorb water and nutrients from the soil; or they may grow above ground as a trunk in tree ferns. Adventitious organs are those that grow in unusual places, such as roots growing from the side of a stem. Most ferns produce the same type of spores and are, therefore, homosporous. The diploid sporophyte is the most conspicuous stage of the life cycle. On the underside of its mature fronds, sori (singular, sorus) form as small clusters where sporangia develop . Inside the sori, spores are produced by meiosis and released into the air. Those that land on a suitable substrate germinate and form a heart-shaped gametophyte, which is attached to the ground by thin filamentous rhizoids . The inconspicuous gametophyte harbors both sex gametangia . Flagellated sperm are released and swim on a wet surface to where the egg is fertilized. The newly-formed zygote grows into a sporophyte that emerges from the gametophyte, growing by mitosis into the next generation sporophyte.", "First, all plants undergo an alternation of generations, between a haploid gametophyte stage and a diploid sporophyte stage. In the most primitive plants, like mosses, the gametophyte is dominant (i.e. it's big and green). In higher plants like ferns and fern allies, the sporophyte stage is dominant. Gametophytes produce gametes (sperm and eggs) in a special structure called a gametangium (-ia), while sporophytes produce spores in a special structure called a sporangium (-ia).", "Ferns reproduce by spores from which the free-living bisexual gametophyte generation develops. There are 12,000 species of ferns today, although the fossil history of ferns shows them to have been a dominant plant group during the Paleozoic Era. The first ferns also appear by the end of the Devonian. Some anatomical similarities suggest that ferns and sphenophytes may have shared a common ancestor within the trimerophytes.", "The plant life cycle has mitosis occurring in spores , produced by meiosis, that germinate into the gametophyte phase. Gametophyte size ranges from three cells (in pollen ) to several million (in a \"lower plant\" such as moss). Alternation of generations occurs in plants, where the sporophyte phase is succeeded by the gametophyte phase. The sporophyte phase produces spores by meiosis within a sporangium . The gametophyte phase produces gametes by mitosis within an antheridium (producing sperm) and/or archegonium (producing eggs). These different stages of the flowering plant life cycle are shown in Figure 4. Within the plant kingdom the dominance of phases varies. Nonvascular plants , the mosses and liverworts, have the gametophyte phase dominant. Vascular plants show a progression of increasing sporophyte dominance from the ferns and \"fern allies\" to angiosperms.", "The fern gametophyte has both sexes present and is referred to as a prothallium. Prothallia develop from spores shed from the underside of the sporophyte leaves, shown in Figure 21. Once fertilization occurs, the next generation sporophyte develops from the egg located in the prothallium.", "In ferns and their allies, including clubmosses and horsetails, the conspicuous plant observed in the field is the diploid sporophyte. The haploid spores develop in sori on the underside of the fronds and are dispersed by the wind (or in some cases, by floating on water). If conditions are right, a spore will germinate and grow into a rather inconspicuous plant body called a prothallus. The haploid prothallus does not resemble the sporophyte, and as such ferns and their allies have a heteromorphic alternation of generations. The prothallus is short-lived, but carries out sexual reproduction, producing the diploid zygote that then grows out of the prothallus as the sporophyte. For further information, see Fern: Life cycle.", "Ferns first appear in the fossil record 360 million years ago in the late Devonian period but many of the current families and species did not appear until roughly 145 million years ago in the early Cretaceous, after flowering plants came to dominate many environments. The fern Osmunda claytoniana is a paramount example of evolutionary stasis. Paleontological evidence indicates it has remained unchanged, even at the level of fossilized nuclei and chromosomes, for at least 180 million years. ", "Ferns probably evolved from the psilopsids, sometime in the Devonian, relatively early on in land plant evolution. They are very abundant and diverse, ranging in size from a single centimeter to trees 24 meters tall with 5 meter fronds. Ferns have been better competitors with seed plants than other seedless vascular plants, and are a conspicuous part of the landscape throughout the world, but especially in the tropics, where 75% of their 12,000 species occur.", "The leptosporangiate ferns are sometimes called \"true ferns\". This group includes most plants familiarly known as ferns. Modern research supports older ideas based on morphology that the Osmundaceae diverged early in the evolutionary history of the leptosporangiate ferns; in certain ways this family is intermediate between the eusporangiate ferns and the leptosporangiate ferns. Research by Rai and Graham (2010) since this 2006 classification broadly supports the main groups, but queries their relationships, concluding that \"at present perhaps the best that can be said about all relationships among the major lineages of monilophytes in current studies is that we do not understand them very well\"., p. 1450 Grewe et al. (2013) confirmed the inclusion of horsetails within ferns sensu lato, but also suggested that uncertainties remained in their precise placement.", "The ferns and fern allies germinate from spores. These plants are mostly homosporous - their spores are identical and you can't differentiate which will grow into male or female plants. They are also monoecious - both the archegonia and antheridia (male and female reproductive structures) are borne on the same plant. Contrast these primitive vascular plants with the more advanced seed plants, the gymnosperms and angiosperms, which germinate from seeds rather than from spores. Seed plants are all heterosporous. It is easy to differentiate the larger female megaspore from the smaller male microspore. The sperm of seed plants have no flagella. They lack antheridia, and only a few still have an archegonia. Unlike the more primitive ferns and fern allies, seed plants are mostly dioecious, having separate male and female plants.", "Figure 16.10 Alternation of generations. Plants have life cycles very different from ours. Each of us is a diploid individual; the only haploid stages in the human life cycle, as for nearly all animals, are sperm and eggs. By contrast, plants have alternating generations: Diploid (2n) individuals (sporophytes) and haploid (nj individuals (gametophytes) generate each other in the life cycle. In the case of mosses, the gametophyte is the dominant stage. In fact, the moss sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte, depending on its parent for water and nutrients. In other plant groups, this balance is reversed, with the sporophyte being the more developed of the two generations.", "Leptosporangiate ferns (sometimes called true ferns) are by far the largest group, but ferns as defined here (ferns sensu lato) include horsetails, whisk ferns, marattioid ferns, and ophioglossoid ferns. This group may be referred to as monilophytes. The term pteridophyte traditionally refers to ferns plus a few other seedless vascular plants (see the classification section below), although some recent authors have used the term to refer strictly to the monilophytes.", "Leaf: The green, photosynthetic part of the plant is technically a megaphyll and in ferns, it is often referred to as a frond. New leaves typically expand by the unrolling of a tight spiral called a \"crozier\" or \"fiddlehead fern\". This uncurling of the leaf is termed \"circinate vernation\". Leaves are divided into two types a trophophyll and a sporophyll. A trophophyll frond is a vegetative leaf analogous to the typical green leaves of seed plants that does not produce spores, instead only producing sugars by photosynthesis. A sporophyll frond is a fertile leaf that produces spores borne in sporangia that are usually clustered to form sori. In most ferns, fertile leaves are morphologically very similar to the sterile ones, and they photosynthesize in the same way. In some groups, the fertile leaves are much narrower than the sterile leaves, and may even have no green tissue at all (e.g., Blechnaceae, Lomariopsidaceae). The anatomy of fern leaves can either be simple or highly divided. In tree ferns, the main stalk that connects the leaf to the stem (known as the stipe), often have multiple leafy. The leafy structures that grow from the stipe are known as \"pinnae\" and are often again divided into smaller pinnules. ", "The sporophyte consists of three major parts: the fronds (leaves), the rhizome and the sporangia. A mature fern creates spores that are released from sporangia. The sporangia in ferns are typically aggregated into the lines of fern fronds.", "The earliest seed plants, \"progymnosperms\", emerged in the late Devonian (see figure below). Progymnoperm fossils show vegetative morphologies to seed plants, but not all progymnosperms had seeds or seed-like structures (ovules or pre-ovules). Archaeopteris spp. was the first modern tree, but it sproduced spores rather than seeds. However, it exhibited an advanced system of spore production called heterospory. Heterosporous plants produce two sets of specialized spores: megaspores (haploid female-like megaspores) and microspores (haploid male-like microspores). Heterospory, which probably has been evolved independently in several lineages, is widely believed to be a precursor to seed reproduction. The progymnosperms are regarded as the ancestors of the seed plants. Fossils of seed-bearing seed ferns (Lyginopteridopsida) exhibit a variety of seed and seed-like structures (see 'The earliest seeds'). 'The seed' might have evolved once or several times during evolution. Three major evolutionary trends were important for the transition from the seed ferns to the gymnosperms, from the spore to the gymnosperm seed:", "Ferns release spores into the wind. If the spores land somewhere suitable, they eventually grow into a gametophyte.", "Three otherimportant lineages of seedless plants: club mosses (Lycophyta), the horsetails (Sphenophyta), and the ferns (Pterophyta)", "Plants have two further variations on their life cycles. Plants that produce bisexual gametophytes have those gametophytes germinate from isospores (iso=same) that are about all the same size. This state is referred to as homospory (sometimes referred to as isospory). A generalized homosporous plant life cycle is shown in Figure 5. Homosporous plants produce bisexual gametophytes. Ferns are a classic example of a homosporous plant.", "As plants developed more complex growth forms, they also underwent systematic diversification and evolved more specialized modes of sexual reproduction . The most primitive vascular plants had a homosporous life cycle, in which reproduction and dispersal involved a single type of spore. Extant homosporous plants include most ferns and many lycophytes. The homosporous life cycle is an effective means for long-distance dispersal of species. Although it permits the fertilization of an egg by a sperm from the same gametophyte plant, genetic recombination, considered important for more rapid evolution, is not possible. Moreover, because the gametophytes of homosporous plants are exposed to the environment for an extended period of time, mortality is relatively high.", "Polyploidy is pervasive in plants and some estimates suggest that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (paleopolyploidy) in their genomes. Huge explosions in angiosperm species diversity appear to have coincided with the timing of ancient genome duplications shared by many species. It has been established that 15% of angiosperm and 31% of fern speciation events are accompanied by ploidy increase. ", "Horsetails, whisk ferns, and ferns belong to the phylum Monilophyta, with horsetails placed in the Class Equisetopsida. The single genus Equisetum is the survivor of a large group of plants known as Arthrophyta, which produced large trees and entire swamp forests in the Carboniferous. The plants are usually found in damp environments and marshes.", "Most ferns have branching roots and form large compound leaves, or fronds, that perform photosynthesis and carry the reproductive organs of the plant.", "Many ferns depend on associations with mycorrhizal fungi. Many ferns only grow within specific pH ranges; for instance, the climbing fern (Lygodium palmatum) of eastern North America will only grow in moist, intensely acid soils, while the bulblet bladder fern (Cystopteris bulbifera), with an overlapping range, is only found on limestone.", "4. Critical Thinking There are many more species of ferns (phylum Pteridoophyta) than there are species in the other three phyla of seedless vascular plants. Propose a hypothesis to explain this fact.", "Bryophytes are nonvascularized plants that are still dependent on a moist environment for survival (see Plant Classification, Bryophytes . Like all plants, the bryophyte life cycle goes through both haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) stages. The gametophyte comprises the main plant (the green moss or liverwort), while the diploid sporophyte is much smaller and is attached to the gametophyte. The haploid stage, in which a multicellular haploid gametophyte develops from a spore and produces haploid gametes, is the dominant stage in the bryophyte life cycle. The mature gametophyte produces both male and female gametes, which join to form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into the diploid sporophyte, which extends from the gametophyte and produces haploid spores through meiosis. Once the spores germinate, they produce new gametophyte plants and the cycle continues.", "The sporophyte plant consists of a stalk, and a small capsule on the top. Within the capsule, cells undergo meiosis to produce tetrads of haploid spores. When the capsule is ripe, its hinged lid or operculum opens up, and the spores are quickly dispersed by wind and water. The spores germinate into a tiny green thread, which looks like a simple strand of green algae. This similarity is one more clue that bryophytes are descended from green algae. This early threadlike stage is called the protonema (= first thread, plural = protonemata, like stigma/stigmata). The new adult gametophytes grow from a tiny bud that develops on the protonema. Eventually these gametophytes will grow to produce gametes, and the whole cycle will start over again. Mosses can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation or by growing little vegetative buds called gemma, which can break off and grow into a new plant .", "Taraxacum officinale L. (dandelion) is a vigorous weed in Europe with diploid sexual populations in the southern regions and partially overlapping populations of diploid sexuals and triploid or tetraploid apomicts in the central and northern regions. These European dandelions can be divided into two groups. The first group reproduces sexually as do most seed plants. This group consists of dandelions that have a diploid set of chromosomes, and are sexually self-incompatible. Sexual reproduction involves a reduction of the somatic chromosome number by meiosis followed by a restoration of the somatic chromosome number by fertilization. Diploid dandelions have eight pairs of chromosomes, and meiosis is regular with normal pairing of homologous chromosomes at the metaphase I stage of meiosis. ", "This fern is known to grow to heights of 10 m or more (though it occasionally takes a rare creeping form). The crown is dense, and the fronds tend to be about 4 m long and have a silver-white colouration on the undersides. This distinctive silver colouration has made them useful for laying along tracks for night walking. The scales are a dark brown and are often twisted and glossy. ", "Tragopogon porrifolius Salsify or Oyster Plant [Cooked taproot with flavor of oysters; weedy species in western U.S. resemble large, blue-flowered dandelions; cross pollination with yellow-flowered T. dubius resulting in sterile diploid (2n=12) and fertile tetrapolid (2n=24) hybrids; in fertile, blue-flowered tetraploids, all haploid sets (n=6) from each parent have a homologous set of chromosomes to pair up with during synapsis of meiosis I; hence viable gametes and seeds are produced.]", "Slavic folklore has it that Ferns bloom but once a year and are extremely difficult to find but those who do happen to cast their gaze on the fern flower will be in possession of lifelong happiness and riches. A beauteous green addition to any bouquet, in terms of symbolism, giving the Fern as a gift will bestow magic upon the recipient and provide shelter as well as confidence. The Fern has the additional meaning of fascination. More about Fern...", "The dandelion has the proper organs, e.g. the stamen and pistil, for sexual reproduction, but opts for asexual reproduction. This is seen as supportive of Darwin’s Theory even though, by Darwinian standards, sexual reproduction is considered superior for the proliferation of the species over asexual reproduction (Fisher 1975). ", "SHORT ANSWER Answer the questions in the space provided. 1. Which of the following structures in a moss life cycle are haploid and which are diploid: sporophyte, spore, archegonium, antheridium, gametophyte, zygote?" ]

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[ "Mother of pearl, also called  nacre , is an iridescent layer of material that forms the shell lining of many  mollusks . Pearl  oysters  and  abalone  are both sources of this substance, which is widely used as an inlay in jewelry, furniture, and musical instruments. Mother of pearl comes in several natural colors as seen here in cream and white.", "Definition of the Pearl: The word Pearl is derived from the Latin word \"pirum\" which means \"pear\" which reflects the shape of the gem. A smooth lustrous round structure having a brilliant luster, with varying tints, found inside the shell of a mollusk such as a clam or oyster. It is formed due to a secretion of shelly substance around some irritating foreign particle. Its substance is the same as nacre, or mother-of-pearl. Pearls which are round, or nearly round, and of fine luster, are highly esteemed as jewels, and compare in value with precious stones. Real pearls are made by oysters or other mollusks whilst imitation pearls are man-made. Cultured pearls are made by mollusks but with human intervention (an irritant introduced into their shells causes a pearl to grow). A good sized pearl can take between five to eight years to form, which is usually the entire life of the oyster or mollusk. The cost depends on the size and the coating, or “nacre”, on a real pearl which gives it its iridescence. 96", "Mother of pearl, also called nacre , is an iridescent layer of material that forms the shell lining of many mollusks . Pearl oysters and abalone are both sources of this substance, which is widely used as an inlay in jewelry, furniture, and musical instruments. Mother of pearl comes in several natural colors, but is often bleached and dyed for decorative use. The dye retains the shimmering layers which make the material so sought after. Nacre is a tough and resilient material, but it is relatively soft and easily scratched.", "Pearl is a smooth, lustrous, chiefly calcium carbonate organic gemstones. Natural pearls are nearly 100% nacre, a protective mother of pearl coating that is secreted to protect the organism for a foreign body that has entered the shell. Natural or real pearls come mainly from oysters, although there are other bi-valve molluscs which can produce them. Almost any species of bivalve or gastropod is capable of producing pearls. However, only a few species, such as the famous pearl oysters, can create pearls which are highly prized. Cultured pearls are produced by artificially introducing a foreign object into the fleshy part of oysters, which become coated with nacre in a similar manner to natural pearls. Imitation pearls, simulated pearls, have been produced for many years. Pearls are found in the regions of Japan, China, Tahiti, Australia, Indonesia, Philippines, USA and Burma.", "Nacre, or mother of pearl, is the same substance that is deposited around a tiny particle that becomes lodged in the mollusk--either naturally or inserted by a human. Eventually, this nacre builds around the small object and  becomes a pearl .", "Mother of pearl is the lustrous inner surface of shells like oysters and abalone. Commonly used shell forms include spirals, scallops, snails, etc. and cover a wide range of color, luster and size.", "Prized for millennia for their rarity in nature, pearls began to be cultivated in the early twentieth century. An organic gem, they are formed by living organisms. The finest pearls are those produced by mollusks whose shells are lined with nacre, or mother-of-pearl.", "The silky iridescence of pearls is attributed to the layers of nacre on the surface of the gem. This nacre comes from the interior of the mollusk shell. This material, also known as mother-of-pearl , is often used in jewelry. In fact, Japanese divers would often discard pearls in favor of the beautiful interior coating of the shells they collected. Polynesian children would use pearls as marbles while their parents adorned themselves with the shells.", "Mother of pearl, also known as \"MOP,\" is the thin inner nacreous layer of a mollusk shell. It can be white, cream, or gray in color with a beautiful iridescent play-of-color. It is cut and shaped for use in jewelry, buttons, musical instruments, and more.", "Cultured pearls are a simulant produced by a natural process induced by human interference. A cultured pearl is one which has been produced by an oyster, or other bi-valve, by inserting a bead, usually mother-of-pearl, into the oyster. The oyster then proceeds to coat the bead with nacre, from which natural pearls are also formed.", "Pearls are an organic gem , created when a mollusk like an oyster covers a foreign object with beautiful layers of nacre , the mother of pearl.", "Mother of Pearl is an organic-inorganic composite material produced by some molluscs as an inner shell layer; it is also what makes up the outer coating of pearls . It is strong, resilient, and iridescent .", "Mother-of-pearl is the iridescent coating on the inside of oyster shell s. Mother-of-pearl is used for jewelry , button s, and other uses. . Continue Reading", "Once a particle enters an oyster, the animal begins to create the pearl. The oyster coats the irritant with aragonite and conchiolin, which are collectively called nacre. This nacre creates the lustrous sheen and ethereal glow that is the trademark of the lovely gem.", "Mother of pearl in jewelry is comprised of only a thin layer of sediment similar to a  boulder opal . This thin layer can be carved or cut into cabochon-like shapes and set into a setting.  ", "MOTHER-OF-PEARL: Glowing with an iridescent beauty, mother-of-pearl has been showcased in jewelry designs for thousands of years. As mother-of-pearl is a natural substance, it may vary in appearance, and its distinctive shimmer lends a quiet elegance to fine jewelry. More about colored gemstones .", "Today, mother-of-pearl has a wide variety of uses as it can be found in all sorts of shapes, designs, and coatings. Abalone , which is composed of the same material as mother-of-pearl, comes from a particular sea snail known as an abalone.", "Mollusks create mother of pearl to protect themselves. In addition to forming part of the shell, it also insulates mollusks from bacterial infection and parasites. Another function of this substance is to reduce irritation or damage from material such as sand or grit that drifts into the shell. The particle is gradually surrounded by layers of nacre, rendering it harmless. This may result in a blister-like irregularity on the inside of the shell, or it may create the unattached, spherical structure that is much prized by humans as a pearl.", "Whole seashells or parts of sea shells have been used as jewelry or in other forms of adornment since prehistoric times. Mother of pearl was historically primarily a seashell product, although more recently some mother of pearl comes from freshwater mussels. Also see pearl.", "The resilience of mother of pearl comes from its layered structure and the contrast in properties between the mineral and organic layers. The aragonite consists if hard, brittle crystals, while the organic protein layers are a natural polymer that is flexible and resistant to fracture. The aragonite gives relative rigidity to the material and the protein counteracts the brittleness of the aragonite by preventing the spread of fractures. The result is a natural product that is tough and resilient. As of 2013, research is underway into the manufacture of synthetic nacre.", "Powdered mother of pearl is sold in the markets of the Peruvian Andes to promote healing of wounds (unproven). >Note:Mother of pearl is the beautifully iridescent interior of some bivalves, which the mollusc also uses to surround small, irritating objects which get inside its mantle, or outer body - forming a pearl!)", "The layers of nacre that form a pearl contain tiny light-reflecting crystals. When there are enough layers of crystals and they align in a certain way, the reflected light will form a prismatic effect on the surface of the pearl. The beautiful rainbow-like effect is known as \"orient\" and resembles the colorful effect of an oil slick on water.", "In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering a minute invading parasite with nacre . [5] Over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the natural pigment of the nacre, and the shape of the original irritant.", "The formation of the pearl is as mystical as its history. For oysters to create a pearl, a small irritant, usually a small fish or parasite would lodged itself in the flesh of the oyster. The presence of the fish or parasite would then cause the oyster create what is called a “nacre”. This nacre grows over the intruder layer after layer and creates a luxurious pearl. As natural pearls are rare, man has created a process in which a small bead or piece of shell is placed inside the mollusk, stimulating the nacre production. This practice makes up about ninety percent of the pearl industry. They are harvested all over the world from the South Pacific, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico and its Pacific coast, Gulf of Manmar, the Persian Gulf, Europe, Japan and Australia.", "The most valuable of all organic gemstones, pearls are created when an oyster senses an irritant within its soft shelled mouth and then coats it with layers of nacre. Today, almost all pearls on the market are cultured by artificially introducing a small bead or shell into the mouth of an oyster. The majority of pearls are cultured in Japan, but many are harvested in China and the South Pacific. Pearls range in size, shape and color: some are large, round and white while others are small, amorphous, and black. Pearls have always been considered classic gemstones, symbolic of beauty and dignity. The pearl is the zodiac gemstone for Cancer.", "The pearl derives its iridescence from the diffraction and interference of white light, caused by tiny overlapping platelets of calcium carbonate. The iridescence or orient of the pearl is a function of the numbers and thickness of these platelets.", "There are two types of Pearls: Natural Pearls, formed inside wild oysters, practically impossible to find nowadays, and Cultured Pearls in which the production of the pearl is artificially induced. For producing cultured pearls, shell beads are placed inside an oyster and the oyster is returned to the water. When the pearls are later harvested, the oyster has covered the bead with layers of nacre. The finest Natural Pearls are fished almost exclusively from the Persian Gulf and the China Sea, while the best cultivated ones come from Japan, Korea and more recently Australia. Fine Natural Pearls are much more expensive and rare to find than Cultured Pearls.", "Is derived from the iridescent coating on the inside of mollusc shell s found in the warm water s of Asia. The main source for this gemstone is the pearl oyster .", "Orient: Iridescence in Pearls. It is created through diffraction and interference of the light by the shingle-like layers of Aragonite platelets near the Pearls's surface.", "Pearl symbolizes purity and wisdom. It also comes in many different colors and shapes, much like the varied nature of relationships.", "In all of human history, mankind has admired, even worshipped, pearls. Persian mythology called them “the tears of the gods.” Ancient Chinese legend claims the moon holds the power to create pearls, instilling them with its celestial glow and mystery.", "The culturing of pearls has made this once rare gem ubiquitous. Enlarge Photo credit: © Dave G. Houser/Corbis" ]

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[ "Archaeopteryx, sometimes referred to by its German name Urvogel (\"original bird\" or \"first bird\"), is the earliest and most primitive bird known. Archaeopteryx lived during the Late Jurassic Period around 150–145 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now.", "Archaeopteryx, sometimes referred to by its German name Urvogel (\"original bird\" or \"first bird\"), is the earliest and most primitive bird known. The name is from the Ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος archaios meaning 'ancient' and πτέρυξ pteryx meaning 'feather' or 'wing'; pronounced /ˌɑrkiːˈɒptərɨks/", "Archaeopteryx, sometimes referred to by its German name Urvogel (\"original bird\" or \"first bird\"), is the earliest and most primitive bird known. The name is from the Ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος (archaios) meaning \"ancient\", and πτέρυξ (pteryx), meaning \"feather\" or \"wing\"; pronounced /ˌɑrkiːˈɒptərɨks/", "Archaeopteryx, sometimes referred to by its German name ' (\"original bird\" or \"first bird\"), is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs that is transitional between non-avian feathered dinosaurs and modern birds. The name derives from the ancient Greek (archaīos) meaning \"ancient\", and (ptéryx), meaning \"feather\" or \"wing\". Between the late nineteenth century and the early twenty-first century, Archaeopteryx had been generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird (member of the group Avialae). Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, and Aurornis. ", "Paleontologists view Archaeopteryx as a transitional fossil between dinosaurs and modern birds. With its blend of avian and reptilian features, it was long viewed as the earliest known bird. Discovered in 1860 in Germany, it's sometimes referred to as Urvogel, the German word for \"original bird\" or \"first bird.\" Recent discoveries, however, have displaced Archaeopteryx from its lofty title.", "Nonetheless, Archaeopteryx is so often used as a model of the true ancestral bird that it has seemed almost heretical to suggest otherwise. Several authors have done so. [53] Lowe (1935) [56] and Thulborn (1984) [57] questioned whether Archaeopteryx truly was the first bird. They suggested that Archaeopteryx was a dinosaur that was no more closely related to birds than were other dinosaur groups. Kurzanov (1987) suggested that Avimimus was more likely to be the ancestor of all birds than Archaeopteryx. [58] Barsbold (1983) [59] and Zweers and Van den Berge (1997) [60] noted that many maniraptoran lineages are extremely birdlike, and suggested that different groups of birds may have descended from different dinosaur ancestors.", "Real World: It has long been thought that birds evolved from dinosaurs, and possible links between the two have been studied intensely. The earliest known bird, archaeopteryx1, shares many characteristics with the green parrot in Avatar. It has feathered wings, but also claws. Archaeopteryx also lacks the reversed toe of modern birds, instead having the reptilian structure of dinosaurs.", "The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed birds to evolve were the Enantiornithes , or \"opposite birds\", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. [22]", "The incredible brontosaurus, the terrific iguanodons, creatures of the lizard order, were there, and in the air were the pterodactyls, flying reptiles with teeth as terrible as a crocodile's. These were the masters of that amazing world. The birds began pretty much where' the pterodactyls left off, for the archaeopteryx, first of birds, was lizard-like in body, in tail, teeth, and jaws. Its tail was long and jointed, but feathers grew from each joint. Here, in feathers, a new structure !had come into being, and we must believe that blood-cold in reptiles, amphibians, and fishes-had at last become raised in temperature. Birds were the first things not clad in scales or armour, and they were the first to possess hot blood. Birds had come and were left to blossom into bulk, beauty, and a thousand forms, hues, songs, and habits. The giant moa tells us by his remains what they did with their genius for mere size; the extinct dodo, the ostriches, and the penguins reveal to us how fatally some misused their sovereign gift of flight.", "The half-metre tall Aurornis xui, which lived in China some 150 million to 160 million years ago, is believed to be the earliest known member of the bird family tree.", "Emus were first reported as having been seen by Europeans when explorers visited the western coast of Australia in 1696; this was an expedition led by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh who was searching for survivors of a ship that had gone missing two years earlier. [6] The birds were known on the eastern coast before 1788, when the first Europeans settled there. The birds were first mentioned under the name of the \"New Holland cassowary \" in Arthur Phillip 's Voyage to Botany Bay, published in 1789 with the following description: [7] [8]", "The first natural historian to write about migration as an observable fact was Aristotle. Though Herodotus described the migration of Cranes from north of the Black Sea to Central Africa (with some fancy embellishments) 100 years before. Aristotle was an astute observer and as well as recording the times of departure of some species from Greece, and listing Pelicans, Turtle Doves, Swallows, Quail, Swans and Geese correctly as migrants he accurately observed that all migrating birds fatten themselves up before migrating. A fact that was subsequently ignored for 2000 years.", "The first record of humans using birds of prey for hunting comes from an Assyrian bas-relief dated in the early part of the seventh century B.C. References to falconry in China are as early as 680 B.C., but one Japanese work states that falcons were used as gifts to Chinese princes during the Hsia dynasty, 206-220 B.C.", "The earliest known avialan fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period (Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi, Xiaotingia zhengi, and Aurornis xui. The well-known early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany. Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds, but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or \"hind wings\" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering.", "Considering the state of systematic ornithology at the time, Shaw’s assignment of a position to this new and strange bird, of which he had but the skin, gives him great credit, for he said it seemed “to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous tribes than to any other.” And his credit is still greater when we find the venerable John Latham, who is said to have examined the specimen with Shaw, placing it some years later among the penguins, being apparently led to that conclusion through its functionless wings and the backward situation of its legs. At Shaw’s death, in the same year, it passed into the possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th earl of Derby, and president of the Zoological Society, and it is now with the rest of his collection in the Liverpool Museum.", "Best known are the members of the genus Paradisaea , including the type species , the Greater Bird-of-paradise , Paradisaea apoda. This species was described from specimens brought back to Europe from trading expeditions in the early sixteenth century. These specimens had been prepared by native traders by removing their wings and feet so that they could be used as decorations. This was not known to the explorers, and in the absence of information many beliefs arose about them. They were briefly thought to be the mythical phoenix . The often footless and wingless condition of the skins led to the belief that the birds never landed but were kept permanently aloft by their plumes. The first Europeans to encounter their skins, were the voyagers of Magellan 's circumnavigation of the Earth . Antonio Pigafetta , wrote that they \"The people told us that those birds came from the terrestrial paradise, and they call them bolon diuata, that is to say, 'birds of God\". [12] This is the origin of both the name \"bird of paradise\" and the specific name apoda — without feet. [13] An alternate account by Maximilianus Transylvanus used the term Mamuco Diata, a variant of Manucodiata, which was used as a synonym for Birds of Paradise up to the 19th century", "Aristotle (384–322 BC) and Pliny (23–79 AD) both wrote about the legend of a contest among the birds to see who should be their king, the title to be awarded to the one that could fly highest. Initially, it looked as though the eagle would win easily, but as he began to tire, a small bird that had hidden under the eagle's tail feathers emerged to fly even higher and claimed the title. Following from this legend, in much European folklore the wren has been described as the \"king of the birds\" or as a flame bearer. However, these terms were also applied to the Regulus species, the fiery crowns of the goldcrest and firecrest making them more likely to be the original bearers of these titles, and, because of the legend's reference to the \"smallest of birds\" becoming king, the title was probably transferred to the equally tiny wren. The confusion was probably compounded by the similarity and consequent interchangeability of the Greek words for the wren (, \"king\") and the crests (, \"kinglet\"). In English, the association between the goldcrest and Eurasian wren may have been reinforced by the kinglet's old name of \"gold-crested wren\".", "The Great Auk was one of the 4400 animal species originally described by Carolus Linnaeus in his 18th-century work, Systema Naturae, in which it was named Alca impennis. The name Alca is a Latin derivative of the Scandinavian word for Razorbills and their relatives. The species was not placed in its own genus, Pinguinus, until 1791. The generic name is derived from the Spanish and Portuguese name for the species, and the specific name impennis is from Latin and refers to the lack of flight feathers or pennae. The Basque name for the Great Auk is arponaz, meaning \"spearbill\". Its early French name was apponatz. The Norse called the Great Auk geirfugl, which means \"spearbird\". This has led to an alternative English common name for the bird, \"garefowl\" or \"gairfowl\". The Inuit name for the Great Auk was isarukitsck, which meant \"little wing\". The word \"Penguin\" first appears in the 16th century as a synonym for \"Great Auk.\" It may be derived from the Welsh pen gwyn \"white head\", although the etymology is debated. When European explorers discovered what are today known as penguins in the Southern Hemisphere, they noticed their similar appearance to the Great Auk and named them after this bird, although they are not related.", "The great bustard was classified with its scientific name in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus , though the species was referred to as avis tarda in the much older writings of Pliny the Elder , and hence its names in English (from Old French bistarda) and some other languages: abetarda ( pt ), avetarda ( gl ), avutarda ( es ). Otis is an Old Greek name for \"bustard\". The specific name, tarda, has been traced to an Old Spanish name for \"tread\", although it has also been used in Latin for \"slow\" and \"deliberate\", which is apt to describe the typical walking style of the species. [3]", "The Great Auk, Pinguinus impennis, formerly of the genus Alca) is a bird that became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only species in the genus Pinguinus, a group which included several flightless giant auks from the Atlantic, to survive until modern times. It was also known as garefowl (from the Old Norse geirfugl, meaning \"spear-bird\", a reference to the shape of its beak), or penguin (before the birds known by that name today were so called). More", "bird of prey, �the greatest of hawks�, traditionally reserved for the use of kings according to the �Boke of St Albans� (B) and so-named as if for its circling flight but in reality from Old High German giri, �greedy�, and Latin falco, 'a falcon' (S 256)", "Another possible origin of the myth is accounts of eggs of another extinct Malagasy bird, the enormous Aepyornis elephant bird, hunted to extinction by the 16th century, that was three meters tall and flightless. There were reported elephant bird sightings at least in folklore memory as Étienne de Flacourt wrote in 1658. Its egg, live or subfossilised, was known as early as 1420, when sailors to the Cape of Good Hope found eggs of the roc, according to a caption in the 1456 Fra Mauro map of the world, which says that the roc \"carries away an elephant or any other great animal\".", "A popular myth among travelers and merchants, the roc was a giant bird of prey rumored to be so strong that it could snatch an elephant from the ground. Stories of the giant fowls originated in Arabic fairytales and mythology before making their way to the West in accounts by travelers like Marco Polo, who noted that the roc’s preferred hunting method was to drop its victims from deadly heights and then “prey upon the carcass.” The Moroccan wanderer Ibn Batutta later wrote that he once confused a roc for a floating mountain because of its size, and other legends stated that its wingspan—typically described as being about 50 feet—was so huge that it could blot out the sun. Researchers have since suggested that the roc legend may be partially inspired by sightings of so-called “elephant birds,” a species of massive, flightless birds that existed in Madagascar until as recently as the 17th century.", "Aepyornis maximus is commonly known as the 'elephant bird', a term that apparently originated from Marco Polo's account of the rukh in 1298, although he was apparently referring to an eagle-like bird strong enough to \"seize an elephant with its talons\". Sightings of eggs of elephant birds by sailors (e.g. text on the Fra Mauro map of 1467-69, if not attributable to ostriches) could also have been erroneously attributed to a giant raptor from Madagascar. The legend of the roc could also have originated from sightings of such a giant subfossil eagle related to the African crowned eagle, which has been described in the genus Stephanoaetus from Madagascar, being large enough to carry off large primates; today, lemurs still retain a fear of aerial predators such as these. Another might be the perception of ratites retaining neotenic features and thus being mistaken for enormous chicks of a presumably more massive bird.", "The most famous of the recently extinct birds is of course the Dodo one of 3 fairly similar large flightless birds living on the Mascarene Islands off the coast of Madagascar which became extinct as a result of hunting and the depredations of rats, cats, pigs and macaques, all of which were introduced by early travellers. The three birds were, the Dodo from Mauritius, the Solitaire of Reunion and the Solitaire of Rodriguez", "Argentavis magnificens (literally \"magnificent Argentine bird\") is the largest flying bird ever discovered. This bird, sometimes called the Giant Teratorn, is an extinct species known from three sites from the late Miocene (6 million years before present) of central and northwestern Argentina.", "*:A mysterious bird of unknown affinities, known from a few bones and, as it seems, two historical reports.", "Old bird from the New World. The Andean condor is the largest raptor in the world and the largest flying bird in South America. It flies majestically over the mountains and valleys of the Andes. This bird of prey and its close cousin, the California condor, are part of the New World vultures, a group of birds more closely related to storks than to the vultures of Africa.", "The Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) is a Neotropical species of eagle. It is sometimes known as the American Harpy Eagle to distinguish it from the Papuan Eagle which is sometimes known as the New Guinea Harpy Eagle or Papuan Harpy Eagle. It is the largest and most powerful raptor found in the Americas, and among the largest extant species of eagles in the world. It usually inhabits tropical lowland rainforests in the upper (emergent) canopy layer. Destruction of its natural habitat has seen it vanish from many parts of its former range, and it is nearly extirpated in Central America. In Brazil, the Harpy Eagle is also known as Royal-Hawk.", "Hearing the name for the first time brings to mind images of a creature that is all set to engage in battle or perhaps take part in some kind of extreme sport... Not quite! The northern helmeted curassow (Pauxi pauxi) owes its name to the handsome grey-blue casque (bulbous protuberance) it sports above its bill. A worthy representative of the order of galliformes—chickens and the like—the northern helmeted curassow’s plumage is almost entirely black, contrasting with its bright red bill and its pink legs. It weighs between 2.5 and 3.5 kg, with the male being larger than the female. It lives in the undergrowth of subtropical cloud forests, in the eastern Andes of Venezuela and Colombia. It prefers humid gorges 1,000–1,500 metres in altitude, where it spends its days foraging for food.", "The common buzzard was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Falco buteo. Buteo is the Latin name for this species.81", "Not all that long ago, subfossils were found of the Crowned Hawk-Eagle (Stephanoaetus mahery), the largest and strongest bird of prey of prehistoric Madagascar, which only became extinct after people settled on the island. It was a giant variant within the Stephanoaetus raptor family, which also includes the crowned eagle." ]

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[ "What is the Latin word for ‘liquid’ which we use to mean the fluid produced by the tree Ficus elastica?", "India rubber is the concrete juice of the ficus elastica, Siphonia elastica, the Urceola elastica, and many other tropical plants.", "\"liquid in a plant,\" Old English sæpm from Proto-Germanic *sapam (cf. Middle Low German, Middle Dutch, Dutch sap, Old High German saf, German Saft \"juice\"), from PIE *sab- \"juice, fluid\" (cf. Latin sapere \"to taste\"), from root *sab- \"juice, fluid\" (cf. Sanskrit sabar- \"sap, milk, nectar,\" Irish sug, Russian soku \"sap,\" Lithuanian sakas \"tree-gum\"). As a verb meaning \"To drain the sap from,\" 1725.", "(species Ficus elastica), large tree in its native Southeast Asia and in other warm areas but a common indoor pot plant elsewhere. It has large, thick, oblong leaves, up to 30 cm (12 inches) long and figlike fruits in pairs along the branches. The milky sap, or latex, was once an important source...", "1. the milky sap of plants, 2. Example: Poinsettia ( Euphorbia pulcherrima ), Crown of Thorns ( Euphorbia splendens ), Rubber Tree ( Ficus elastica ). Benjamin Fig ( Ficus bejamina )", "������ Latex occurs in special cells or in a series of special vessels, which permeate the bark, leaves, and other soft parts of the tree.� Usually only the latex from the lower part of the trunk is of importance commercially.� Latex is a gummy white liquid full of minute globules.� It consists of a mixture of water, hydrocarbons, resins, oils, proteins, acids, salts, sugar and caoutchouc, the substance used as the source of rubber.� The significance of latex to the plant is obscure, but it is know to be of some value in the healing of wounds, and it may serve for protection, nutrition, and the transport of materials or as a fluid reservoir.", ": \" (...) for example, why it is not the word JECUR (a Latin word taken from the Greek) which has come down to us with the meaning of 'liver', but the Romance word ficato , which has become the French foie . The word ficato is formed on the Latin word FICUS 'fig', and would appear to have nothing to do with the 'liver' other than the Greeks, followed by the Romans, fattened their geese with figs to obtain particularly fleshy and tasty livers. The FICATUM JECUR or 'fig-fattened goose liver', which was very much sought after, must have become such a common expression that it was shortened to FICATUM (just as the modern French say frites as an abbreviation of pommes de terre frites ). To begin with the word FICATUM probably designated only edible animal livers, with its meaning then being extended to include the human organ.\"", "The true latin name for this plant is Ficus elastica, however the traditional early versions have generally been replaced by more modern cultivars and closely related varieties. For this reason you might find the plant labeled as Ficus robusta (which as the name suggests is much more robust and hardy),", "Because of its size, the tree has been studied for its water pull. Water from the roots can be pushed up only a few meters by osmotic pressure but can reach extreme heights by using a system of branching capillarity (capillary action) in the tree's xylem (the water tubules) and sub-pressure from evaporating water at the leaves. Sequoias supplement water from the soil with fog, taken up through air roots, at heights to where the root water cannot be pulled. ", "58. Liquidambar stryaciflua, American Sweetgum • • •••It is recognizable from its combination of five-pointed starshaped leaves and spiked fruit. A popular ornamental tree in North America The earliest record of the tree appears to be in a Spanish work by F. Hernandez, published in 1651, in which he describes it as a large tree producing a fragrant gum resembling liquid amber, hence the name. The fruit, popularly nicknamed a \"space bug\", \"monkey ball\", \"bommyknocker\", \"bir ball\", \"gumball\", \"conkleberry\", \"cuko o-bir\" or \"sticky ball\", is a hard, dry, globose, compound fruit 2.5–4 cm in diameter and composed of numerous (40-60) capsules. The autumnal coloring is not simply a flame, it is a conflagration; in reds and yellows it equals the maples.5-pointed star shaped leavesMature \"monkey ball“ after seed dispersal58", "Succulentus “having juice,” from succus “juice, sap;” related to sugere “to suck,” and cognate with O.E.", "The watery fluid that circulates through a plant that has vascular tissues. Sap moving up the xylem carries water and minerals, while sap moving down the phloem carries water and food.", "The olive's fruit, also called the olive, is of major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil; it is one of the core ingredients in Mediterranean cuisine. The tree and its fruit give their name to the plant family, which also includes species such as lilacs, jasmine, Forsythia and the true ash trees (Fraxinus). The word derives from Latin ŏlīva (\"olive fruit\", \"olive tree\"; \"olive oil\" is ŏlĕum) a borrowing from the Greek (elaía, \"olive fruit\", \"olive tree\") and (élaion, \"olive oil\") in the archaic form *. The oldest attested forms of the Greek words are the Mycenaean , e-ra-wa, and , e-ra-wo or , e-rai-wo, written in the Linear B syllabic script. The word \"oil\" in multiple languages ultimately derives from the name of this tree and its fruit.", "1. to swallow (a liquid). She drank a pint of water; He drank from a bottle. drink يَشْرَب пия beber pít trinken drikke πίνω beber , tomar jooma نوشیدن juoda boire לִשתוֹת पीना, पान करना piti iszik minum drekka bere 飲む 마시다 (iš)gerti []dzert minum drinken drikke pić څښل beber a bea пить piť piti piti dricka ดื่ม içmek 喝 пити پینا uống 喝", "Faucet The name of this common device for regulating the flow of a liquid comes from Latin for \"false\"", "* Cauchuc: Rubber and possibly also plastic, from the Quechuan word cauchuc or caoutchouc, meaning the sap of the rubber tree.", "any of numerous chiefly tropical trees, shrubs, and vines belonging to the genus Ficus, of the mulberry family, having milky sap and large, thick or stiff leaves, including the edible fig, the banyan, and many species grown as ornamentals.", "A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous illnesses , particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu.", "1. An evergreen shrub or small tree (Ilex paraguariensis) of South America, widely cultivated for its leaves, which are used to prepare a tealike beverage.", "Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in vascular plants, phloem being the other. The basic function of xylem is to transport water from roots to shoot and leaves, but it also transports some nutrients. The word xylem is derived from the Greek word ξύλον (xylon), meaning \"wood\"; the best-known xylem tissue is wood, though it is found throughout the plant.", "A tree of 40 feet or more in height, with many branches, and a thick, purplish-grey bark; leaves palmately cut into five, three-lobed sections, and white flowers arranged in little, round solitary heads. The name Liquidambar was given by Monardes in the sixteenth century as the name of the resin obtained in Mexico from the American species, now L. styraciflua. L. orientalis was not known botanically until the middle of the last century, when it was grown in Chelsea, Kew, and other botanical gardens from seed brought from the Levant via Paris. It forms forests near Budrum, Melasso, Moughla, Marmorizza and a few places near, but does not appear to be found wild in any other district. The genus Liquidambar is very similar to that of Platanus, and this species to L. styraciflua.", "BOTANICAL NAME: Ficus benjamina: Common Names - Weeping Fig, Benjamin's Fig, or Ficus Tree. A species of the family Moraceae, that is native to south and southeast Asia and Australia, and is the official tree of Bangkok. A large tree reaching up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall in natural conditions, with gracefully drooping branchlets and glossy leaves 6–13 cm (2–5 in)  It makes a good container or garden plant and can be pruned to size. Photographs taken in Manse Street, Whangarei.", "1. Treelike forms branch in such a way as to maximise the filtration of water. Just as an oak tree has to maximise the", "Cajuput Also written Cajaput and Cajeput. An essential oil which is steam-distilled from the leaves and twigs of the Cajuput tree, also called the Swamp Ti tree, Swamp Tea tree and White Ti tree (Melaleuca leucadendron), which grows in S.E. Asia from Malaysia to Australia. The name derives from Malaysian for ‘white tree’. The oil has a penetrating odour of camphor and rosemary and is used in aromatherapy and for other medicinal purposes as well as in perfumery. It is very similar to Niaouli oil (from the Niaouli tree M. viridiflora, found in Indonesia), also sometimes called Gomenol, which has wider medical uses, and to Ti-tree Oil (or Tea-tree Oil), which has a eucalyptus-like odour and is used considerably in medicine and aromatherapy.", "Also called coffee beans. the beanlike seeds of the coffee tree, used to make this beverage", "1. (Botany) the hard fibrous substance consisting of xylem tissue that occurs beneath the bark in trees, shrubs, and similar plants.", "On a rubber tree plantation, white latex sap drips into a collection pan. (Photograph by Margery H. Freeman . More about the photograph )", "The cashew tree is a hearty, fast-growing evergreen with an umbrella-like canopy. Under favorable conditions it may reach a height of forty to fifty feet. The tree has a rather messy look with it's gnarled stem and crooked branches. Lower branches rest near the ground and may root, further augmenting it's spreading form. The leaves of the cashew tree are four to eight inches long and two to three inches wide. Its aromatic flower clusters are a yellowish pink.", "Early Romans believed bay laurel provided protection from thunder and lightning. While the tree was considered good luck, its death was also thought to be an omen of great disaster. Shakespeare referred to this superstition in the play Richard II when the Captain says: “’Tis thought the King is dead, we will not stay. / The bay trees in our country are all wither’d.” (To a modern gardener, that sounds suspiciously like a lack of rain rather than an omen.)", "The name of Cajuput Tree is derived from the Malay word Kayuputi - meaning \"white wood\". The botanical species name also comes from from the Greek leukos (white) and dendron (tree).", "The word is derived from the Hebrew root Qof-Dalet-Shin, meaning holy. This is a blessing over wine in honor of the holiday. The wine is drunk, and a second cup is poured.", "Carunculate.   With an excrescent outgrowth from integuments near the hilum, as in Euphorbia; fibrous with stringy or cord-like seed coat, as mace in Myristica" ]

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[ "Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) is an evergreen tree believed to be a cross between the sweet orange and another type of citrus tree. It has small white flowers that blossom in winter, and yellow, slightly pear-shaped fruits that are harvested for use in cuisine and the perfume industry [1]. Calabria in Italy is currently the largest producer of bergamot, producing 80% of the world’s supply; other major bergamot-producing countries are France, Côte D’Ivoire, and southern Turkey (Anatolia) [1].", "Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) is a small citrus fruit that grows mainly in Southern Italy. The fruit, made of a cross of Seville oranges and pear lemons, is sour and inedible. Bergamot is grown for the essential oil contained its peel. This oil is used in Earl Grey tea as well as various fragrances. Bergamot is not related to the herb of the same name.", "The oil is named after the Italian city of Bergamot where it was originally cultivated. The evergreen bergamot orange tree (Citrus bergamia) is a hybrid of the Seville orange and Citrus limetta, the so-called “pear lemon”. The oil is famous for its use in the perfume industry. Bergamot oil has a refreshing citrus aroma that is somewhat spicy, light yet rich. It is also the distinctive ingredient in Earl Grey tea. Bergamot FCF essential oil used in aromatherapy is produced by cold expression of the fruit’s rind after it has been allowed to ripen and dry.", "Bergamot orange is the fragrant citrus fruit of the Citrus bergamia, a small evergreen tree which blossoms during the winter.  The fruit is the size of an orange, with a yellow-green colour similar to a lemon.  The juice tastes less sour than lemon, but more bitter than grapefruit – which explains why bergamot has become known for its aromatic essential oil, rather than as something we eat for breakfast…  (Although bergamot is used in Earl Grey tea…)", "\"Bergamot, the name for three quite distinct plants. I. Monarda didyma, an ornamental herb, native to North America and brought to Britain in 1656. The leaves can be dried and brewed as a tea called Oswego tea. The fresh leaves are good in salad. This plant likes damp ground, and grows easily from seed. The blooms are red and very attractive. II. Pyrus persica, one of the oldest pears in England, also known by the name bergamot, which in this case is said to be a corruption of the Turkish word beg-armudi--'prince's pear.' It was probably introduced into England by the Romans. III. Citrus bergamia, a pear-shaped orange which is grown in Calabria, Italy, for the oil obtained from its peel. The peel itself is also used in confectionery and cookery as a flavouring agent.\"", "Bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia) is a small citrus tree which blossoms during the winter and is grown commercially in Calabria, Italy. It is probably a hybrid of Citrus limetta (sweet lime) and Citrus aurantium (bitter orange). ", "Citrus bergamia, the bergamot orange (pronounced), is a fragrant fruit the size of an orange, with a yellow color similar to a lemon.", "Citrus bergamia, the Bergamot orange, is a fragrant fruit the size of an orange, with a yellow colour similar to a lemon. Genetic research into the ancestral origins", "Bergamot orange , C. aurantium subsp. bergamia is cultivated in Italy for the production of bergamot oil, a component of many brands of perfume and tea , especially Earl Grey tea .", "Bergamot is a plant that produces a type of citrus fruit. Oil taken from the peel of the fruit is used to make medicine.", "The bergamot-lemon, or fruit of citrus bergamia; also sometimes, colloquially, the fragrant oil obtained from its rind.", "Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Lopizzo, T., De Carolis, E., and Fadda, G. In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes. J.Antimicrob.Chemother. 2007;59(2):305-308. View abstract.", "The favorite variety and practically the only one planted is Villa Franca. It has proved to be materially hardier than other varieties such as Genoa and Eureka. The Rough lemon, a variety of uncertain relationship, grows as a wild or semi-wild tree in southern parts of Florida. Occasionally the fruit finds its way into the markets of the state. Its principal use is to furnish seed to grow seedlings on which to propagate different citrous fruits. Everbearing is grown here and there as a home fruit. Ponderosa, a large-fruited variety, is grown as a yard tree. When filled with fruit, the tree is very ornamental and the fruit is valuable for home use. This great fruit may be mistaken for a grapefruit (see Pomelo).", "Citrus bergamia has also been classified as Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia (i.e. a subspecies of bitter orange). ", "Bergamot orange trees, indigenous to Calabria, Italy, are part of the Rutaceae family and Citrus genus. The peel of the pear-shaped fruit contains essential oils and other bioactive constituents. Bergamot juice is used for nutritional purposes. The bergamot orange is unrelated to North American herbs also known as bergamot, which belong to the genus Monarda (bee balm or Oswego tea). This bottom line exclusively discusses bergamot orange.", "Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades and pickles.", "         Citrus is a common term and  genus  of  flowering plants  in the  rue family, Rutaceae . The most recent research indicates an origin in  Australia , New Caledonia  and  New Guinea .  Some researchers believe that the origin is in the part of  Southeast Asia  bordered by  Northeast India ,  Burma (Myanmar) and the  Yunnan  province of  China , and it is in this region that some commercial species such as oranges, mandarins, and lemons originally came. Citrus fruit has been cultivated in an ever-widening area since ancient times; the best-known examples are the  oranges ,  lemons , pummelo ,  tangelo , grapefruit , and  limes .", "Citrus is a common term and genus (Citrus) of flowering plants in the rue family, Rutaceae.", "citrus tree , citrus - any of numerous tropical usually thorny evergreen trees of the genus Citrus having leathery evergreen leaves and widely cultivated for their juicy edible fruits having leathery aromatic rinds", "��������� The principal use of sweet oranges is for fresh fruit and juice.� The peel is candied and oil of orange is extracted from the rind.� This essential oil is used in the perfume and soap industries, in medicine and for flavoring.� Dissolving a small amount of the oil in alcohol makes orange extract.� Orange trees are occasionally grown for ornamental purposes.", "Bergamot oil is made from a tree that can grow up to four meters high, with star-shaped flowers and smooth leaves, bearing citrus fruit resembling a cross between an orange and a grapefruit, but in a pear-shape. The fruit ripens from green to yellow.", "Commercial organic fertilizers can work well for citrus trees. Supplement granular applications with foliar sprays of fish emulsion and kelp. Some people brew compost ‘teas’ which can be helpful when applied to plant roots.", "Imagine yourself wandering through an orange grove in early spring, where the white, soft blossoms of the trees are unfolding to greet the warming sun and the delicate, rich scent of sweet flowers fills the air like a dream… These blossoms are found growing on the bitter orange tree (Citrus aurantium), native to eastern Africa and the tropics of Asia, though naturalized throughout many areas of the world thanks to the multitude of uses this versatile plant has to offer.", "Bergamot orange is a citrus fruit that grows in southern Italy. It is smaller than a regular orange and bears more resemblance to a lemon. It has a strong tart taste that is difficult to palate on its own. When added to tea, however, the bergamot adds a fun citrusy \"zing\" to what would otherwise be a normal cup of black tea.", "A small, somewhat spiny tree, 4 to 6 meters tall; young growth greenish; leaves elliptic oblong, 4 to 9 centimeters long and about 4 centimeters wide, crenulate; base acute; apex usually emarginate; petiole scarcely winged, 10 to 15 millimeters long; flowers axillary, solitary, rarely in pairs, 21 millimeters in diameter, fragrant; petals white, reflexed; stamens 18 to 20, unequal; filaments united into groups; ovary globose, 6 to 8 loculed; style slender, distinct; stigma knoblike; fruit globose, orange [ 13 ]yellow, 2 to 4 centimeters in diameter; skin smooth, thin, brittle, separable from the flesh; pulp orange colored, juicy, acid, with distinct aroma; juice cells rather large, short, and blunt; seeds comparatively large, smooth, plump, sometimes beaked; polyembryonic.", "Most citrus trees, including the pomelo and its hybrids, have similar planting needs. Well-drained, semi-acidic soil is necessary to stave off zinc deficiency that can result in yellowing leaves with dark veins. Amend the soil with an acidifying fertilizer if unsure of your soil condition. A constant source of deep-root watering is necessary, as is fertilizing throughout the year. Pruning is necessary only for appearance and doesn't affect the tree's fruit-bearing potential. Most insects that attack citrus trees can be treated with a strong blast from a hose. If needed, do so in midmorning to prevent mold and be careful not to knock off blooms.", "The Bergamot orange is intensively cultivated, since the 18th century, exclusively in coastal area nearby to Reggio, where it found its optimal geological and weather conditions: essence oil from Calabrian Bergamot reach the best quality in the world. Calabria is also the largest producer of Porcini Mushrooms in Italy. ", "The pomelo tree is really a big furry tree having an abnormal crown developing to about 5 to 15 m tall. The thorny tree has numerous twigs and it also generates fruits throughout the year. Its bark is brown yellow as well as thicker. The foliage is easy and develops to around 2 to 12 cm broad. Oil glands can be found in it as tiny a dot which provides the dark green leaves a gleaming look. Whenever smashed, they provide a a powerful odor. The flowers are usually yellow-colored white or even plain white, aromatic, individual as well as grow to about 2.5 cm broad.", "The olive, known by the botanical name Olea europaea, meaning \"european olive\", is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, found in much of Africa, the Mediterranean Basin from Portugal to the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and southern Asia as far east as China, as well as the Canary Islands, Mauritius and Réunion. The species is cultivated in many places and considered naturalized in all the countries of the Mediterranean coast, as well as in Argentina, Saudi Arabia, Java, Norfolk Island, California and Bermuda. ", "Agrumen Oils The collective term in perfumery for the essential oils of citrus fruits (bergamot, colobot, cravo, grapefruit, lemon, lime, mandarin, bitter orange, sweet orange and tangerine).", "Acca sellowiana, a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, is native to the highlands of southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Uruguay, northern Argentina, and Colombia. It is widely cultivated as a garden plant and fruiting tree. Common names include feijoa (,, or), pineapple guava and guavasteen, although it is not a true guava. It is an evergreen, perennial shrub or small tree, 1 - in height, widely cultivated as an ornamental tree and for its fruit.", "In southern Europe, the seasonally arid Mediterranean climate inhibits growth unless summer watering is provided. Although there are several specimens in Yugoslavia, Italy, and Spain, the trees have not survived climatic conditions in Greece and Albania. In southern France, specimens are found more commonly at higher elevations where more mesic conditions prevail. By far the largest specimens in all of Europe are those in the palace grounds at La Granja, Spain, northwest of Madrid. In a warm climate and with regular lawn watering, the larger specimen is 13 ft dbh and 130 ft tall, while the smaller of the two is more than 10 ft dbh and 133 ft tall (Fig. 30). These two specimens were planted in the late 1800s. Because they grow in the open, they have retained their branches down to the ground and display a form that is rarely seen in its native habitat." ]

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[ "Over sixty years ago Doctor Edward Bach, a medical physician, gave up his Harley Street practice to focus on creating a new system of healing through wild flowers. His remedies work by by addressing an individual’s emotional state rather than simply looking at their symptoms. He discovered that one’s body is a mirror of one’s mental state. So if one is frightened, worried or depressed, progress through the disease toward recovery is slow, but if one is hopeful, happy and determined, recovery will happen more quickly.", "Flower preparations can be produced by placing flowers in water and exposing them to sunlight. The most famous of these are the Bach flower remedies, which were developed by the physician and homeopath Edward Bach. Although the proponents of these preparations share homeopathy's vitalist world-view and the preparations are claimed to act through the same hypothetical \"vital force\" as homeopathy, the method of preparation is different. Bach flower preparations are manufactured in allegedly \"gentler\" ways such as placing flowers in bowls of sunlit water, and the preparations are not succussed. There is no convincing scientific or clinical evidence for flower preparations being effective. ", "BACKGROUND:A reader asked me to review the evidence behind using flower remedies for children with autism. Known as flower essences or Bach flower remedies, they were originally developed in the 1930s by a British physician, Dr Edward Bach. He believed that illness ultimately arises from negative emotional states and energy imbalances. He claimed to identify 38 negative emotional states and developed 38 corresponding remedies. Many other remedies are now available.", "A native of Persia (Iran) that was described by the Ancient Greek poet Sappho as “ the queen of flowers”, this rose has had many uses over time. The Ancient Romans consumed the petals as food and marinated them in wine to use them as a cure for hangovers. Avicenna, a famous eleventh century Arab physician and philosopher living in Moslem Spain, prepared rose water from the petals that he used in treating his patients for a variety of ailments. Knights returning from the Crusades brought the plant to Europe. It was grown chiefly in monastic gardens for medicinal purposes. In the Middle Ages, the blossoms were used in aroma therapy for the treatment of depression. In the nineteenth century beginning in the time of Napoleon, French pharmacists grew them in pots at the entrances of their shops, hence the origin of the common name Apothecary Rose. The Apothecary Rose became the professional symbol of the pharmaceutical profession much as the balanced scales became the professional symbol of the legal profession. French druggists dispensed preparations made from this rose to treat indigestion, sore throats and skin rashes.", "The properties and beneficial effects of digitalis were discovered by an English physician William Withering, in 1775. In his research on herbal medications, he came to know of an old woman in Shropshire who was a practitioner of folk medicine mainly using wild herbs that she gathered in the countryside and the woods. This traditional healer cured a patient of the physician afflicted with excessive fluid retention as a complication of congestive heart failure . William Withering had in fact, expected the patient to die and was surprised by the curative powers of the remedy used by the old healer.", "German physician Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) was one of the three founding fathers of botany , along with Otto Brunfels (1489- 1534) and Hieronymus Bock (1498–1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus). [47] Valerius Cordus (1515–1554) authored one of the greatest pharmacopoeias and one of the most celebrated herbals in history, Dispensatorium (1546). [48]", "Later authorities were scarcely less enthusiastic. Physicians commonly believed that the poppy plant was of divine origin; opium was variously called the Sacred Anchor Of Life, Milk Of Paradise, the Hand Of God, and Destroyer Of Grief. Thomas Sydenham, the 17th-century pioneer of English medicine, writes....", "The first known heart medicine was discovered in an English garden. In 1799, physician John Ferriar noted the effect of dried leaves of the common ", "Dioscorides, a Greek Physician of the 1st century, wrote De Materia Medica, which was used for botany and medicinal knowledge in both the East and the West for over 1500 years. The remedies were based on an extensive catalogue of spices and herbs and were more systematic than his predecessors (who based the remedies on magic and superstition).", "1795 It is reported that British physician William Withering, having learned of the possible medicinal value of Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), treated heart disease patients with extracts. (Le Couteur & Burresson, 2003)", "Physician Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner (1516–1565) and herbalist John Gerard (1545–c. 1611) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells, a term he coined, in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue.", "The Lily-of-the-Valley is one of the British-grown plants included in the Pharmacopoeia, and its medicinal virtues have been tested by very long experience. Although not in such general use as the Foxglove, it is still prescribed by physicians with success. Its use dates back to ancient times, for Apuleius in his Herbal written in the fourth century, declares it was found by Apollo and given by him to Æsculapius, the leech.", "Nothing like this can be said for alternative medicine. For one thing, the typical alternative theory is formed by a single romantic hero, sometimes a grand heretic like Samuel Hahnemann, M.D., sometimes an inspired naïf like Daniel D. Palmer, grocer of Davenport, Iowa. The pattern has been widely repeated: Benedict Lust invented naturopathy, Moshe Feldenkrais invented the Feldenkrais method, Ida Rolf invented Rolfing: we know their names in a way that we do not, and cannot, and need not know who invented diagnostics. This is a mark very much in favor of the latter, and against the former.", "The Druids (a priest of an ancient Celtic religion practiced in Britain, Ireland and Gaul until the people of those areas were converted to Christianity) considered meadowsweet to be one of their most blessed aromatic plant. Despite the Druids' opinion regarding the plant, it is still unheard of whether they used the herb as a medicine. Nevertheless, meadowsweet has been an ancient folk medication in most regions of Europe. Referring to meadowsweet, in 1652, naturalist Nicholas Culpepper had written in his much-valued medical text that “it helps in the speedy recovery from cholic (bile acid) disorders and removes the instability and constant change in the stomach'.", "1649 Nicholas Culpeper published his herball, The English Physician or an Astrologo-physical Discourse of the Vulgar Herbs of this Nation Being a Compleat Method of Physic Whereby a man may preserve his body in health or cure himself being sick for thee pence charge with such things onely as grow in England, they being most fit for English Bodies. The English Physician dealt considerably with astrology and the signatures of plants. (Sanecki, 1992)", "\"Dr. Silkworth's belladonna cure\" was actually a joint recipe of the entrepreneur Charles Towns (an insurance salesman from Georgia) and Dr. Alexander Lambert, all three of whom worked together at Charlie Towns' hospital in New York City. It was a drug cocktail made up of belladonna, henbane, zanthoxylum (which eases gastrointestinal discomfort), barbiturates, megavitamins, morphine, and some other ingredients.", "Borrowing also from Arabian medicinals and from herbal lore, such as that in the Anglo-Saxon Leech Book of Bald, John Gerard's Herball (1597) was an encyclopedia of herbs that grouped plants according to their use. In 1652, Nicholas Culpeper wrote The English Physician, a volume that went through several printings and was used by North American settlers. There are numerous books on herbs now available.", "MEADOWSWEET: (Filipendula ulnaria) Also known as Queen of the Meadow, Gravel Root, and Meadowwort. One of the three most sacred Druid herbs, (with Mint and Vervain), this herb has upright stems of wintergreen-scented, divided leaves, topped by frothy umbels of almond-scented cream flowers. The stems grow up to four feet tall and are sometimes purple. The leaves smell like almonds and the flowers give an almond flavor to mead, herb wines, jam and stewed fruit. Dried flowers scent linen and yield an astringent skin tonic. Flower buds contain salicylic aced, a chemical from which aspirin was synthesized (not from Filipendula but from Spirea, a related herb), but the herb as a whole is gentler on the stomach. Herbalists use flower tea for stomach ulcers and headaches, as an antiseptic diuretic, and for feverish colds, diarrhea, and heartburn. Meadowsweet was a favorite strewing herb of Elizabeth I.", "Around 1665 the King, who was also an herbalist, made a potion, or a tea, using the angelica herb, nutmeg, treacle and other herbs, which the physicians of London called ~The King Majesty's Excellent Recipe for the plague.~ They used this recipe for a number of diseases. By the 17th century, Culpeper, the astrologer-physician, pronounced Angelica an ~Herb of the Sun in Leo~ to be gathered then, for most effective use.", "86) MULLEIN: (Verbascum thapsus) Also known as Hag's Taper, Candlewick Plant, Aaron's Rod, Velvet Plant, and Shepherd's Club. This biennial has a rosette of woolly leaves and a tall, thick, downy, resinous stem of bright yellow flowers, followed by many-seeded capsules. The honey-scented flowers flavor liqueurs and yield skin-softening mucilage. The expectorant, soothing, and spasm-sedating properties of the leaf and flowers are used to treat raspy coughs and are added to herbal tobacco. Woolly leaf wraps preserve figs and are used as tinder and emergency bandages. The powdered leaves are sometimes called \"Graveyard Dust\", and can be substituted for such. The leaf is a classic remedy for bronchitis (as well as other coughs) and burning urination. Simmer two teaspoons per cup and take a quarter cup four times a day. A tea of the flowers take before bed brings on sleep. A poultice of the leaves helps wounds and sores. The leaves steeped in vinegar and water will soothe inflammations, painful skin conditions, and hemorrhoids when used externally as a poultice. They may be used in tincture form, fifteen to forty drops every two to four hours.", "     CONVALLARIA MAJALIS is the ordinary lily-of-the-valley belonging to the species Maiblume. It grows everywhere in the woods. Its blossoms are bell-shaped with four or six divisions and a corresponding calyx. They are small plants with broad roots and stem leaves. It is a span high and the two leaves are-broad and streakless. The fragrant flowers appear in May, the red berries in September. The root is fibrous and creeping, spreads rapidly and when powdered excites sneezing. An extract of the root is purgative. The plant name is very old. It occurs in the Bible. Great joy comes to those who wear it. In the flower language it means, \"you are modest ; renewed luck.\" In the middle ages this spring flower was used as a remedy and highly treasured as a panacea.", "Fruits, leaves and flowers of the Blackthorn have been effectively used in folk and herbal medicines for centuries. It appears that modern writers  and workers with herbal medicines simply re-iterate the advice given by their two famous forefathers. ", "Drinking seawater followed by fresh water was considered a universal remedy. Various native plants were used as compresses for relieving pain or injury, and the leaves of plants were brewed in teas and used for healing purposes. Piper methysticum (the source of the intoxicating awa or kava ) was used in many ways. Today, this species is a sedative given in mild form to infants during teething and is used in commercial diuretics. Seasonal changes and extremes of humidity and dryness produced many respiratory problems among native Hawaiians. There were as many as 58 herbal remedies for asthma, many of which have been studied or adapted by modern medical science.", "As physicians and healers, the druids gathered herbs and poultice. They gathered plants known as selago, without using iron. Another special plants were the marsh plant, known as the samolus, used as charm against diseases of cattle.", "Virtually all cultures have had their versions of physicians or healers since all cultures have to deal with injuries and diseases. One possible objection to Murray’s work is that is does not credit non-European cultures in Australia, Africa, the Americas or the various regions of Asia for their intimate, ancient knowledge of many herbs and plants, some of which have later been scientifically demonstrated to possesses genuinely useful medical properties. For this reason, representatives of modern pharmaceutical companies occasionally follow native peoples to take notes of their comments about local plants and investigate their properties further.", "\"In the year 1775, my opinion was asked concerning a family receipt for the cure of the dropsy. I was told that it had long been kept a secret by an old woman in Shropshire, who had sometimes made cures after the more regular practitioners had failed. I was informed also, that the effects produced were violent vomiting and purging; for the diuretic effects seemed to have been overlooked. This medicine was composed of twenty or more different herbs; but it was not very difficult for one conversant in these subjects, to perceive, that the active herb could be not other than the Foxglove.”", "Oakeley, Dr. Henry. (2012). Doctors in the Medicinal Garden. Plants named after physicians. Royal College of Physicians. link", "sources of drugs and medications. This book explains the traditional meanings and properties of 150 flowers, rediscovering long-forgotten folklore and explaining the many floral associations that survive in customs today.", "Mills S, Bone K. Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2000.", "He spent most of his life laboring to collect information on herbs, healing techniques, herbal medicine prescriptions, and medicines derived from minerals and animals. He was also a practicing doctor.", "Weiss, F. R. Herbal Medicine (translated from German by A. R. Meuss). Beaconsfield, England: Beaconsfield Publishers, 1988.", "a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the skin and integument." ]

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[ "Longbows, because of their narrow limbs and rounded cross-section (which does not spread out stress within the wood as evenly as a flatbow’s rectangular cross section), need to be less powerful, longer or of more elastic wood than an equivalent flatbow. In Europe the last approach was used, with yew being the wood of choice, because of its high compressive strength, light weight and elasticity. Yew is the best widespread European timber that will make good self longbows, (other woods such as Elm can make longbows but require heat treating of the belly and a wider belly/narrower back, whilst still falling into the definition of a longbow) and has been the main wood used in European bows since Neolithic times. More common and cheaper hard woods, including elm, oak, hickory, ash, hazel and maple, are good for flatbows. A narrow longbow with high draw-weight can be made from these woods, but it is likely to take a permanent bend (known as \"set\" or \"following the string\") and would probably be outshot by an equivalent made of yew.", "One of the simpler longbow designs is known as the self bow, by definition made from a single piece of wood. Traditional English longbows are self bows made from yew wood. The bowstave is cut from the radius of the tree so that sapwood (on the outside of the tree) becomes the back and forms about one third of the total thickness; the remaining two thirds or so is heartwood (50/50 is about the maximum sapwood/heartwood ratio generally used). Yew sapwood is good only in tension, while the heartwood is good in compression. However, compromises must be made when making a yew longbow, as it is difficult to find perfect unblemished yew. The demand for yew bowstaves was such that by the late 16th century mature yew trees were almost extinct in northern Europe. In other desirable woods such as Osage orange and mulberry the sapwood is almost useless and is normally removed entirely.", "The longbow was made by hand from the English yew. Staves were cut only in Winter, when the sap was down. Skilful cutting and shaping of the stave in a D-section left a layer of sapwood left along the flattened back of the bow. The heartwood of yew is able to withstand compression and its sapwood is elastic by nature, and both tend to return to their original straightness when the bow is loosened. The edges were notched in order to take the string made of hemp or silk. There is no rest for the arrow on the bow ; it rests simply on the index finger of the archer himself. The best material for the longbow came from yew trees in the mountainous regions of Italy and Spain. This was due to the poor terrain that the trees grew in. This fact made the wood of these trees lighter due to a lesser amount of grain found in the staves. So important was this consideration that it was ordered that with every shipment of imported wine from Southern France there must be a consignment of yew staves.", "Wooden laminated longbows can be made by gluing together two or more different pieces of wood. Usually this is done to take advantage of the inherent properties of different woods: some woods can better withstand compression while others are better at withstanding tension. Examples include hickory and lemonwood, or bamboo and yew longbows: hickory or bamboo is used on the back of the bow (the part facing away from the archer when shooting) and so is in tension, while the belly (the part facing the archer when shooting) is made of lemonwood or yew and undergoes compression (see bending for a further explanation of stresses in a bending beam). Traditionally made Japanese yumi are also laminated longbows, made from strips of wood: the core of the bow is bamboo, the back and belly are bamboo or hardwood, and hardwood strips are laminated to the bow's sides to prevent twisting. Ready-made laminated longbows are available for purchase.", "1545 AD – King Henry’s flagship “Mary Rose” sinks in the Solent near Portsmouth, England. The remains are recovered in 1982 from the fine silt that has preserved the hull and its contents. Over 100 longbows were found all made from fine-grained yew. The yew was shaped into a ‘D’ section with sapwood on the back of the bow and a thicker section of heartwood on the belly. This worked as an efficient natural lamination giving the bow strength. Boxes of arrows were also found, bound in bundles of 24 and kept apart with a pierced circular leather disc to prevent crushing the goose flight feathers. The shafts were 800mm long, 10mm diameter and made from ash wood. A nock was cut into the base of each shaft and reinforced with a v-shaped horn insert. It has been estimated that the range of these longbows with a 41 kg ( 90 lb. ) draw weight could have been up to 250 metres. Also other records indicate that a practised archer could shoot up to 12 arrows per minute.", "Longbows, because of their narrow limbs and rounded cross-section (which does not spread out stress within the wood as evenly as a flatbow’s rectangular cross section), need to be either less powerful, longer or of more elastic wood than an equivalent flatbow. In Europe the last approach was used, with yew being the wood of choice, because of its high compressive strength, light weight and elasticity.", "Today, many bowyers known for their modern-style longbows also offer a classic model for those who want one. For example, Herb Meland of Pronghorn Custom Bows, recognized for his high-performance recurves and excellent Three Piece Takedown Pronghorn longbow makes a Night Hawk with slight reflex/deflex design, but basically the classic longbow. Moreover, selfbows are back on the market with fine workmanship. Legendary Longbows of New Berlin, Wisconsin, sells bows that range from the Neolithic era to the present in style, including longbows. D.M. Kissinger of Berwick, Pennsylvania, handcrafts English-style longbows from various woods, including yew. Quality North West Bow Woods offers many different types of materials for those who want to try their hand at making their own selfbow.", ". It was commonly made either of yew, ash or elm. Longbows stood as tall as the archer for whom they were made, and were drawn to the ear. Because of the power given by this draw, longbows proved to be effective armor-piercing weapons. Though used by the English for centuries, they became more widely-appreciated after the English King Edward I (\"Longshanks\") fought against Welsh longbowmen in his campaign to subjugate", "The ordinary longbow, or \"livery bow\" as it was sometimes called, was supposed to be as tall as a man, but some of them were six feet four inches long and one monster, called Little John's Bow, still exists which is six feet seven! The livery bow \"weighed\" about a hundred poundsпїЅthat is, it took that much pull to draw it. Most modern bows weigh about fifty or sixty pounds, if they are heavy. The old longbow was a self-bow made from a stave of yew, basil, wych-elm, ash or hazel. Of these yew was by far the best, but the old phrase, \"a bow of good English yew,\" is misleading. Much better yew than the native kind was brought to England from Italy and Spain by the Venetians, and it was imported from very early times.", "Originally developed in Wales, the longbow was adopted by the English and used to deadly effect against the French during the battles of the Hundred Years War (1337–1453). Made of elm or yew and generally about six feet long, the weapon had a range of up to 600 feet. It was not always aimed directly at single targets; English longbowmen mastered the tactic of sending swarms of arrows raining down on the enemy from above. This proved devastating to French knights: One wrote that before the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, “The French were", "* Longbow: a self bow with limbs rounded in cross-section, about the same height as the archer so as to allow a full draw, usually over 5 ft long. The traditional English longbow was usually made of yew wood, but other woods are also used.Paterson Encyclopaedia of Archery pp. 73-75", "The making of logbows changed little from the Medieval period until the turn of the twentieth century. They still were wooden self bows utilising the centre and sapwood of the stave. The best bows continued to be made of yew wood; and all bows were made by hand thus, each was unique.", "Archers were armed with the Longbow, and were often made of yew imported from Italy, or elm. Sheafs of 24 arrows were carried in a bag, archers carried these tucked in their belt, or stuck them in the ground for fast re-loading.", "The English Longbows were bows designed so they could send  heavy, long hardwood arrows with heavy", "The oldest extant bows in one piece are the elm Holmegaard bows from Denmark which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High-performance wooden bows are currently made following the Holmegaard design.", "massed enemy formations. Using bows constructed from a type of wood called Yew, they used arrows specifically designed", "The oldest definite bows known so far come from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. In the 1940s, two bows were found there, dated to about 8,000 BP. The Holmegaard bows are made of elm and have flat arms and a D-shaped midsection. The center section is biconvex. The complete bow is (5 ft) long. Bows of Holmegaard-type were in use until the Bronze Age; the convexity of the midsection has decreased with time.", "The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago; it is based on pinewood arrows found in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg. They had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, found in the Holmegård swamp in Denmark.", "\"Their bow string is also made of split bamboo. Their arrows and darts also are 4 feet 9 inches long; they are headed with very hard wood or bone, and are sharp and must be dangerous weapons. They have spears of different lengths.", "Flax-linen - A natural material bowstring, used in medieval times and now used on re-enactment longbows.", "The English longbow, also called the Welsh longbow, was a powerful type of medieval longbow (a tall bow for archery) about 6 ft 6 in (2.0 m) long used by the English, Scots and Welsh, both for hunting and as a weapon in medieval warfare. In the Middle Ages the Welsh and the English were famous for their very heavy, long-ranged English longbows, used to great effect in the civil wars of the period and against the French in the Hundred Years' War (with notable success at the battles of Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415)).", "The development of firearms rendered bows obsolete in warfare, albeit efforts were sometimes made to preserve archery practice. In Wales and England, for example, the government tried to enforce practice with the Longbow until the end of the 16th century. This was because it was recognised that the bow had been instrumental to military success during the Hundred Years' War. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery in Armenia, China, Egypt, England, America, India, Japan, Korea, Turkey, Wales and elsewhere, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the neglect of archery. Early firearms were vastly inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very susceptible to wet weather. However, they had longer effective range and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also required significantly less training to use properly, in particular penetrating steel armour without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower, and highly trained archers became obsolete on the battlefield. However, the bow and arrow is still an effective weapon, and archers have seen action in the 21st century. Traditional archery remains in use for sport, and for hunting in many areas.", "Young boys were often employed to run additional arrows to longbow archers while in their positions on the battlefield. “The longbow was the machine gun of the Middle Ages: accurate, deadly, possessed of a long range and rapid rate of fire, the flight of its missiles was likened to a storm.” This rate was much higher than that of its Western European projectile rival on the battlefield, the crossbow. It was also much higher than early firearms (although the lower training requirements and greater penetration of firearms eventually led to the longbow falling into disuse in English armies in the 16th century). Longbows were difficult to master because the force required to deliver an arrow through the improving armour of medieval Europe was very high by modern standards. Although the draw weight of a typical English longbow is disputed, it was at least 360 N (80 lbf) and possibly more than 650 N (143 lbf) with some high-end estimates at 900N (202 lbf). Considerable practice was required to produce the swift and effective combat shooting required. Skeletons of longbow archers are recognizably deformed, with enlarged left arms and often bone spurs on left wrists, left shoulders and right fingers.", "Longbow - A tall bow without a significant recurve. Considered to be the true Traditional archery bow.", "The longbow and its historical significance, arising from its effective use by the English and Welsh during the Hundred Years' War, have created a lasting legacy for the longbow, which has given its name to modern military equipment, including:", ". They later played much-celebrated roles in key battles of the Hundred Years war. The battle cry \"Bows and Bills\" refers in part to the longbow. The term longbow first appears at the very end of the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, to distinguish it from the crossbow, and not, as previously thought, to distinguish it from the mythical short bow. Before that, it was more commonly called a bend bow, a hand bow, the English bow, or the crooked stick.", "A longbow is a type of bow that is tall—roughly equal to the height of the user; allowing the archer a fairly long draw, at least to the jaw. A longbow is not significantly recurved. Its limbs are relatively narrow so that they are circular or D-shaped in cross section. Flatbows can be just as long; the difference is that, in cross-section, a flatbow has limbs that are approximately rectangular.", "A Japanese longbow, approx. 2 meters, 79\" inches, in length. The \"grip\" is about one third the distance from the bottom tip of the bow. The bowstring is drawn using a shooting glove fitted with a thumb groove for the string to sit in. The drawing hand is pulled back until over the rear shoulder and the bowstring is released by relaxing the thumb, allowing the bowstring to slip out of the groove.", "1986 – Craft Guild of Traditional Bowyers and Fletchers formed to provide quality traditional equipment for those shooting the recreational longbow. Craft Guild of Traditional Bowyers and Fletchers . (Addition from Veronica-Mae Soar)", "Longbow: Any perfectly straight or approximately straight bow in which the bowstring is not touching the limb while it is being braced. Generally, this would be of five feet and longer.", "By the 12th Century, most of the European armies were using crossbows almost exclusively. While the longbow had greater range and penetration than a crossbow, along with faster shooting, the training necessary to achieve comparable accuracy and deadliness with the longbow took years of practice. By way of contrast, the crossbow could be effectively used after just a week of training.", "Same style as the longbow, but usually longer and definitely heavier. 70+ pounds in draw weight." ]

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[ "There are currently around 800 different species of domestic dog worldwide. Included are mountain dogs such as Saint Bernards or Huskys and territorial guard dogs like the Neapolitan and Tibetan Mastiffs.", "The earliest domesticated dogs (Canis familiaris) date back to Idaho and Iraq, some 11,000 and 12,000 years ago, respectively.  It is currently believed that the origin of the domestic dog is derived from one of the small south Eurasian subspecies of gray wolf (C. lupus) and subsequently spread throughout the world in association with  people.  Today, there are approximately 400  breeds of domestic dog, from the smallest chihuahua to the Irish wolfhound.  The Australian dingo (C. f. dingo), is itself a feral subspecies of the domestic dog.  In fact, it is possible that some of these dingos were brought across the Bering Strait to North America some 3,000 - 4,000 years ago and persist today in the form of the  Carolina hunting dog.", "But with the 19th century, we see the breeding of ornamental dogs, that is, dogs for show. There are now something like 400, and perhaps as many as 800, breeds of dogs that range in size from Chihuahuas (the smallest) to English Mastiffs (the largest). No one knows exactly how many breeds there are and new ones are constantly being created. But for all their differences they’re all the same species of dog.", "Description: The dog is a carnivorous/omnivorous predator mammal of the Canidae family that has been domesticated from the wolf (Canis lupus). Nearly 800 breeds of dog are recognized. Like most mammalian predators, the dog has strong muscles and a well developed cardiovascular system that give them both endurance and speed. They have an highly developed senses of smell and hearingand teeth that are adapted to hold and tear prey. Size, body form, strength, endurance, and fur coat depend on breed. There is little sexual dimorphism, however, males tend to be larger and more muscular. This species has coexisted with humans about 14,000 years, as companions and service animals. They have been trained for service (guide dogs), guarding, hunting, racing, and shepharding. Dogs are social animals with a well-established dominance hierarchy. Their average lifespan is 15 years.", "The Canidae today includes a diverse group of some 34 species ranging in size from the maned wolf with its long limbs to the short-legged bush dog. Modern canids inhabit forests, tundra, savannahs and deserts throughout tropical and temperate parts of the world. The evolutionary relationships between the species have been studied in the past using morphological approaches but more recently, molecular studies have enabled the investigation of phylogenetic relationships. In some species, genetic divergence has been suppressed by the high level of gene flow between different populations and where the species have hybridized, large hybrid zones exist.", "The spread of modern dog breeds has been difficult to resolve because many are the products of the controlled breeding practices of the Victorian era (1830–1900). In 2010, a study looked at 48,000 Single nucleotide polymorphisms that gave a genome-wide coverage of 912 dogs representing 85 breeds. ", "Domestic dogs are believed to have first diverged from wolves around 100,000 years ago. Around 15,000 years ago dogs started diverging into the multitude of different breeds known today. This divergence was possibly triggered by humans changing from a nomadic, hunting based-lifestyle to a more settled, agriculture-based way of life (Vilà et al. 1997). Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for various behaviours, sensory capabilities and physical attributes, including dogs bred for herding livestock (collies, shepherds, etc.), different kinds of hunting (pointers, hounds, etc.), catching rats (small terriers), guarding (mastiffs, chows), helping fishermen with nets (Newfoundlands, poodles), pulling loads (huskies, St. Bernards), guarding carriages and horsemen (Dalmatians), and as companion dogs. Domestic dogs are therefore extremely variable but the basic morphology is that of the grey wolf, the wild ancestor of all domestic dog breeds.", "Todays domestic dog is actually a subspecies of the gray wolf , a type of dog that is feared by most humans . Many people today, in all countries around the world, keep dogs as household pets and many even regard their dog as a family member.", "A fox is a member of any of 27 species of small omnivorous canids. The animal most commonly called a fox in the Western world is the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), although different species of foxes can be found on almost every continent. With most species roughly the size of a domestic cat, foxes are smaller than other members of the family Canidae, such as wolves, jackals, and domestic dogs. Recognizable characteristics also include pointed muzzles and bushy tails. Other physical characteristics vary according to their habitat. For example, the Desert Fox has large ears and short fur, whereas the Arctic Fox has small ears and thick, insulating fur.", "Though today's dogs were likely domesticated from gray wolves, they are now a distinct species. Dogs' scientific name is canis lupus familiaris, while the scientific name for gray wolves is canis lupus.", "According to World Book Encyclopedia, \"So far scientists have named and classified more than 1 1/2 million animals. Over half of these are types of insects and other species are discovered each year. Scientists believe there may be from 2 million to as many as 50 million kinds of animals alive today.\" However, the vast majority of these are capable of surviving in water and would not have needed to be brought aboard the ark.", "In body and head shape, the antelope bull resembles domestic cattle Bos taurus. Domestic cattle are among the world's most numerous mammals, there are some 1.3 billion domestic cattle alive today. Members of the genus bos can currently found in Africa, Asia, eastern Europe and North America. Their habitats vary greatly depending on the particular species; they can be found in prairies, rain forests, wetlands, savannas and temperate forests. Most species travel in herds ranging in size from 10 members into the hundreds.", "The canid family consists of thirty-five living species. Eight of these species inhabit North America. These North American species include gray wolves, red wolves, coyotes, red foxes, gray foxes, kit foxes, swift foxes and arctic foxes. The eight species may be organized in three general categories: wolves, coyotes and foxes.", "The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris or Canis familiaris) is a domesticated canid which has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviours, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.", "Canids are found on all continents except Antarctica, having arrived independently or accompanied human beings over extended periods of time. Canids vary in size from the 2-m-long (6 ft 7 in) gray wolf to the 24-cm-long (9.4 in) fennec fox. The body forms of canids are similar, typically having long muzzles, upright ears, teeth adapted for cracking bones and slicing flesh, long legs, and bushy tails. They are mostly social animals, living together in family units or small groups and behaving cooperatively. Typically, only the dominant pair in a group breeds, and a litter of young is reared annually in an underground den. Canids communicate by scent signals and by vocalizations. One canid, the domestic dog (including the dingo), long ago entered into a partnership with humans and today remains one of the most widely kept domestic animals.", "The Doberman Pinscher or Dobermann, or Doberman, is a medium-large breed of domestic dog originally developed around 1890.  The Doberman is a mixture of breeds that include the Great Dane, the Greyhound, the German Shorthaired Pointer and the Rottweiler.  Doberman Pinschers as dogs of medium-large size with a square build and short coat.  The male generally weighs between 40–45 kilograms (88–99 lb) and the female between 32–35 kilograms (71–77 lb).  Although they are considered to be working dogs, they are often stereotyped as being ferocious and aggressive.  They can easily learn to ‘Respect and Protect’ their owners, and are therefore considered to be excellent guard dogs that protect their loved ones. They are generally sociable toward humans and can be with other dogs.", "According to this new tree, the largest clade of domestic dogs last shared a common ancestor 18,800 years ago, and collectively, they last shared a common ancestor with a wolf around 32,100 years ago. They must have been domesticated at some point during this window.", "Note 5. Early attempts to categorize dogs as species (not actually species, today considered dog types) of Canis are described by Carl Linnaeus in Systema naturae, 1758, Gmelin in1788, Kerr in 1792. ", "Because they were found in so many cultures, the dog was the one animal we were sure had been domesticated independently by several cultures. But recently, after completing analysis of the mitochondrial DNA in many dogs, some researchers have concluded that all domestic dogs are descended from just a few wolves that were domesticated some 15,000 years ago in ancient China. Even the dogs discovered among the American Indians, when Europeans first came to the New World, appear to be descendants of those first domesticated dogs which originated in Asia and accompanied the ancient men who crossed the land bridge that formed between Asia and Alaska during the last ice age.", "Rodents make up 40% of the mammal species. These include squirrels, mice, voles, rats and the recently reintroduced European beaver. There is also an abundance of rabbits, hares, hedgehogs, shrews, moles and several species of bat. Carnivorous mammals include the fox, badger, otter, weasel, stoat and elusive wildcat. Various species of seal, whale and dolphin are found on or around British shores and coastlines. The largest land-based wild animals today are deer. The red deer is the largest species, with roe deer and fallow deer also prominent; the latter was introduced by the Normans. Sika deer and two more species of smaller deer, muntjac and Chinese water deer, have been introduced, muntjac becoming widespread in England and parts of Wales while Chinese water deer are restricted mainly to East Anglia. Habitat loss has affected many species. Extinct large mammals include the brown bear, grey wolf and wild boar; the latter has had a limited reintroduction in recent times.", "Vila, C., Savolainen, P., Maldonado, J.E., Amorim, I.R., Rice, J.E., Honeycutt, R.L., Crandall, K.A., Lundeberg, J. and Wayne, R.K. 1997. Multiple and ancient origins of the domestic dog. Science 276: 1687-1689", "The other tribe of dog is the fox, or Vulpes. When we think of foxes, the image that comes up is usually the common red fox (Vulpes vulpes) which lives all over the Northern Hemisphere, plus Australia. It is the largest of the true foxes. Despite its name, it comes in varying colors, and there are 45 recognized subspecies. Photograph by Flickr user Brad Smith .", "Today, dog breeds are often categorized by the ancestral type and subtype from which the breed descended. In addition, dog breed groups, which kennel clubs use to organize breeds of dogs, are based on dog types such as hound or terrier. Some group categories cover more than one type; working dog refers to dogs that do some sort of work for humans, in contrast to companion dogs which are pets, although working dogs can also be companions, and companion dogs can do useful work. The terminology is unclear; see Working Group and Utility Group. Mixed-breed dogs can have any combination of working and companion functions and be of any type. Toy dogs are very small dogs of any type. See Toy Group. Ancient dog breeds are modern breeds genetically identified as descending from very old types of various kinds, and would fit into multiple categories.", "There are around 60 species of land mammals in the UK. Carnivores and insectivores make up about a quarter of our native species and include both some of our commonest and some of the rarest mammals to look for.", "Dogs were probably the first tame animals. They have accompanied humans for some 10,000 years. Some scientists assert that all dogs, domestic and wild, share a common ancestor in the small South Asian wolf.", "Range of East Asian and North African Mammals.—Let us now pass to the other side of the great northern continent, and examine the list of the quadrupeds of Amoorland, in the same latitude as Germany. We find that there are forty-four terrestrial species (omitting the bats, the seals, and other marine animals), and of these no less than twenty-six are identical with European species, and twelve or thirteen more are closely allied representatives, leaving only five or six which are peculiarly Asiatic. We can hardly have a more convincing proof of the essential oneness of the mammalia of Europe and Northern Asia.", "The study, published in the May 2004 edition of the Science Journal titled, “Genetic Structure of the Purebred Domestic Dog\" suggests that any wolf influence was likely watered down over the last century to the point of non existence through possible breedings with other unknown working dog types. From the article:", "Animals, especially dogs which are a mixture of multiple breeds, can be referred to as \"Heinz 57\". ", "Full question: How come some similar animals are different species, while with domestic dogs, wildly dissimilar types are considered different breeds?", "With the domestication of the dog, birds of prey, and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed, including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry, and ferreting. While these are all associated with medieval hunting, over time, various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter.", "In the middle of the 16th century, the nobility in many countries of Europe imported strong, long-legged dogs from England, which were descended from crossbreeds between English Mastiffs and Irish Wolfhounds. They were dog hybrids in different sizes and phenotypes with no formal breed. These dogs were called Englische Docke or Englische Tocke - later written and spelled: Dogge - or Englischer Hund in Germany. The name simply meant \"English dog\". After time, the English word \"dog\" came to be the term for a molossoid dog in Germany and in France. Since the beginning of the 17th century, these dogs were bred in the courts of German nobility, independently of England. ", "Dogs have been in artworks that date back thousands of years. People all over the world love to have dogs as pets." ]

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[ "The question arises:  What is a barnacle?  Simply answered, a barnacle or cirriped is a crustacean, a relative of the crab, lobster and sand-flea, that has attached itself permanently to some object larger than itself.  A shell has developed in which it lives, and its legs have become modified into most efficient sweeps for the capture of the small sea-creatures and organic material on which it feeds. ", "Barnacle is a small but a hardy saltwater animal belonging to Arthropoda phylum along with being put in the class Crustacea and the order Cirripedia. Barnacles are usually found attached to ships, rocks, wharves, marine animals and to other hard surfaces. Acorn barnacle, Brown Buckshot barnacle, Goose barnacle and Thatched barnacle are some common types of barnacle. Barnacles are closely related to lobsters and crabs as they too have a hard outer cover.", "A barnacle is a type of  arthropod  constituting the  infraclass  Cirripedia in the  subphylum   Crustacea , and is hence related to  crabs  and  lobsters . Barnacles are exclusively marine, and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters, typically in erosive settings. They are  sessile  (nonmotile)  suspension feeders , and have two  nektonic  (active swimming) larval stages. Around 1,220 barnacle  species  are currently known. The name \"Cirripedia\" is  Latin , meaning \"curl-footed\".", "Barnacle is a hardy animal that is found in or very closely to sea water. Although it is frequently confused for a mollusc because of its hard outer shell, it is actually a crustacean, closely related to crabs and lobsters.", "3. There is a type of crustacean (crab related animals) - called barnacles - providing a huge surprise. Barnacles look more like small shells and are indeed sedentary animals, living fixed on rocks or man-made structures (or sometimes even on whales) with a muscular stalk or not. Gooseneck barnacle is a very expensive seafood! Like many sedentary animals, barnacles are hermaphroditic and alternate male and female roles over time.", "These are the barnacles, which are sedentary, attached, shelled animals, rather different from other crustaceans. They may attach to almost any firm foothold in the shallow sea, from rocks and shells to boat hulls, wharves and whales. Their own shell consists of a series of overlapping plates, the top two or more of which are movable. To feed, the animal opens the top of its shell and extends its legs, which then kick to direct food-bearing currents to the mouth. The disarticulated plates of the shell are commonly found in nearshore sediments; scars are sometimes observed on mollusc shells where barnacles were attached. Most barnacles are only a few millimeters across, but a few grow much wider and are up to 12 cm long!", "Although they may look like mollusks with their shell-like covering, barnacles are actually crustaceans , related to lobsters, crabs and shrimp. They look like tiny shrimp in their larval stage, where they swim as members of zooplankton in the ocean. When they are ready to settle down, they search for a suitable site, pulling themselves along by the adhesive tips of their antennae. Biologist have observed barnacles in the laboratory taking as long as an hour to pick a location. In nature, barnacles may take days to find a suitable spot, investigating one area, then allowing the currents to carry them to another.", "Some barnacles are considered edible by humans, including Japanese goose barnacles (e.g. Capitulum mitella), and goose barnacles (e.g. Pollicipes pollicipes), a delicacy in Spain and Portugal. The resemblance of this barnacle's fleshy stalk to a goose's neck gave rise in ancient times to the notion that geese, or at least certain seagoing species of wild geese, literally grew from the barnacle. Indeed, the word \"barnacle\" originally referred to a species of goose, the barnacle goose Branta leucopsis, whose eggs and young were rarely seen by humans because it breeds in the remote Arctic. ", "Barnacles. A cirriped crustacean which adheres in clusters to the under water portion of vessels, piles, piers, etc.", "This barnacle actually grows inside a crab, and puts a network of roots through the crab to draw on nutrients. The release of the larvae gives away its crustacean status, identifying it as distinct from its host. The effect on the host crab is dramatic. Where male crabs normally display a pointed abdomen as opposed to the flatter female shape, a male crab that has been parasitised by a Sacculina suffers interference with its hormonal balance system, which has the effect of turning it into a female (parasitic castration). The increase in abdomen size reveals this. Alternatively, the female abdomen shape becomes pronounced; it is hyperfeminised. The structure of the female abdomen is better designed for holding eggs, and these are kept in a place that ensures that the parasitised crab will groom and nourish the barnacle as though it were its own egg mass. Lepas (the goose barnacle) uses its legs to filter zooplankton, especially little copepods or other crustaceans that drift by in the current. If something hits one of the limbs, it curls up and delivers the food to the mouth. The majority of barnacles feed in this way. Acorn barnacles have feeding legs that beat and are able to respond with one or a number of legs if necessary. Acorn barnacles are also able to trap microscopic food with the front thoracic legs, covered in a fine mesh of setae (stiff bristles).", "����������� Crustaceans are nearly all aquatic. Crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, and barnacles are all crustaceans (Figure 17.23). They all exhibit the crustacean hallmark of multiple pairs of specialized appendages (see Figure 17.21). One group of crustaceans, the isopods, is represented on land by pill bugs, which you have probably found on the undersides of moist leaves and other organic debris.", "Typical barnacles (order Thoracica, about 800 species) have six pairs of cirri and more or less complete shells. Pedunculate (stalked) forms include the common goose barnacle (genus Lepas), found worldwide on driftwood. Acorn barnacles, also called rock barnacles , are sessile (not stalked); their symmetrical shells tend to be barrellike or broadly conical. This group includes Balanus, responsible for much of the fouling of ships and harbour structures. Wart barnacles, such as Verruca, have asymmetrical shells.", "There are two divisions of the barnacles or \"Cirripedia\", namely the acorn or \"sessile\", and the goose or \"pedunculate\". In both of these, the internal anatomy is much the same, but their outside appearance is very different.  The sessile barnacles have calcareous shells fixed directly to some support, while the pedunculate barnacles have the body-chamber, or \"capitulum\" on the end  of a flexible stem, the \"peduncle\".  The peduncle, in turn, may be fixed to a floating object, or, in one case, to a float produced by the cement gland.", "The largest species is a copepod (Pennella balaenopterae), known exclusively as a parasite from the backs of fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus). The maximum size attained is 32 cm (about 13 in). The largest of the barnacles is the giant acorn barnacle, Balanus nubilis, reaching 7 cm in diameter and high. ", "Gooseneck Barnacle – Pollicipes polymerus   The gooseneck barnacle is part of the trio of organisms commonly found in the mid intertidal, the California mussel, the ochre seastar and the barnacle.  These barnacles are larger in size (up to 4” long) than other southern California species and have a distinct neck (stalk or peduncle) that leads to a cream colored plate. It is said they derived their common name by a misunderstanding of medieval monks who believed that geese actually hatched out of these intertidal creatures.  Served with butter they are known as a delicacy through out the Mediterranean. ", "The majority of crustaceans are aquatic, living in either marine or freshwater environments, but a few groups have adapted to life on land, such as terrestrial crabs, terrestrial hermit crabs, and woodlice. Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land. The majority of crustaceans are also motile, moving about independently, although a few taxonomic units are parasitic and live attached to their hosts (including sea lice, fish lice, whale lice, tongue worms, and Cymothoa exigua, all of which may be referred to as \"crustacean lice\"), and adult barnacles live a sessile life – they are attached headfirst to the substrate and cannot move independently. Some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species. Krill are the bottom layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities. Some crustaceans are significant invasive species, such as the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis, and the Asian shore crab, Hemigrapsus sanguineus. ", "barnacle any of more than 1,000 predominantly marine crustaceans of the subclass Cirripedia highly modified for sedentary life. There are about 850 free-living species (all marine) and about 260 species that are internal parasites of crabs and other crustaceans....", "Free-living barnacles are attached to the substratum by cement glands that form the base of the first pair of antennae; in effect, the animal is fixed upside down by means of its forehead. In some barnacles, the cement glands are fixed to a long, muscular stalk, but in most they are part of a flat membrane or calcified plate. A ring of plates surrounds the body, homologous with the carapace of other crustaceans. These consist of the rostrum, two lateral plates, two carinolaterals, and a carina. In sessile barnacles, the apex of the ring of plates is covered by an operculum, which may be recessed into the carapace. The plates are held together by various means, depending on species, in some cases being solidly fused.", "Barnacles are of economic consequence, as they often attach themselves to synthetic structures, sometimes to the structure's detriment. Particularly in the case of ships, they are classified as fouling organisms. ", "A barnacle has the largest penis of any other animal in the world in relation to its size.", "A barnacle has the largest penis of any other animal in the world in relation to its size.", "any of more than 1,000 predominantly marine crustaceans of the subclass Cirripedia highly modified for sedentary life. There are about 850 free-living species (all marine) and about 260 species that are internal parasites of crabs and other crustaceans. A brief treatment of cirripedes follows. For full treatment, see cirripede. As adults, typical barnacles...", "Typical acorn barnacles develop six hard calcareous plates to surround and protect their bodies. For the rest of their lives, they are cemented to the substrate, using their feathery legs (cirri) to capture plankton.", "Competitors may include other barnacles, and disputed evidence indicates balanoid barnacles competitively displaced chthalamoid barnacles. Balanoids gained their advantage over the chthalamoids in the Oligocene, when they evolved tubular skeletons, which provide better anchorage to the substrate, and allow them to grow faster, undercutting, crushing, and smothering the latter group.", "So, how do they mate? The solution, turns out, is brilliantly simple: the barnacle has an inflatable penis that is up to 50 times as long as its body. In fact, it has the longest penis in the animal kingdom, relative to body length!", "At intervals throughout life a barnacle casts off its old skin and replaced it with a larger one to allow for growth. In the larval stages this mouting takes place several times, sometimes in rapid succession; in the adult stage it is less frequent, the intervals of time depending upon the rate of growth. In the process the entire chitinous covering of the body, together wiht the covering of the branched cirri and other appendages, is casdt off in one piece, as is the case with the other members of this class.", " - The crustaceans , a huge and varied group that is mostly marine, but has many fresh water species and a handful of land species.  One shared feature of this group is that their legs and leg-derived structures are somewhat forked (a trait called biramous appendages).  Th e crustaceans include some familiar \"shellfish,\" such as lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and shrimp, as well as many types of planktonic animals which float in the surface layers of large bodies of water.  There is one species of tiny crustacean, with individuals distributed in the top layers of all the the worlds oceans, that is probably the species with more living individuals than any other.  The land-living crustaceans are limited to damp environments, but include those animals commonly called pillbugs, potato bugs, wood lice or armadillo beetles.", "Crustacean. Invertebrate animals with many jointed legs and a hard external shell, such as crawfish, shrimp, soft-shell crabs, and prawns.", "Members of this group of marine animals are just as widespread as their land counterparts (and relatives) the insects. They live in a hard shell that is jointed to permit movement and have several pairs of legs. Leg pairs are often modified for specific purposes. To grow, they must periodically shed their old shell and grow a new one. Complex hormonal changes govern shell shedding and growth. While the crustaceans most easily seen are the larger forms, like the commercial lobster, myriads of small ones live in the marine waters feeding on debris and microscopic marine life.", "The common yabby is a crustacean similar to lobsters, however, unlike a lobster, the common yabby is a type of crayfish. Yabbies are found in swamps, streams, rivers, reservoirs and farm dams at low to medium elevations. Their body structure is very similar to lobsters. They also have 10 walking legs. The front three pairs have claws, the first of which is the largest. They also have antennas on the top of their head, which they use as sensors in the water and to communicate. They also have the distinctive tail of the lobster. However, the major difference between a yabby and a lobster is that yabbies look like miniature lobsters.", "Crayfish are heavy bodied crustaceans with an enlarged, pincer-like first pair of legs and are known by many common names depending on the area they are found. In New South Wales and Victoria they are called yabbies, in Western Australia the Koonac, Gigly and the Marron, while Queensland has the Redclaw.", "* The Crabs: The crustacean inhabitants of a seaside rock pool, visited by Boot every year during the Perishers' summer holiday. Some of the crabs believe that Boot's eyes peering down at them are a mystical visitation – \"The Eyeballs in the Sky\" – and this belief is exploited by a preacher crab who uses their appearance as an excuse to extort money from his congregation. His efforts are always opposed by a scientist crab who continually attempts to invent a device to break through the surface and see what the Eyeballs really are, despite the preacher's protests that he will rend the fabric of the pooliverse. The conflict usually ends up in a full-scale crab fight, and Boot is left none the wiser as to crustacean behaviour. Usually, one of the crabs claims that something is \"bad fer y'r 'ealth\"." ]

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[ "Machiavelli's political writings became more widely known in the second half of the 16th century. When considered dangerous, they were placed in 1564 on the Church Index of officially banned books. Machiavelli's best known works are Discorsi Sopra La Prima Deca Di Tito Livio (1531, Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius) The Mandrake(1528) a satirical play and Il Principe (1532, The Prince), whose main theme is that all means may be used in order to maintain authority. The Prince was condemned by the Pope and its viewpoints gave rise to the well-known adjective machiavellian, a synonym for political maneuvers marked by cunning, duplicity, or bad faith. This interpretation of Machiavelli's thought is now being challenged on the grounds that it does not take into account any of his works other than The Prince and does not consider the political situation in Italy when he was writing.", "Machiavelli's formulation of the historical principles inherent in Roman government may be found in his Discourse on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius (1531; trans. 1636), a commentary on the History of Rome by the Roman historian Livy. In this study Machiavelli departs from medieval theocratic concepts of history, ascribing historical events to the demands of human nature and the effects of chance. Among his other works are Dell'arte della guerra (On the Art of War, 1521), which describes the advantages of conscripted over mercenary troops. The Istorie Fiorentine (History of Florence, 1525) interprets the chronicles of the city, in terms of historical causality. Machiavelli was also the author of the biography Vita di Castruccio Castracani (Life of Castruccio Castracani, 1520), a number of poems, and several plays, of which the best known is Mandragola (The Mandrake, 1524), a biting satire on the corruption of contemporary Italian society. Many of his writings anticipated the growth in succeeding periods of strong nationalistic states...", "* Niccolò Machiavelli wrote in 1518 a play The Mandrake in which the plot revolves around the use of a mandrake potion as a ploy to bed a woman.", "34 . Niccolò Machiavelli’s guidebook to power, The Prince, was written about the same time as Utopia, in 1513, though it was not published until 1532.", "\"Machiavellianism\" is a widely used negative term to characterize unscrupulous politicians of the sort Machiavelli described in The Prince. The book itself gained enormous notoriety and wide readership because the author seemed to be endorsing behavior often deemed as evil and immoral. [69]", "Machiavellianism is \"the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct\". The word comes from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote Il Principe (The Prince), among other works.", "Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1469 in Florence, Italy. Machiavelli was a political philosopher and diplomat during the Renaissance, and is most famous for his political treatise, The Prince (1513), that has become a cornerstone of modern political philosophy.", "Motto of Cesare Borgia (1475-1507) - Italian cardinal and military leader; model for The Prince, the influential book by N. Machiavelli (1469-1527) which departed from the ideal of the ruler as anointed by God, seeing the ruling task as embedded in human nature and requiring the ability of playing countervailing powers one against the other as the sole means to stay afloat.", "Meanwhile, Machiavelli's enforced retirement led him to other literary activities. He wrote verse, plays, and short prose, penned a study of The Art of War (published in 1521), and produced biographical and historical sketches. Most importantly, he composed his other major contribution to political thought, the Discourses on the Ten Books of Titus Livy, an exposition of the principles of republican rule masquerading as a commentary on the work of the famous historian of the Roman Republic. Unlike The Prince, the Discourses was authored over a long period of time (commencing perhaps in 1514 or 1515 and completed in 1518 or 1519, although again only published posthumously in 1531). The book may have been shaped by informal discussions attended by Machiavelli among some of the leading Florentine intellectual and political figures under the sponsorship of Cosimo Rucellai.", "Niccolò Machiavelli, (born May 3, 1469, Florence, Italy —died June 21, 1527, Florence), Italian Renaissance political philosopher and statesman, secretary of the Florentine republic , whose most famous work, The Prince (Il Principe), brought him a reputation as an atheist and an immoral cynic.", "Machiavelli has also been credited (most recently by Skinner 1978) with formulating for the first time the “modern concept of the state,” understood in the broadly Weberian sense of an impersonal form of rule possessing a monopoly of coercive authority within a set territorial boundary. Certainly, the term lo stato appears widely in Machiavelli's writings, especially in The Prince, in connection with the acquisition and application of power in a coercive sense, which renders its meaning distinct from the Latin term status (condition or station) from which it is derived. Moreover, scholars cite Machiavelli's influence in shaping the early modern debates surrounding “reason of state”—the doctrine that the good of the state itself takes precedence over all other considerations, whether morality or the good of citizens—as evidence that he was received by his near-contemporaries as a theorist of the state (Meineke 1957). Machiavelli's name and doctrines were widely invoked to justify the priority of the interests of the state in the age of absolutism.", "While carrying forward his governmental roles, Machiavelli had the opportunity to write about the events and issues he was witnessing first-hand. Some of them are critical to understand the unfolding of his thought. They range from the examination of the political situation in Pisa (1499) and in Germany (1508-1512) to the method used by the Valentino in killing his enemies (1502).", "As pointed out by it was traditional in the genre of Mirrors of Princes to mention fortune, but \"Fortune pervades The Prince as she does no other similar work\". Machiavelli argues that fortune is only the judge of half of our actions and that we have control over the other half with \"sweat\", prudence and virtue. Even more unusual, rather than simply suggesting caution as a prudent way to try to avoid the worst of bad luck, Machiavelli holds that the greatest princes in history tend to be ones who take more risks, and rise to power through their own labour, virtue, prudence, and particularly by their ability to adapt to changing circumstances.", "Cardinal Reginald Pole, the English prelate, wrote in 1539 that The Prince was written “by Satan’s hand.” In the 18th century, Rousseau wrote that in the guise of advising princes, Machiavelli was in fact instructing the people how to secure a republic. Some postwar interpreters have written that he should be grouped with the Nazi party. Each age—each reader—fashions in some degree its own Prince appropriate to its own experience.", "In the last chapter of The Prince, Machiavelli writes a passionate “exhortation to seize Italy and to free her from the barbarians”—apparently France and Spain, which had been overrunning the disunited peninsula. He calls for a redeemer, mentioning the miracles that occurred as Moses led the Israelites to the promised land, and closes with a quotation from a patriotic poem by Petrarch (1304–74). The final chapter has led many to a third interpretation of Machiavelli as a patriot rather than as a disinterested scientist.", "Machiavelli was undoubtedly a man of great observation, acuteness, and industry; noting with appreciative eye whatever passed before him, and with his supreme literary gift turning it to account in his enforced retirement from affairs. He does not present himself, nor is he depicted by his contemporaries, as a type of that rare combination, the successful statesman and author, for he appears to have been only moderately prosperous in his several embassies and political employments. He was misled by Catherina Sforza, ignored by Louis XII, overawed by Cesare Borgia; several of his embassies were quite barren of results; his attempts to fortify Florence failed, and the soldiery that he raised astonished everybody by their cowardice. In the conduct of his own affairs he was timid and time-serving; he dared not appear by the side of Soderini, to whom he owed so much, for fear of compromising himself; his connection with the Medici was open to suspicion, and Giuliano appears to have recognized his real forte when he set him to write the \"History of Florence,\" rather than employ him in the state. And it is on the literary side of his character, and there alone, that we find no weakness and no failure.", "The Prince is a practical guide to teach rulers how to take and maintain control of power in a state. Machiavelli urges the rulers of the state to direct their own destiny, and not depend on what fate or chance brings.", "Machiavelli's ideas on how to accrue honor and power as a leader had a profound impact on political leaders throughout the modern west, helped by the new technology of the printing press. Pole reported that it was spoken of highly by his enemy Thomas Cromwell in England, and had influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism, and in his tactics, for example during the Pilgrimage of Grace. A copy was also possessed by the Catholic king and emperor Charles V. In France, after an initially mixed reaction, Machiavelli came to be associated with Catherine de Medici and the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre. As reports, in the 16th century, Catholic writers \"associated Machiavelli with the Protestants, whereas Protestant authors saw him as Italian and Catholic\". In fact, he was apparently influencing both Catholic and Protestant kings. ", "an Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He was for many years an official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He was a founder of modern political science, and more specifically political ethics; wrote The Prince; to retain power, the hereditary prince must carefully maintain the sociopolitical institutions to which the people are accustomed, whereas a new prince has the more difficult task in ruling: He must first stabilize his newfound power in order to build an enduring political structure. He asserted that social benefits of stability and security could be achieved in the face of moral corruption. Aside from that, he believed that public and private morality had to be understood as two different things in order to rule well. As a result, a ruler must be concerned not only with reputation, but also must be positively willing to act immorally at the right times. As a political theorist, Machiavelli emphasized the occasional need for the methodical exercise of brute force or deceit.", "The Prince is a practical guide for newly appointed rulers. In particular, Machiavelli advises rulers to cultivate favourable public opinion, secure the support of the people, and achieve specific goals. His ultimate goal was remarkable--unification of the Italian city states. While it is commonly believed that Machiavelli said, �The end justifies the means,� this is, in fact, an over-simplification and misstatement of his thesis. Machiavelli does not counsel rulers to be arbitrary and cruel for the purpose of personal gain. He was highly critical of foreign rulers, such as King Ferdinand of Spain, who were needlessly brutal to their subjects. Such conduct may lead to power, but not glory. Machiavelli argues that loyalty, trust, and obedience cannot be fostered if rulers mistreat their subjects over a long period of time. It is only justifiable to use extensive means if there are clear benefits in sight.", "Next to Machiavelli both as an historian and a statesman comes Guicciardini. Guicciardini was very observant, and endeavoured to reduce his observations to a science. His Storia d'Italia, which extends from the death of Lorenzo de Medici to 1534, is full of political wisdom, is skillfully arranged in its parts, gives a lively picture of the character of the persons it treats of, and is written in a grand style. He shows a profound knowledge of the human heart, and depicts with truth the temperaments, the capabilities and habits of the different European nations. Going back to the causes of events, he looked for the explanation of the divergent interests of princes and of their reciprocal jealousies. The fact of his having witnessed many of the events he related, and having taken part in them, adds authority to his words. The political reflections are always deep; in the Pensieri, as Gino Capponi says, he seems to aim at extracting through self-examination a quintessence, as it were, of the things observed and done by him; thus endeavouring to form a political doctrine as adequate as possible in all its parts. Machiavelli and Guicciardini may be considered as distinguished historians as well as originators of the science of history founded on observation.", "In 1517, Niccolò Machiavelli wrote his own version of the story, as a terza rima poem. It was uncompleted at the time of his death. [11]", "One of the most important early works dedicated to criticism of Machiavelli, especially The Prince, was that of the Huguenot, Innocent Gentillet, Discourse against Machiavelli, commonly also referred to as Anti Machiavel, published in Geneva in 1576. He accused Machiavelli of being an atheist and accused politicians of his time by saying that they treated his works as the \"Koran of the courtiers\". Another theme of Gentillet was more in the spirit of Machiavelli himself: he questioned the effectiveness of immoral strategies (just as Machiavelli had himself done, despite also explaining how they could sometimes work). This became the theme of much future political discourse in Europe during the 17th century. This includes the Catholic Counter Reformation writers summarised by Bireley: Giovanni Botero, Justus Lipsius, Carlo Scribani, Adam Contzen, Pedro de Ribadeneira, and Diego Saavedra Fajardo. These authors criticized Machiavelli, but also followed him in many ways. They accepted the need for a prince to be concerned with reputation, and even a need for cunning and deceit, but compared to Machiavelli, and like later modernist writers, they emphasized economic progress much more than the riskier ventures of war. These authors tended to cite Tacitus as their source for realist political advice, rather than Machiavelli, and this pretense came to be known as \"Tacitism\". ", "The importance of Machiavelli's influence is notable in many important figures in this endeavor, for example Bodin, Francis Bacon, Algernon Sidney, Harrington, John Milton, Spinoza, Rousseau, Hume, Edward Gibbon, and Adam Smith. Although he was not always mentioned by name as an inspiration, due to his controversy, he is also thought to have been an influence for other major philosophers, such as Montaigne, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke and Montesquieu. ", "In 1517, Niccolò Machiavelli wrote his own version of the story, as a terza rima poem. It was uncompleted at the time of his death. ", "\"Concerning liberality and parsimony,\" \"How to avoid contempt and hatred,\" \"Why Alexanderâs successors were able to keep possession of Darius' kingdom after Alexanderâs death,\" \"Mixed principalities,\" \"Concerning cruelty: Whether it is better to be loved than feared, or the reverse,\" and \"In what way princes should keep their word,\" are chapters from, FTP, what 1513 Niccol˜ Machiavelli work?", "Machiavelli died in 1527 at the age of 58. He was buried at the Church of Santa Croce in Florence, Italy. An epitaph honoring him is inscribed on his monument. The Latin legend reads: ", "Machiavelli was born in a tumultuous era—popes waged acquisitive wars against Italian city-states, and people and cities often fell from power. Along with the pope and the major cities like Venice and Florence, foreign powers such as France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and even Switzerland battled for regional influence and control. Political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieri (mercenary leaders) who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments.", "After first mentioning that a new prince can quickly become as respected as a hereditary one, Machiavelli says princes in Italy who had longstanding power and lost it cannot blame bad luck, but should blame their own indolence. One \"should never fall in the belief that you can find someone to pick you up\". They all showed a defect of arms (already discussed) and either had a hostile populace or did not know to secure themselves with the great.", "From 1521 to 1525, Machiavelli was employed as a historiographer. Niccolo Machiavelli died in Florence on June 21, 1527.", "Machiavelli believes that a prince's main focus should be on perfecting the art of war. He believes that by taking this profession a ruler will be able to protect his kingdom. He claims that \"being disarmed makes you despised.\" He believes that the only way to ensure loyalty from one's soldiers is to understand military matters.", "Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1533–1592) was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance, known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. The Essays of Montaigne: Complete, by Michel de Montaigne, Translated by Charles Cotton; Edited by William Carew Hazlitt, first published in 1877. He became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography—and his massive volume Essais contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. Montaigne had a direct influence on writers the world over, including René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stefan Zweig, Eric Hoffer, Isaac Asimov, and possibly on the later works of William Shakespeare. His Essays, form a magazine of which such minds did not disdain. The present publication is intended to supply a recognised deficiency in our literature—a library edition of the Essays of Montaigne. This great French writer deserves to be regarded as a classic, not only in the land of his birth, but in all countries and in all literatures." ]

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[ "This theory of punctuated equilibrium is therefore a development upon the earlier theory proposed by Darwin and Wallace. It suggests that evolution occurs in a different rate to the previously proposed, occurring in short bursts rather than gradually over extended periods of time.", "The theory of punctuated equilibrium by Gould and Eldridge is therefore a theory that does not question the theory of evolution by natural selection, but rather questions the rate at which evolutionary change occurs. Punctuated equilibrium suggests that evolution occurs at short bursts, followed by long periods of stability whilst Darwin and Wallace believed that evolution occurred gradually over long periods of time.", "The theory presented by Gould and Eldridge is one that is supported heavily by fossil evidence and the fossil record. Many fossil species show little or no change over long periods of geological time and these periods are interrupted by much shorter periods during which new species appear and rapidly replace the ancestral species. This therefore supports the idea that evolution occurs in short bursts rather than at a continuous and gradual pace, as suggested by Darwin and Wallace.", "Gould himself has been the object of a fair amount of sniping over the quality of his science. His theory of punctuated equilibrium--the idea that sudden rapid changes in evolutionary history are followed by long periods of relative stability--has a limited following among his colleagues. Gould proposed his theory--sometimes called jerky evolution--as an alternative to the classical theory of slow, continuous evolution. A Gould antagonist, Richard Dawkins, the English evolutionary biologist responsible for the term \"selfish gene,\" has been known to refer to the theory of punctuated evolution as \"evolution by jerks.\" In his most recent book, Unweaving the Rainbow(1998), Dawkins characterizes Gould as a guy who's been \"seduced by bad poetry.\"", "Simply put, in the modern theory of evolution punctuated equilibrium (or \"punk eek,\" as its opponents like to call it) says that species will tend to be stable for long periods, having adapted to their environment and their competition. Only when some change in the environment arises will the species begin to evolve again, and they will do so rapidly in response to new selection pressure (created by the change in environment).", "Punctuated equilibrium: a hypothesis about the tempo and mode of evolution, presented by Stephen Gould and Niles Eldridge as a challenge to the traditional view known as phyletic gradualism.", "Darwin saw evolution as the gradual accumulation of changes, but looking closer at the fossil record, especially shellfish, later paleontologists began to question Darwin's ideas of phyletic gradualism, and proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium, where the equilibrium of stasis or lack of change, is punctuated or broken by rapid evolutionary change. Remember that we are using the word \"rapid\" in a geological sense, usually it means hundreds of thousands of years.", "While Gould has made a valuable scientific contribution in providing evidence that marked fluctuations in rate are common in evolution, the most general professional criticism is that in dramatizing this contribution he has set up a non-existent conflict with the prevailing gradualist view. For he proceeds as though gradualism implies a relatively constant rate as well as small steps. But even Darwin recognized that the rate of evolution might vary widely, and modem investigators have demonstrated many mechanisms that contribute to such fluctuation.", "Gould and Eldridge did propose that evolution occurs faster than had been previously suggested, and they did suggest longer periods of stasis (stability without change). Nonetheless, punctuated equilibrium, while an addition to the modern theory of evolution, was no threat to Darwin's original theory.", "Dennett also targets Stephen Jay Gould for criticism. He argues that, despite the brilliance of Gould's popular expositions of evolutionary theory, 'he is opposed to the very idea that evolution is, in the end, just an algorithmic process.' Dennett focuses on what he believes to be various instances of this fundamental tendency�in particular, Gould's critique of 'hyper-Darwinian' efforts to turn every organic feature into an evolutionary adaptation, his theory of 'punctuated equilibrium', which holds that evolution proceeds, not as Darwin claimed, through continuous, gradual changes, but catastrophically, with 'long periods of stasis�equilibrium�interrupted by sudden and dramatic periods of rapid change', and his argument in Wonderful Life that natural history is characterised by 'radical contingency'.19", "         Beginning around 1900, the work of the genetics pioneer Gregor Mendel began to be rediscovered, and through genetics the intricate, sub-cellular mechanisms behind evolutionary theory began to be researched. As those intracellular mechanisms have been worked out, especially in dealing with allelic variation and the chromosomal basis of heredity, the theories of Darwin have been given more credence. In recent times, Ernst Mayr and Stephen Jay Gould have continued to promote natural selection as fundamental to evolutionary development, the former through synthesis of evolution and Mendelian genetics and the latter through his theory of punctuated equilibrium and the popularization of science in the general public.", "According to Mayr, because of gene drift, new species appear at first as tiny genetic mutations in select individuals among groups which are isolated (allopatric from the Greek for �other�) for some (geological, climatic, etc) reason from the parent population. [12] As the larger world population becomes more and more subdivided, and breeding is confined to local partners, the various local populations, because of gene drift, gradually become genetically incompatible. Eventually, according to the theory, all the sub-populations became incapable of interbreeding and, over time, the various species branches developed. Since geography, climate, or some other barrier was constantly isolating small groups, an infinite source of speciation was evidently available. Mayr, in short, proposed a totally immanent, materialistic, and natural explanation for evolution. Macro-evolution or speciation was simply a lot of micro-evolution. [13]", "Japanese biologist Motoo Kimura develops the neutral theory of evolution. The theory suggests almost all evolution at the molecular level is due to random drift. The idea contrasts with neo-Darwinians, who believe natural selection is more prominent.", "A model of macro evolutionary change that suggests evolution occurs via long periods of stability or stasis punctuated by periods of rapid change.", "By the 1920s, evolutionary theory had synthesized the macroevolution of Darwin, with the microevolution of Mendel and population genetics, and came up a short list of factors that cause evolution. They tested populations with the Hardy-Weinberg equation, and when they failed to get a null hypothesis, they started trying to figure out which of the four forces of evolution caused the change in allele frequency: mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and migration. The theories have been refined in the last hundred years, the four forces of evolution is still a useful way to think of evolution.", "Stephen J. Gould and Niles Eldredge argue that evolution proceeds over time by 'punctuated equilibria,' or periods of inactivity punctuated by episodic events, rather than by slow gradualism. They also argue that the record of fossil remains found in ancient rock layers is in fact accurate.", "\"Evolution is the theory that represents the course of the world as a gradual transition from the indeterminate to the determinate, from the uniform to the varied, and which assumes the cause of these processes to be immanent in the world itself that is to be thus transformed.\"", "the hypothesis that evolution proceeds chiefly by the accumulation of gradual changes (in contrast to the punctuationist model).", "Pluralist biologists like Gould, Eldredge, and Lewontin, as we have seen, emphasize extrinsic causes of evolution. Organisms are said to live in a constantly changing universe to which species must constantly respond. Complexity theorists, on the other hand, begin evolution with the intrinsic forces operating within an organism. Climatic and geological forces are important, but secondary. An organism must first be born, have a viable structure, survive the challenges of its local environment, and so on before it encounters the larger forces.", "Stephen J. Gould and Niles Eldredge argue that evolution proceeds over time by 'punctuated equilibria,' or periods of inactivity punctuated by episodic events, rather than by a slow gradual process.", "According to Gould, \"stasis may emerge as the theory's most important contribution to evolutionary science.\" Philosopher Kim Sterelny adds, \"In claiming that species typically undergo no further evolutionary change once speciation is complete, they are not claiming that there is no change at all between one generation and the next. Lineages do change. But the change between generations does not accumulate. Instead, over time, the species wobbles about its phenotypic mean. Jonathan Weiner's The Beak of the Finch describes this very process.\" ", "The theory that the evolution of life on earth typically follows a pattern in which long periods of little morphological change are punctuated by relatively short periods of significant change, when speciation occurs. - Stephen Jay Gould, studied Burgess shale", "The idea that speciation occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated. In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('evo-devo') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of Gavin de Beer's work by Stephen Jay Gould suggests he may be an exception. ", "Thirdly, Gould and Eldrege suggested that if morphological change was the result of a genetic mutation suddenly taking hold, then such a change could occur, in fact, was likely to occur in allopatric populations, but could also occur in sympatric populations. Rapid genetic mutation could occur anywhere at any time in large or small populations. All populations, even allopatric populations, remain in a period of stasis for millions of years despite their geographic isolation and even during extreme geological and climatic changes. Then, for very contingent reasons, speciation occurs. The idea that the fossil record was subject to chance, that eons could pass without morphological change, and that unpredictable mutations suddenly caused rapid speciation among allopatric and sympatric populations cast the whole notion of Darwinian gradualism into controversy. This opening of the door to chance, the enemy of all those who, like Dawkins believe everything can be known, was the great threat presented by punctuated equilibrium.", "I do believe that natural selection will always act very slowly, often only at long intervals of time, and generally on only a very few of the inhabitants of the same region at the same time. I further believe, that this very slow, intermittent action of natural selection accords perfectly well with what geology tells us of the rate and manner at which the inhabitants of this world have changed.(ibid., ch. 4, emphasis mine)", "The view of The Selfish Gene (often called kin selection theory or inclusive fitness theory) is that selection based upon groups and populations is rare compared to selection on individuals. Although supported by Dawkins and by many others, this claim continues to be disputed.", "Thanks, but I think the more credible “directional” theories on the subject don’t argue that the choices led directly to evolution. What they argue is that they were instrumental to adaptation, without which evolution would not have been the result, albeit unintended as the purposes behind the choices.", "The foundation for population genetics was laid in 1908, when Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg independently published what is now known as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The \"equilibrium\" is a simple prediction of genotype frequencies in any given generation, and the observation that the genotype frequencies are expected to remain constant from generation to generation as long as several simple assumptions are met. This description of stasis provides a counterpoint to studies of how populations change over time.", "This theory states that each type of organism comes from some ancient ancestor and have changed or diversified since the beginning of their existence.", "It may also be pertinent to comment briefly on Gould's scientific writing. His claim to have disproved the widely-accepted, \"gradualist\" view of evolution has had great appeal for science reporters, but it has been subject to intense criticism by his professional colleagues. Of course, controversies in science are not rare, and it would not be appropriate here to try to judge Gould's stature as a scientist. It is pertinent, however, to note features of his professional writing remarkably similar to those that I have criticized in The Mismeasure of Man. In both contexts be focuses primarily on older approaches to problems in which genetics is now central; he picks his history; and he handles key concepts in an ambiguous manner. Moreover, he is fond of artificial dichotomies that oversimplify complex issues: evolution by leaps versus evolution by gradual steps; biological determinists versus environmentalists; general intelligence versus specialized intelligence.", "This leaves one point that is perhaps a real source of disagreements: the model of punctuated equilibrium. What are the theoretical implications of this model? Does it require that \"long-term evolutionary trends be explained as the distinctive success of some species versus others\"? And if so, is this an argument against adaptationism?", "Can anyone paraphrase what artfulD’s position is, and then say whether what he is saying anything which is not subsumable to existing theories of evolution?" ]

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[ "     Good question. This is where the water comes in. There is a special enzyme molecule with the specific job of breaking apart water molecules. This procedure is called the photolysis of water. Water molecules are broken down into oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atoms are further broken down into a hydrogen ion and an electron.", "Photosynthesis consists of both light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions. In plants, the so-called \"light\" reactions occur within the chloroplast thylakoids, where the aforementioned chlorophyll pigments reside. When light energy reaches the pigment molecules, it energizes the electrons within them, and these electrons are shunted to an electron transport chain in the thylakoid membrane. Every step in the electron transport chain then brings each electron to a lower energy state and harnesses its energy by producing ATP and NADPH. Meanwhile, each chlorophyll molecule replaces its lost electron with an electron from water; this process essentially splits water molecules to produce oxygen (Figure 5).", "Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such organisms, including the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and cyanobacteria, have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H2 gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast. Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H2 gas even in the presence of oxygen. Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactor. ", "Remember that name \"photolysis\"?  That translates as light (photo-) splits (-lysis). Turns out that the light energy is used to split the water molecule, which produces H+ & O- ions.  The oxygen is released from the plant into the air.", "Finally, in order for this process to continue, the electrons that were removed from PSII have to be replaced. This is achieved by the splitting of an H2O molecule, which yields electrons, H+, and oxygen. The oxygen from two water molecules forms O2, which then passes through the stomata into the atmosphere.", "Photosynthesis takes place in two stages, the first of which captures the energy, and the second which makes sugars. The first one requires water, because the plant uses the hydrogen atoms in water to collect the energy. The second requires both: sugar contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, of which the first two come from carbon dioxide and the last, comes from water. The excess oxygen is released as oxygen gas.", "The chloroplast is involved in both stages of photosynthesis. The light reactions take place in the thylakoid. There, water (H2O) is oxidized, and oxygen (O2) is released. The electrons that freed from the water are transferred to ATP and NADPH. The dark reactions then occur outside the thylakoid. In these reactions, the energy from ATP and NADPH is used to fix carbon dioxide (CO2). The products of this reaction are sugar molecules and various other organic molecules necessary for cell function and metabolism. Note that the dark reaction takes place in the stroma (the aqueous fluid surrounding the stacks of thylakoids) and in the cytoplasm.", "During photosynthesis, light energy is used in generating chemical free energy, stored in glucose. The light-independent Calvin cycle, also known as the \"dark reaction\" or \"dark stage,\" uses the energy from short-lived electronically-excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation.", "The initial step in photosynthesis is the absorption of light by chlorophylls attached to proteins in the thylakoid membranes. Like cytochromes , chlorophylls consist of a porphyrin ring attached to a long hydrocarbon side chain ( Figure 16-35 ). They differ from cytochromes (and heme) in containing a central Mg2+ ion (rather than Fe atom) and having an additional five-membered ring. The energy of the absorbed light is used to remove electrons from an unwilling donor (water, in green plants), forming oxygen,", "In chemical terms, photosynthesis is a light-energized oxidation–reduction process . (Oxidation refers to the removal of electrons from a molecule; reduction refers to the gain of electrons by a molecule.) In plant photosynthesis, the energy of light is used to drive the oxidation of water (H2O), producing oxygen gas (O2), hydrogen ions (H+), and electrons . Most of the removed electrons and hydrogen ions ultimately are transferred to carbon dioxide (CO2), which is reduced to organic products. Other electrons and hydrogen ions are used to reduce nitrate and sulfate to amino and sulfhydryl groups in amino acids , which are the building blocks of proteins . In most green cells , carbohydrates —especially starch and the sugar sucrose —are the major direct organic products of photosynthesis. The overall reaction in which carbohydrates—represented by the general formula (CH2O)—are formed during plant photosynthesis can be indicated by the following equation:", "Photosynthesis is a two stage process. The first process is the Light Dependent Process ( Light Reactions ), requires the direct energy of light to make energy carrier molecules that are used in the second process. The Light Independent Process (or Dark Reactions ) occurs when the products of the Light Reaction are used to form C-C covalent bonds of carbohydrates. The Dark Reactions can usually occur in the dark, if the energy carriers from the light process are present. Recent evidence suggests that a major enzyme of the Dark Reaction is indirectly stimulated by light, thus the term Dark Reaction is somewhat of a misnomer. The Light Reactions occur in the grana and the Dark Reactions take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts.", "This equation is merely a summary statement, for the process of photosynthesis actually involves numerous reactions catalyzed by enzymes (organic catalysts ). These reactions occur in two stages: the “light” stage, consisting of photochemical (i.e., light-capturing) reactions; and the “dark” stage, comprising chemical reactions controlled by enzymes . During the first stage, the energy of light is absorbed and used to drive a series of electron transfers, resulting in the synthesis of ATP and the electron-donor-reduced nicotine adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). During the dark stage, the ATP and NADPH formed in the light-capturing reactions are used to reduce carbon dioxide to organic carbon compounds. This assimilation of inorganic carbon into organic compounds is called carbon fixation.", "Light travels as packets of energy called photons and is absorbed in this form by light-absorbing chlorophyll molecules embedded in the thylakoid disks. When these chlorophyll molecules absorb the photons, they emit electrons, which they obtain from water (a process that results in the release of oxygen as a byproduct). The movement of the electrons causes hydrogen ions to be propelled across the membrane surrounding the thylakoid stack, which consequently initiates the formation of an electrochemical gradient that drives the stroma's production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy \"currency\" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities. In the stroma, the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, which involve carbon fixation, occur, and low-energy carbon dioxide is transformed into a high-energy compound like glucose.", "     Basically, in step one, the light reactions, the energy of light is captured and transferred into ATP and NADPH, which are used to provide energy for the making of carbohydrates in stage two of photosynthesis, the carbon cycle.", "In the Light Dependent Processes (Light Reactions) light strikes chlorophyll a in such a way as to excite electrons to a higher energy state. In a series of reactions the energy is converted (along an electron transport process) into ATP and NADPH . Water is split in the process, releasing oxygen as a by-product of the reaction. The ATP and NADPH are used to make C-C bonds in the Light Independent Process (Dark Reactions).", "The photochemical reaction in photosynthesis belongs to the type known as oxidation-reduction, with CO2 acting as the oxidant (hydrogen or electron acceptor) and water as the reductant (hydrogen or electron donor). The unique characteristic of this particular oxidation-reduction is that it goes “in the wrong direction” energetically; that is, it converts chemically stable materials into chemically unstable products. Light energy is used to make this “uphill” reaction possible.", "Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some protistans use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This glucose can be converted into pyruvate which releases adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by cellular respiration. Oxygen is also formed.", "The photosynthetic process occurs only in the chloroplasts, tiny subcellular structures contained in the cells of leaves and green stems. In photosynthesis, the sun�s energy combines hydrogen from water (H20) with carbon dioxide (CO2) turning them into carbohydrates. Oxygen (O2) is given off as a by-product of photosynthesis. The chemical equation for the process of photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H20 + light C6H12O6 + 6O2", "Photosynthesis consists of two parts. The first part of this process consists of the light reactions, while the second is called the dark reactions. This might seem like two sides of something like Star Wars' good versus evil, but we promise that everything is good when it comes to photosynthesis. It's just that the light-dependent reactions use sunlight, and the dark reactions don't use sunlight.", "Photosynthesis : As a tree grows, it absorbs energy from the environment to break apart CO2 and H2O.", "      All of these gas molecules get in and out through holes called stomas (see below).  Then they flow into the roomy air passages of the spongy parenchyma region. These passages are all connected to each other and to the mesophyll cells.  So this is where the gas molecules get into and out of the photosynthesis \"factory\" cells.", "The action of light on a biological system that results in the dissociation of a substrate, usually water, to produce hydrogen.", "Photosynthesis is defined as the formation of carbohydrates in living plants from water and carbon dioxide (CO2). It is the most important chemical pathway (series of chemical reactions) on our planet. Almost all of the biomass on Earth was initially created by photosynthesis.", "Chlorophyll a also absorbs light at discrete wavelengths shorter than 680 nm (see Figure 16-37b ). Such absorption raises the molecule into one of several higher excited states, which decay within 10−12 seconds (1 picosecond, ps) to the first excited state P*, with loss of the extra energy as heat. Photochemical charge separation occurs only from the first excited state of the reaction-center chlorophyll a, P*. This means that the quantum yield — the amount of photosynthesis per absorbed photon — is the same for all wavelengths of visible light shorter than 680 nm.", "4. Water participates directly in the light reactions of photosynthesis by a. donating electrons to NADPH. b. donating electrons to photosystem II.", "This downhill flow of electrons causes protons toaccumulate in the closed membrane bound sacs thylakoids inside thechloroplast. Dissipation of the proton gradient results in ATP synthesis` orphotophosphorylation`;", "Overview of the two steps in the photosynthesis process. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates ( www.sinauer.com ) and WH Freeman ( www.whfreeman.com ), used with permission.", "Hess, W. R., Rocap, G., Ting, C. S., Larimer, F., Stilwagen, S., Lamerdin, J. & Chisholm, S. W. (2001) Photosynth. Res. 70, 53–71.", "Describe the main structures involved in photosynthesis and recall the chemical equation that summarizes the process of photosynthesis", "Action of a photosystem. This image is from the University of Minnesota page at http://genbiol.cbs.umn.edu/Multimedia/examples.html .", " The thylakoid membranes of plant chloroplasts have two different sets of light harvesting chlorophyll and carotenoid molecules combined with a special protein.", "Many other indicators behave on the molecular level in a similar fashion (the details may be different) but the result is a change in electronic structure along with the removal of a hydrogen ion from the molecule. Plant pigments in flowers and leaves also behave in this fashion." ]

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[ "Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain stimuli in behaviors called taxes: these include chemotaxis, phototaxis, energy taxis, and magnetotaxis. In one peculiar group, the myxobacteria, individual bacteria move together to form waves of cells that then differentiate to form fruiting bodies containing spores. The myxobacteria move only when on solid surfaces, unlike E. coli, which is motile in liquid or solid media.", "In threatening situations insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones (\"Schreckstoff\" in German). This is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal. Pheromones are synthesized, emitted and perceived by all living organisms studied to date, with the exception of viruses and prions: i.e. in bacteria, prokaryotes, plants, plankton, parasites, insects, invertebrates and vertebrates (aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals).", "As you can see from the above table, some organisms do not have transport systems, and rely on diffusion alone since they are such simple creatures that diffusion is adequate. Relative to their volume, they have a large surface area for diffusion to occur. Jellyfish and sea anemones survive for the same two reasons and that they do not move around much (which requires oxygen).", "The abundance, worldwide distribution, and habits of flies combine to make them a nuisance to man. Swarms of midges are a common annoyance. Sweat flies and face flies gather around the eyes, nose, and mouth and also suck blood and pus from wounds and sores. Such flies move constantly from one person to the next and in so doing may at times transfer disease-causing organisms.", "All along the route watch out for dippers. They bob up and down perched on the lower tree branches and rocks and then dive into the water looking for food. You might also see the odd kingfisher or even a heron. Wild flora abounds with stitchwort, dogs mercury, forget-me-nots and lilies everywhere.", "These aggressive, carniverous predators are commonly found across the UK and Europe in a variety of habitats. The Devil’s Coach Horse can sometimes be mistaken for an earwig but when threatened its scorpion-like posture will give the game away! The Devil’s Coach Horse belongs to the Rove Beetle family, called the Staphylinidae which are sometimes referred to as the ‘Staphs’ for short. There are approximately 1000 species of rove beetle (given this name as they are constantly on the move) found in the UK which amounts to roughly a quarter of all British beetles.  ", "Organisms that move from place to place of their own accord and that do not manufacture their food from raw materials in their environment are classified as animals.", "In the Hayle Estuary, oil contamination occurred on March 28 � 29. 1967. No detergents were used within the estuary. When examined on April 10, the rich worm fauna of the sandy flats seemed unharmed. Although the black oily rim was still visible on the vertical walls around the estuary and harbor in mid‑August, weathering had reduced it considerably. In places, an orange lichen Xanthoria was growing through the oil. Perennial salt marsh plants and grasses had grown through the oily layer and were spreading over the oil residue. The normal drift‑line fauna of small amphipods and wood lice were common under stones. These are good examples of recovery by natural means in the absence of the use of any detergent.", "As well as changing as the years go by, the wrecks of Scapa Flow also change with the seasons. During spring the water starts to warm and this triggers an algal bloom, which causes reduced visibility for a few days. As larger organisms feed on the algae the bloom dissipates. The wrecks are soon surrounded by the eerie yet enchanting comb jellies and moon jellies. Both are avid predators of algae. As the comb jellies pulsate through the water column they refract light from their miniature swimming hairs called cilia. This appears as a rainbow-like aura running in thin lines down the delicate forms of the comb jellies. Neither the moon jelly nor the comb jelly can sting a human.", "Even though existing North American grasshopperspecies don't migrate as readily as the Rocky Mountain locust did, someof them do swarm in less dramatic migrations. And their swarmingpotential may have more to do with circumstances than with any inherentlimitations. Bomar suggests these other species, especially thered-legged grasshopper and the migratory grasshopper, are stepping intothe niche the Rocky Mountain locust vacated. His suggestion brings backuncomfortable memories of the giant I found in my driveway. \"Thepotential for swarms is there,\" Bomar says. \"Eventually, one of thesemicropopulations is going to move out.\" He's intrigued by thescientific opportunity such an event would present. For the rest of us,it may be the return of an ancestral nightmare.", "a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system", "There are approximately 29 species of broad–headed bugs in North America. This species, Alydus eurinus, is the most abundant of the broad-headed bugs and is usually found on bush clover (Lespedeza capitata). The nymphs are remarkable ant mimics, while the adults resemble spider wasps (Pompilidae). As a second line of defense, both nymphs and adults exude chemicals known as allomones (butyric and hexanoic acids) from the metathoracic scent glands characteristic of true bugs.", "Slimy as they are, slugs belong to the millions of creatures found in nature that are perceived by humans to be sanely disgusting. Slugs are typically snail like creatures that are not contained in a shell. They are legless, long, mollusks and opt to find food and feed at night. The slime trail that they make is because of the fact that they are creatures greatly depending on the presence of moisture and they move only by means of gliding motion. Slugs develop by undergoing the process called the torsion, wherein they move in a one hundred eighty degree twist. Reaching to full maturity, they start to invade gardens or other soil materials, where they can fully thrive and grow well. With greater preference in living in warm, moist areas, slugs evidently become less active when cooler weather starts to set in. They become dormant but is able to regain their active state when moist warm weather begins setting in again.", "Swimming bacteria frequently move near 10 body lengths per second and a few as fast as 100. This makes them at least as fast as fish, on a relative scale. ", "I saw a flash of blue, though I do not think what I saw was little enough to have been the impossibly wee Elfin Skimmer (Nannothemis bella). And it is a little late now for the Green Darner (Anax junius), a common sight around Chicago in the spring and fall. (The Darner is one of a tiny number of dragonflies that migrate seasonally. Recent study suggests that the most persevering of these creatures may cover round-trip distances as long as 16,000 kilometers . This is, coincidentally, nearly identical to the length of my own annual migration between Chicago and Singapore—a fact that floors me. When I get off that plane, I am bone-tired, dog-tired, dead-tired: but apparently not dragonfly-tired. I am shamed by insect-endurance.)", "You crane your neck to spot the red squirrels high in the pines, while at ground level are Emperor and Common Darter Dragonflies, as well as sky blue Skimmers. Look closely at the heathland and you might spot grasshoppers, Harvestmen, Assassin bugs, and many types of spider.", "In a pond, the autotroph might be algae. A mosquito larva eats the algae, and then perhaps a dragonfly larva eats the young mosquito. The dragonfly larva becomes food for a fish, which provides a tasty meal for a raccoon.", "Bioturbation: when organisms disturb sediments, as with worms on the ocean floor that eat food stuck between sand particles.", "colour or as shades of grey) which helps them to navigate using the Sun. It has been said that insect", "They are a common to abundant spring and fall transient over the ocean, usually within 15 miles, irregularly along the coast and in the estuaries. Nearshore and inland flocks are often observed resting in compact flocks on nearby shores or on floating objects, or flying about over the water in search of fish.", "After having produced aquatic animals of all ranks and having caused extensive variations in them by the different environments provided by the waters, nature led them little by little to the habit of living in the air, first by the water's edge and afterwards on all the dry parts of the globe. These animals have in course of time been profoundly altered by such novel conditions; which so greatly influenced their habits and organs that the regular gradation which they should have exhibited in complexity of organisation is often scarcely recognisable.", "Man-made litter has resulted in a significant increase  in the opportunities for the transportation of alien species", "Crane fly larvae are called “leatherjacket slugs\" because of their movement and the way they sometimes damage plants.", "This is not an isolated occurence. These vicious and invisible creatures drop out of their pack whenever they can't keep up. This could happen again.", ". . * the introduction of alien species which can badly disrupt ecosystems after being carried across the world, often accidentally in ship ballast tanks", "They fly, they creep, and they crawl.  They live on land, in ponds and in the ocean.  From ants to bumblebees, crabs to crayfish, spiders to centipedes -- which are your favorites!?", "The adults may not fly, but they are great walkers. They can feed on many different kinds of plant, and so spread far and wide: the first thing to do therefore is to examine any imported plants, as well as those already in the glasshouse, and check they are free of infestation.", "This document is ENY-740, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date May 2007. Revised February 2016. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu .", "an aggregation of individuals of the same species that occupies a specific locality at a particular time", "A system formed by the interaction of a community of animals and plants with its environment.", "THERE’S something out there roaming the May nights. something like a miniature boulder on chattering wings, though it’s not really all that miniature.", "Habitat:� Slow-moving bodies of fresh water with a muddy bottom and vegetation, such as lakes, ponds, marshes, and streams" ]

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[ "Since the nervous system does not store nutrients, it must receive a continuous supply from blood. Any interruption to the flow of blood may bring brain damage or death. The nervous system maintains homeostasis by controlling and regulating the other parts of the body. A deviation from a normal set point acts as a stimulus to a receptor, which sends nerve impulses to a regulating center in the brain. The brain directs an effector to act in such a way that an adaptive response takes place. If, for example, the deviation was a lowering of body temperature, the effector acts to increase body temperature. The adaptive response returns the body to a state of normalcy and the receptor, the regulating center, and the effector temporarily cease their activities. Since the effector is regulated by the very conditions it produced, this process is called control by negative feedback. This manner of regulating normalcy results in a fluctuation between two extreme levels. Not until body temperature drops below normal do receptors stimulate the regulating center and effectors act to raise body temperature. Regulating centers are located in the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain particularly concerned with homeostasis; it influences the action of the medulla oblongata, a lower part of the brain, the autonomic nervous system, and the pituitary gland.", "Physiology of balance Maintaining balance is a complex physiological process. When it goes wrong, patients may experience dizziness, unsteadiness, falls or ‘vertigo’ (Figures 12.1 and 12.2). The vestibular nuclei in the brainstem are a relay station for information from various parts of the body about balance. Nervous connections from the brainstem then send signals to other parts of the nervous system. The eyes, skeletal muscles and the cerebral cortex all respond quickly to changes in posture, head position and body movement and keep us steady on our feet. It is not surprising then that this very sophisticated system can easily fail, especially in elderly patients.", "brain Mass of nerve tissue which regulates all physical and mental activity; it is continuous with the spinal cord. Weighing about 1.5kg (3.3lb) in the adult (about 2% of body weight), the human brain has three parts: the hindbrain, where basic physiological processes such as breathing and the heartbeat are coordinated; the midbrain links the hindbrain and the forebrain, which is the seat of all higher functions and attributes (personality, intellect, memory, emotion), as well as being involved in sensation and initiating voluntary movement. The forebrain includes the highly fissured cerebrum that is the brain's most highly developed part. See also central nervous system ; cerebrum", "The hypothalamus is a small portion of the brain located below the thalamus and above the brainstem. One of its most important functions is to help link together the body's nervous and endocrine systems. This structure has many bidirectional neural inputs and outputs from and to various other brain regions. These connections help to regulate the hypothalamus' ability to secrete hormones into the body's blood stream, having far-reaching and long-lasting effects on physiological processes such as metabolism. During a stress response, the hypothalamus secretes various hormones, namely corticotropin-releasing hormone, which stimulates the body's pituitary gland and initiates a heavily regulated stress response pathway. ", "The diencephalon lies above the brain stem and embodies the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is an important relay station for sensory information, interpreting sound, smell, taste, pain, pressure, temperature, and touch; it also regulates some emotions and memory. The hypothalamus controls a number of body functions, such as heartbeat and digestion, and helps regulate the endocrine system (hormonal system) and normal body temperature. The hypothalamus signals hunger and thirst, and also helps regulate sleep, anger, and aggression.", "The hypothalamus uses a set-point to regulate the body's systems, including electrolyte and fluid balance, body temperature, blood pressure, and body weight. It receives inputs from the body, then makes the proper changes if anything differentiates from this set-point. The set-point can temporarily change, but remains remarkably fixed from day-to-day.", "The thalamus , which forms the major part of the diencephalon, receives incoming sensory impulses and routes them to the appropriate higher centers. The hypothalamus , occupying the rest of the diencephalon, regulates heartbeat, body temperature, and fluid balance. Above the thalamus extends the corpus callosum, a neuron-rich membrane connecting the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.", "2. The Hypothalamus- The Hypothalamus's most important function is to regulates your body's temperature using thermoreceptors and osmoreceptors. This is called homeostasis. If your body is too hot, the hypothalamus makes you sweat to lower your temperature. If your body is too cold, the hypothalamus makes you shiver to increase your body temperature. It also monitors and regulates food intake, water-salt balance, blood flow, sleep-wake cycle, and the activity of hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. It also mediates responses to emotions. It is a tiny cluster of brain cells that transmits messages from the body to the brain, and it links the autonomic nervous system, the limbic system, and the endocrine systems. Biology: Hypothalamus", "The balance system is composed of four basic entities. Both inner ears send messages from the semicircular canals, the utricle, and the saccule to the brain stem or computer part of the brain. The brain stem also receives information from the eyes and special sense organs in the muscles and joints of the neck, arms, legs, and feet, which tell the brain when weight is shifted or when there is a strain on one particular part of the body; this is known as the proprioceptive system. The brain stem, or computer part of the brain, takes information from the inner ears, eyes, and proproception.", "The April 2013 issue of the research journal \"Trends in Cognitive Science\"  refers to a 1994 study in the Journal of European Applied Physiology where the author selected three pieces of music that differed in their rhythmic characteristics, including a Strauss waltz (regular rhythm), a ‘modern classic’ by H.W. Henze (irregular rhythm) and a ‘meditative piece’ by Ravi Shankar (non-rhythmic; [67]). Neurochemical effects of music were compared to a silent baseline. The meditative piece significantly reduced plasma levels of cortisol and norepinephrine, whereas the other two pieces had no effect. Norepinephrine neurons in the brain stem and midbrain regulate the autonomic responses of heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.", "The brain coordinates information from the eyes, the inner ear, and the body's senses to maintain balance. If any of these information sources is disrupted, the brain may not be able to compensate. For example, people sometimes experience motion sickness because the information from their body tells the brain that they are sitting still, but information from the eyes indicates that they are moving. The messages do not correspond and dizziness results.", "The brain is made up of nerve cells which interact with the rest of the body through the spinal cord and nervous system. These cells relate information back to specific centers of the brain where it can be processed and an appropriate reaction can be generated. Several chemicals are also located in the brain, which help the body maintain homeostasis, or a sense of overall comfort and calm as its basic needs are met. Keeping these chemicals balanced and the nerve cells firing properly are essential to healthy brain function.", "Area of the hypothalamus that plays a key role in regulating daily sleep-wake cycles and other body rhythms.", "Deep within the cerebral white matter are several regions of gray matter that make up the basal nuclei and the limbic system. The basal nuclei, including the globus pallidus, striatum, and subthalamic nucleus, work together with the substantia nigra of the midbrain to regulate and control muscle movements. Specifically, these regions help to control muscle tone, posture, and subconscious skeletal muscle. The limbic system is another group of deep gray matter regions, including the hippocampus and amygdala, which are involved in memory, survival, and emotions. The limbic system helps the body to react to emergency and highly emotional situations with fast, almost involuntary actions.", "The brain stem controls breathing and heart rate as well as blood pressure and alertness. Found at the top of the spinal column, the brain stem consists of three main parts, including the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain. The medulla oblongata controls cardiac and respiratory rates.", "The hypothalamus (pronounced: hi-po-THAL-uh-mus), a collection of specialized cells that is located in the lower central part of the brain, is the main link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary.", "The area of the brain between the spinal cord and cerebrum, surrounded by the cerebellum; controls functions that are necessary for life, such as respiration.", "Merging with the spinal cord is the brainstem, the lowest region of the brain. Its basic subdivisions (moving upwards) are the medulla, pons, and midbrain. At the top of the brainstem is the thalamus. The neural traffic between the brain and spinal cord travels along axons that traverse the brainstem. In addition, sensory information (coded in trains of action potentials) enters the brainstem from the head and the special sense organs (ears, eyes, etc.), while other messages leave the brainstem to control the face, mouth, eyes, and so on. The brainstem controls a number of activities without a necessary contribution from higher levels of the brain. For example, comparison of acoustic input from the two ears to compute the location of sounds in space is a function of brainstem circuits. Some regions of the brainstem are especially vulnerable to agerelated changes that can affect a variety of behaviors.", "The hypothalamus, a collection of specialized cells that is located in the lower central part of the brain, is the primary link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary.", "Physiologically, the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment. Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.", "For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body—the milieu intérieur, as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it—is known as homeostasis (Greek for \"standing still\"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat.)", "The midbrain, on the other hand, acts most notably as the information superhighway connecting these two regions. It enables your brain to integrate sensory information from your eyes and ears with your muscle movements, thereby enabling your body to use this information to make fine adjustments to your movements..", "The base of the brain that connects to the spinal cord is the brain stem. Lower brain functions related to breathing, heart rate, and reflexes are controlled by the brain stem.", "Hypothalamus:is a small part of the brain that is located exactly below the thalamus, The hypothalamus is very important as it converts things that are in your mind, in the moment (short term memory) into things that you will remember in the long run.", "Located in the upper brain stem; responsible for maintenance of consciousness, specifically one's level of arousal.", "·         The brain structure that executes smooth, skilled body movements and regulates muscle tone and posture", "Stabilizing function of the nervous system and improves the working brain cells. Taking part in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats, determines the energy supply to tissues and cells of the body, especially sensitive to a deficiency of nerve cells in the brain. Also reduces their hyperactivity, acting on the body calms. It improves memory and thinking.", "Even when the break is very high in the spinal cord, a cranial nerve, the vagus nerve, maintains vital functions such as heart rate and respiration.", "Superior and anterior to the midbrain is the region known as the interbrain, or diencephalon. The thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal glands make up the major regions of the diencephalon.", "Known scientific data on the intrinsic rhythms and laterality (right side vs. left side) patterns in the autonomic nervous system can provide a model for understanding how stress disrupts healthy physical function. Certain meditative and yogic practices have been proposed as noninvasive \"technologies\" to self-regulate the neural matrices that couple mind and metabolism in the body (Shannahoff-Khalsa, 1991). Translation of the traditional concepts of yogic medicine into the language of modern medicine could stimulate creative research in the neurophysiology of stress and adaptation.", "Control centers in medulla (and pons) adjust rate and depth of breathing to compensate for changes in blood gases", "Maintenance of equilibrium among bodily and systemic processes. The normal functioning of the body or system is dependent upon maintaining such internal stability." ]

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[ "The pancreas is the organ responsible for controlling sugar levels. It is part of the digestive system and located in the abdomen, behind the stomach and next to the duodenum - the first part of the small intestine.4", "The pancreas is responsible for controlling the body's sugar levels and sits near the stomach in the abdomen.", "Glucose in the bloodstream provides the primary fuel for all body tissues. Blood glucose levels are highest during the digestive period after a meal. Your blood sugar is lowest when the stomach and intestines are empty. Under normal circumstances, the body tightly controls the amount of insulin in your blood. An organ called the pancreas, which is tucked behind the stomach releases the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels.", "Blood sugar regulation is crucial because high and low blood glucose can cause health problems. The pancreas is an elongated organ wide on one end and slender on the other end and measures about 25 centimeters in length. It has dual functions: it releases digestive enzymes, which plays a role in digestion, and it secretes hormones.", "The amount of glucose in the bloodstream is tightly regulated by insulin and other hormones. Insulin is always being released in small amounts by the pancreas. When the amount of glucose in the blood rises to a certain level, the pancreas will release more insulin to push more glucose into the cells. This causes the glucose levels in the blood (blood glucose levels ) to drop.", "The body requires sugar, or glucose, to provide energy for all its functions. A hormone called insulin allows glucose to enter individual cells. Normally, after eating, beta cells in the pancreas (an abdominal organ) produce more insulin to process the incoming sugar. Glucose and insulin levels in the blood also regulate the breakdown of glycogen (a stored form of energy) and the production of new glucose (gluconeogenesis) by the liver, as well as the release of fatty acids from fat cells (adipocytes). When normal glucose metabolism goes awry, several disorders may develop.", "The pancreas that lies in the first bend of the small intestine produces insulin that regulates blood glucose levels.", "Pancreas: organ involved with the digestion system and the circulatory system; helps to maintain blood sugar levels", "Carbohydrates are the main dietary source of the glucose that is manufactured in the liver and absorbed into the bloodstream to fuel the body's cells and organs. Glucose concentration is controlled by hormones, primarily insulin and glucagon. Glucose concentration also is controlled by epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine, as well as growth hormone. If these regulators are not working properly, levels of blood sugar can become either excessive (as in hyperglycemia) or inadequate (as in hypoglycemia). If a person has a blood sugar level of 50 mg/dl or less, he or she is considered hypoglycemic, although glucose levels vary widely from one person to another.", "Pancreas   An organ that produces enzymes and releases them into the small intestine. The pancreas also releases two hormones that control glucose levels in the blood.", "The pancreas is an organ in the abdomen. The pancreas makes several enzymes and hormones, including the hormone insulin. Insulin's job is to reduce the level of sugar (glucose) in the blood by helping it move into cells.", "Insulin is a hormone that is made in the pancreas. Insulin's job is to keep blood sugar levels from rising too high. When you intake a carbohydrate (let's say grape juice , for example), your body releases insulin to regulate your blood sugar levels. The body is constantly trying to maintain homeostasis, or internal equilibrium.", "The hypothalamus detects the conditions in your blood. It measures many things including blood sugar level. The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland which is yet another endocrine gland.", "Several months ago, we explored the anatomy and physiology of the pancreas in terms of its role in the digestive process. But the pancreas is one of a handful of organs in the body that functions in two distinct modes. It is not only an exocrine digestive organ, but it also functions as part of the endocrine system and, to a significant degree, controls the metabolism of sugar in the body and its use as a source of energy for every single cell and organ in the body. In this newsletter, we examine the endocrine functions of the pancreas. As an endocrine organ, the pancreas produces two sugar regulating hormones: insulin and glucagon. After reviewing the functions of insulin and glucagon and the four cell types that comprise the endocrine pancreas, we'll examine in detail the main disease associated with the pancreas, diabetes mellitus.", "Blood sugar levels rise when most foods are consumed, but they rise more rapidly and drastically with carbohydrates. The digestive system releases glucose from foods and the glucose molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream. The rising glucose levels signal the pancreas to secrete insulin to clear out glucose from the bloodstream. Insulin binds with insulin receptors on cell surfaces and acts as a key to open up the cells to receive glucose. Insulin receptors are on almost all tissues, including muscle cells and fat cells.", "Groups of pancreatic cells which make the hormones such as insulin which control the blood sugar levels.", "If your blood sugar is low: The pancreas releases glucagon to help the liver release stored glucose into the bloodstream to raise blood sugar levels.", "Physiological regulation of blood glucose, as in the non-diabetic, would be best. Increased blood glucose levels after a meal is a stimulus for prompt release of insulin from the pancreas. The increased insulin level causes glucose absorption and storage in cells, reducing glycogen to glucose conversion, reducing blood glucose levels, and so reducing insulin release. The result is that the blood glucose level rises somewhat after eating, and within an hour or so, returns to the normal 'fasting' level. Even the best diabetic treatment with synthetic human insulin or even insulin analogs, however administered, falls far short of normal glucose control in the non-diabetic.", "If your blood sugar is high: The pancreas releases insulin to help cells absorb glucose from the bloodstream to lower blood sugar levels.", "If you haven't eaten for several hours and your blood sugar level drops, another hormone from your pancreas called glucagon signals your liver to break down the stored glycogen and release glucose back into your bloodstream. This keeps your blood sugar level within a normal range until you eat again.", "When blood glucose level drops, hyperglycemic hormones (glucagon) are released by the alpha cells of the Islets of Langerhans. This causes glucose to be released into the blood from storage within the body, and most mainly comes from the liver. The glucose is stored as glycogen within the liver.", "In a healthy person, the pancreas (an organ behind the stomach ) releases insulin to help the body store and use the sugar from the food you eat. Diabetes happens when one of the following occurs:", "I wish to emphasize the fact that the blood sugar supply to the central nervous system is particularly important. The blood sugar must not only be supplied continuously, but must also be maintained at optimum level, around 80 mg. per 100cc. When the blood sugar falls below 80 mg. certain organs, especially the nervous system, will be embarrassed and signs and symptoms of disturbance in function make their appearance. The severity of the signs and symptoms will depend on how low the blood sugar falls.", "Despite long intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels normally remain within a remarkably narrow range. In most humans this varies from about 70 mg/dl to perhaps 110 mg/dl (3.9 to 6.1  mmol /litre) except shortly after eating when the blood glucose level rises temporarily. This homeostatic effect is the result of many factors, of which hormone regulation is the most important.", "A peptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas, and by Brockmann body in some teleost fish. It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood to skeletal muscles and fat tissue and by causing fat to be stored rather than used for energy. Insulin also inhibits the production of glucose by the liver.", "Mental  awareness and the feeling of well-being is dependent upon a steady stream of fuel to the brain.  This organ is normally entirely dependent upon glucose as its energy substrate.  A twenty percent decline in blood sugar can lead to nausea, restlessness and other neurological symptoms.  How are blood sugar levels controlled?", "The primary organ responsible for regulating metabolism is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located on the diencephalon and forms the floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle of the cerebrum. The chief functions of the hypothalamus are:", "Sometimes, blood sugar levels can be unpredictable. With help from your diabetes treatment team, you'll learn how your blood sugar level changes in response to food, exercise, alcohol, illness and medication.", "Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition. A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia; low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes, and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation. Intake of alcohol causes an initial surge in blood sugar, and later tends to cause levels to fall. Also, certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels. ", "People with diabetes must closely monitor their blood sugar and see their doctor regularly. Self monitoring of blood glucose is done by checking the glucose content of a drop of blood. Regular testing tells you how well diet, medication, and exercise are working together to control your diabetes. Dieticians can also be an integral part of care.", "Adequate and steady blood sugar levels help person to cope with prolonged stressor, and helps the body to return to normal", "These steps will help keep your blood sugar level closer to normal, which can delay or prevent complications." ]

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[ "Baruchin, A. M., Mahler, D., Hauben, D. J., and Rosenberg, L. (1983) \"The human caudal appendage (human tail).\" Br J Plast Surg. 36: 120-123. [PubMed]", "Human tails are extremely rare, with perhaps only a few hundred cases documented worldwide over the past half-century. Medical researchers who have had the lucky opportunity to study a human tail have divided them into two general categories: \"true tails,\" which extend from the coccyx (tailbone) where one might expect a so-called \"vestigial tail,\" and \"pseudotails\" which are often found in other locations on the lower back, and seem to be obvious aberrations since they are often associated with anomalies.", "Humans are sometimes born with various types of bulbous or tubular growths, from a number of different types of causes. Where these are on their lower backs, though medically termed ‘caudal appendages’, they are commonly referred to as ‘human tails’. 8 An online image search using the search phrase ‘human tails’ reveals many (sometimes disturbing) images of people with this sort of condition.", "Humans have a \"tail bone\" (the coccyx) attached to the pelvis, formed of fused vertebrae, usually four, at the bottom of the vertebral column. It does not protrude externally.", "“A human tail is a rare congenital anomaly with a prominent lesion from the lumbosacrococcygeal region. Many authors saw this curious and rare condition to be evidence of man’s descent from or relation to other animals … Advanced imaging technology in recent decades has allowed a more thorough investigation of these patients and better defined their association with spinal dysraphism and tethered spinal cord.” 13", "[3.] Surasak Puvabanditsin, Eugene Garrow, Sharada Gowda, Meera Joshi-Kale, and Rajeev Mehta, \"A Gelatinous Human Tail With Lipomyelocele: Case Report,\" Journal of Child Neurology, 28(1) 124-127 (2013) (emphases added). See also Biswanath Mukhopadhyay, Ram M. Shukla, Madhumita Mukhopadhyay, Kartik C. Mandal, Pankaj Haldar, and Abhijit Benare, \"Spectrum of human tails: A report of six cases,\" Journal of the Indian Association of Pediatric Surgery, 17(1): 23-25 (Jan-Mar, 2012).", "Although human tails usually lack skeletal structures (some medical articles have claimed that true tails never have vertebrae), several human tails have also been found with cartilage and up to five, well-developed, articulating vertebrae (see Figure 2.2.3 ; Bar-Maor et al. 1980 ; Dao and Netsky 1984 ; Fara 1977 ; Sugumata et al. 1988 ). However, caudal vertebrae are not a necessary component of mammalian tails. Contrary to what is frequently reported in the medical literature, there is at least one known example of a primate tail that lacks vertebrae, as found in the rudimentary two-inch-long tail of Macaca sylvanus (the \"Barbary ape\") ( Hill 1974 , p. 616; Hooten 1947 , p. 23).", "“The true human tail is a benign condition not associated with any underlying (spinal) cord malformation.” 16", "Modern doctors familiar with this sort of condition seem unanimous in their description of human tails as being the result of birth defects. Like the example of Arshid Ali Khan, almost all of those with these caudal appendages have related potentially serious medical conditions. Of the anomalies associated with people that have ‘tails’, the most common are spinal dysraphism, meningocele, spina bifida (on its own), and tethered spinal cord, with many others also being reported. 12", "Gaskill, S.J. and Marlin, A.E., Neuroectodermal appendages: the human tail explained, Pediatr Neurosci 15(2):95–99, 1989; US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Pub Med.gov, Page 97,ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Return to text.", "Nonetheless, it's quite reasonable to wonder why humans have these things called \"true tails\" -- which have a non-trivial superficial resemblance to a real tail, despite their significant differences -- in the first place? And intriguingly, why are humans occasionally found with \"pseudotails\" -- growths that also superficially resemble tails, but are clearly deformations, defects, and abnormalities? Could the fact that humans have obviously deformed pseudotails near the same location as \"true tails\" provide a hint about what causes the formation of \"true tails\"? Is the distinction between a \"true\" and \"pseudo\" tail medically sound?", "[10.] Frank L. Lu, Pen-Jung Wang, Ru-Jeng Teng, and Kuo-Inn Tsou Yau, \"The Human Tail,\" Pediatric Neurology, 19 No. 3 (1998).", "Standfast, A. L. (1992) \"The human tail.\" New York State Journal of Medicine. 92: 116. [PubMed]", "Tails' possession of two tails is derived from the mythological kitsune (Japanese for \"Fox\") from common Japanese folklore. The kitsune is said to be capable of growing multiple tails - nine tails at maximum - with it being said that the more tails it has, the more old, wise and powerful it is.", "Dao, A. H., and Netsky, M. G. (1984) \"Human tails and pseudotails.\" Human Pathology 15: 449-453. [PubMed]", "A prehensile tail is the tail of an animal that has adapted to be able to grasp or hold objects. Fully prehensile tails can be used to hold and manipulate objects, and in particular to aid arboreal creatures in finding and eating food in the trees. If the tail cannot be used for this it is considered only partially prehensile - such tails are often used to anchor an animal's body to dangle from a branch, or as an aid for climbing. The term prehensile means \"able to grasp\" (from the Latin prehendere, to take hold of, to grasp).", "Most striking of all, perhaps, are the words of a famous paper on tails in The New England Journal of Medicine: \"When the caudal appendage is critically examined, however, it is evident that there are major morphologic differences between the caudal appendage and the tails of other vertebrates. First of all, the caudal appendage does not contain even rudimentary vertebral structures. There are no well-documented cases of caudal appendages containing caudal vertebrae or an increased number of vertebrae in the medical literature, and there is no zoological precedent for a vertebral tail without caudal vertebrae.\" 6", "The embryonic Human HAS a TAIL! * We ALL my be part REPTILIAN. How does the cauda equina develop?", "The name 'langur' means 'long tail' in Hindi, and this species' tail is indeed noticeably long, measuring up to 87 cm in length... More 6 Images 0 Videos", "Ledley, F. D. (1982) \"Evolution and the human tail.\" New Eng. J. Med. 306: 1212-1215. [PubMed]", "These observations certainly don't make it sound like humans can have \"perfectly formed, even functional tails.\" In fact, it's difficult to argue that any tail could be called \"bona fide\" if it isn't \"bone-fied.\"", "The devil stores body fat in its tail, and healthy devils have fat tails. The tail is largely non-prehensile and is important to its physiology, social behaviour and locomotion. It acts as a counterbalance to aid stability when the devil is moving quickly.  An ano-genital scent gland at the base of its tail is used to mark the ground behind the animal with its strong, pungent scent.", "Saraga-Babic, M., Lehtonen, E., Svajger, A., and Wartiovaara, J. (1994) \"Morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of axial structures in the transitory human tail.\" Anat Anz. 176: 277-286. [PubMed]", "The normal tail has 21 - 23 vertebrae on average with the normal range being 18 - 28 vertebrae. It is on average 25 cm (10 inches) long, but can range from 20 cm (8 inches) to 30 cm (12 inches) with a few exceptional specimens having 35 cm (14 inch) tails", "The devil stores body fat in its tail, and healthy devils have fat tails. The tail is largely non-prehensile and is important to its physiology, social behaviour and locomotion. It acts as a counterbalance to aid stability when the devil is moving quickly.Owen and Pemberton, p. 46. An ano-genital scent gland at the base of its tail is used to mark the ground behind the animal with its strong, pungent scent.", "pertaining to the shape of a tail with a long upper lobe and a shorter lower lobe", "They have a very long and tapered tail. It can be shed during various parts of its life and then it will grow back again. When the tail is gone that is one more reason why they are often mistaken for snakes. They can range in length from just a couple of centimeters to several feet. It depends on the location where they live and also the sub species.", "They have large, round and wide nostrils and can vary in terms of their size. Their body can be around 56 centimeters to around 92 centimeters and this doesn’t include their tails. Their tails can actually be the same size as their entire bodies. Their tails are prehensile and can be up to 92 centimeters long.", "Shorter than typical range and ends with pointed tip. In many individuals underside of tail have darker or lighter color.", "The tail in this variety can be as long as or longer than the body and may be up to 12 inches.", "Herbivorous marsupial with a highly developed tail; it lives in groups in Australia and Tasmania and moves rapidly by leaping.", "When I get closer my tail grows longer, but when I go away my tail leads the way. What am I ??" ]

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[ "REM sleep The first rapid eye movement (REM) period usually begins about 70 to 90 minutes after we fall asleep, and we have around three to five REM episodes a night. Although we arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t conscious, our brains are very active - perhaps more so than when we are awake. This is when most dreams occur, and our eyes dart around (hence the name), while our breathing rate and blood pressure rise. Luckily, our bodies are effectively paralysed though, which is said to be nature's way of preventing us from acting out our dreams and harming ourselves or others. After REM sleep, the whole cycle begins again.", "Rapid eye movement, REM, typically refers to the sleep stage during which the most vivid dreams occur. During this stage, the eyes move rapidly. It is not in itself a unique form of eye movement.", "Many people with narcolepsy also suffer from insomnia for extended periods of time. The excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy often become severe enough to cause serious problems in a person's social, personal, and professional life. Normally, when an individual is awake, brain waves show a regular rhythm. When a person first falls asleep, the brain waves become slower and less regular, which is called non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. After about an hour and a half of NREM sleep, the brain waves begin to show a more active pattern again, called REM sleep (rapid eye movement sleep), when most remembered dreaming occurs. Associated with the EEG-observed waves during REM sleep, muscle atonia is present called REM atonia.", "A dream is the recall of mental activity that has occurred during sleep. Using polysomnography, sleep can be divided into stage 1 (sleep onset), stage 2 (light sleep) and stages 3 and 4 (deep sleep)—the non–rapid-eye-movement (REM) stages. REM sleep occurs cyclically every 90 minutes during the night in association with high brain activity, rapid spontaneous eye movements and suppressed voluntary motor activity. Dreaming occurs in all stages of sleep. It is reported by 80 percent of persons who are awakened during REM sleep and sleep onset (stages 1 and 2), and 40 percent of persons who are awakened from a deep sleep.", "Dreaming occurs during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, which has been described as an “active brain in a paralyzed body.” Your brain races, thinking and dreaming, as your eyes dart back and forth rapidly behind closed lids. Your body temperature rises. Your blood pressure increases, and your heart rate and breathing speed up to daytime levels. The sympathetic nervous system, which creates the fight-or-flight response, is twice as active as when you’re awake. Despite all this activity, your body hardly moves, except for intermittent twitches; muscles not needed for breathing or eye movement are quiet.", "In addition to the rapid eye movements that can be observed through closed eyelids, REM sleep can be recognized by complete relaxation of the lower jaw. Convulsions, myocardial infarction, and cardiac arrhythmias are more likely to occur during REM sleep. This is probably because of increased autonomic activity, irregular pulse, and fluctuations in blood pressure, which are all typical of REM sleep.", "When your head hits the pillow, for many it's lights out for the conscious part of you. But the cells firing in your brain are very much awake, sparking enough energy to produce the sometimes vivid and sometimes downright haunted dreams that take place during the rapid-eye-movement stage of your sleep.", "Intimately related to views on REM function in memory consolidation, Graeme Mitchison and Francis Crick have proposed in 1983 that by virtue of its inherent spontaneous activity, the function of REM sleep \"is to remove certain undesirable modes of interaction in networks of cells in the cerebral cortex\", which process they characterize as \"unlearning\". As a result, those memories which are relevant (whose underlying neuronal substrate is strong enough to withstand such spontaneous, chaotic activation), are further strengthened, whilst weaker, transient, \"noise\" memory traces disintegrate. Memory consolidation during paradoxical is specifically correlated with the periods of rapid eye movement, which do not occur continuously. One explanation for this correlation is that the PGO electrical waves, which precede the eye movements, also influence memory. REM sleep could provide a unique opportunity for “unlearning” to occur in basic neural networks involved in homeostasis, which are protected from this “synaptic downscaling” effect during deep sleep. ", "Rapid entry to REM sleep. Narcoleptics have unique sleep cycles where he or she may enter the REM or dream phase of sleep right after falling alseep, whereas most people take about 90 minutes to enter REM. Therefore, you'll experience the characteristics of REM sleep (vivid dreams and muscle paralysis) at the beginning of sleep, even if that sleep is during the day.", "Scientific evidence for the existence of lucid states started in the late 1970 suggesting lucid dreams stemmed from REM sleep. Empirical evidence started to arrive in 1981 from prearranged eye signals when people practicing lucid dreaming were instructed to move their eyes when they became lucid. LaBerge, Nagel, Dement & Zarcone (1981) [2] reported that the occurrence of lucid dreaming during unequivocal REM sleep had been demonstrated for five subjects.", "rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams occur. Also known as: paradoxical sleep. Muscles are relaxed but the rest of the body system is active", "REM sleep typically occupies 20–25% of total sleep in adult humans: about 90–120 minutes of a night's sleep. The first REM episode occurs about 70 minutes after falling asleep. Cycles of about 90 minutes each follow, with each cycle including a larger proportion of REM sleep.", "REM sleep. REM sleep accounts for 20-25% of total sleep time. It usually begins about 90 minutes after the person falls asleep, an important measure called REM latency. It alternates with NREM sleep about every hour and a half throughout the night. REM periods increase in length over the course of the night.", "The REM stage of sleep has proven to be restorative, both mentally and physically, and without this stage, people begin to notice some problems. Without the REM stage, a person can become cranky and anxious as well as depressed. If kept from REM sleep for too long, a person will rebound. That means that when they do experience the REM stage, the period will last much longer than usual and it will often come about more often. In a nutshell, if a person goes too long without dreams, they could either die or drive themselves crazy.", "REM latency — After a person falls asleep, the amount of time it takes for the first onset of REM sleep.", "In RBD, the observed motor activity may result from either impairment of tonic REM muscle atonia or from increase phasic locomotor drive during REM sleep. One mechanism by which RBD results is the disruption in neurotransmission in the brainstem, particularly at the level of the pedunculopontine nucleus.23Pathogenetically, reduced striatal dopaminergic mediation has been found24-25 in those with RBD. Neuroimaging studies support dopaminergic abnormalities.", "REM behavior disorder most commonly affects middle-aged men. Patients with this disorder often present with a history of sleep-associated injuries to themselves or a sleeping partner. REM behavior disorder is characterized by vivid, action-filled, violent dreams that the dreamer acts out, sometimes resulting in injury to the dreamer or the sleeping partner. 18 On polysomnography, these patients show elevated submental and limb electromyographic tone, which may be phasic or tonic and that is associated with prominent jerking of the limb or truncal areas. 26", "This first stage of true sleep lasts 10 to 25 minutes. Your eyes are still, and your heart rate and breathing are slower than when awake. Your brain’s electrical activity is irregular. Large, slow waves intermingle with brief bursts of activity called sleep spindles, when brain waves speed up for roughly half a second or longer. Scientists believe that when spindles occur, the brain disconnects from outside sensory input and begins the process of memory consolidation (which involves organizing memories for long-term storage). The EEG tracings also show a pattern called a K-complex, which scientists think represents a sort of built-in vigilance system that keeps you poised to awaken if necessary. K-complexes can also be provoked by certain sounds or other external or internal stimuli. Whisper someone’s name during stage N2 sleep, and a K-complex will appear on the EEG. You spend about half the night in stage N2 sleep.", "A strong association exists between REM sleep and dreaming. Most frightening dreams occur during REM sleep, and most REM-altering disorders and medications affect dreaming. A variety of REM-associated parasomnias can alter dreaming ( Table 3 ). 25   Symptoms of underlying illness can also occur during REM sleep ( Table 4 ). 25 It often happens that persons awakening from REM sleep, a state that is electrophysiologically near waking, recall the mentation and physical symptoms associated with the state of REM sleep.", "Flashes of color, clouds and fractal geometry may emerge. This is known as hypnogogia, a term coined by Alfred Maury[8] for the transitional state between wakefulness and sleep (i.e. the onset of sleep). If you start to experience hypnogogia, it is an excellent sign that you are progressing naturally into a dream.", "Dream reports can normally be made 50% of the time when an awakening occurs prior to the end of the first REM period. This rate of retrieval is increased to about 99% when awakenings occur during the last REM period of the night. This increase in the ability to recall appears to be related to intensification across the night in the vividness of dream imagery, colors and emotions. The dream story itself in the last REM period is farthest from reality, containing more bizarre elements, and it is these properties, coupled with the increased likelihood of morning waking review to take place, that heighten the chance of recall of the last dream.", "The discovery that dreams take place primarily during a distinctive electrophysiological state of sleep (REM), which can be identified by objective criteria, led to rebirth of interest in this phenomenon. When REM sleep episodes were timed for their duration and subjects awakened to make reports before major editing or forgetting could take place, it was determined that subjects accurately matched the length of time they judged the dream narrative to occupy with the length of REM sleep that preceded the awakening. This close correlation of REM sleep and dream experience was the basis of the first series of reports describing the nature of dreaming: that it is a regular nightly occurrence, rather than an occasional phenomenon, and that it is a high-frequency activity within each sleep period occurring at predictable intervals of approximately every 60–90 minutes in all humans throughout the life span.", "According to the ontogenetic hypothesis of REM sleep, the activity occurring during neonatal REM sleep (or active sleep) seems to be particularly important to the developing organism. Studies investigating the effects of deprivation of active sleep have shown that deprivation early in life can result in behavioral problems, permanent sleep disruption, decreased brain mass, and an abnormal amount of neuronal cell death.", "Neural activity during REM sleep seems to originate in the brain stem, especially the pontine tegmentum and locus coeruleus. According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis proposed by Robert McCarley and Allan Hobson in 1975–1977, control over REM sleep involves pathways of \"REM-on\" and \"REM-off\" neurons in the brain stem. REM-on neurons are primarily cholinergic (i.e., involve acetylcholine); REM-off neurons activate serotonin and noradrenaline, which among other functions suppress the REM-on neurons. McCarley and Hobson suggested that the REM-on neurons actually stimulate REM-off neurons, thereby serving as the mechanism for the cycling between REM and non-REM sleep.J. Alan Hobson & Robert W. McCarley, “The Brain as a Dream-State Generator: An Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis of the Dream Process”, American Journal of Psychiatry 134.12, December 1977. They used Lotka–Volterra equations to describe this cyclical inverse relationship. Kayuza Sakai and Michel Jouvet advanced a similar model in 1981. Whereas acetylcholine manifests in the cortex equally during wakefulness and REM, it appears in higher concentrations in the brain stem during REM. The withdrawal of orexin and GABA may cause the absence of the other excitatory neurotransmitters. ", "If you’re deprived of REM sleep and then allowed a subsequent night of undisturbed sleep, you will enter this stage earlier and spend a higher proportion of sleep time in it—a phenomenon called REM rebound.", "Research in the 1990s using positron emission tomography confirmed the role of the brain stem. It also suggested that, within the forebrain, the limbic and paralimbic systems, generally connected with emotion showed more activation than other areas. The areas activated during REM sleep are approximately inverse to those activated during non-REM sleep.", "The sentinel hypothesis of REM sleep was put forward by Frederick Snyder in 1966. It is based upon the observation that REM sleep in several mammals (the rat, the hedgehog, the rabbit, and the rhesus monkey) is followed by a brief awakening. This does not occur for either cats or humans, although humans are more likely to wake from REM sleep than from NREM sleep. Snyder hypothesized that REM sleep activates an animal periodically, to scan the environment for possible predators. This hypothesis does not explain the muscle paralysis of REM sleep; however, a logical analysis might suggest that the muscle paralysis exists to prevent the animal from fully waking up unnecessarily, and allowing it to return easily to deeper sleep. ", "Some dreaming can take place during non-REM sleep. “Light sleepers” can experience dreaming during stage 2 non-REM sleep, whereas “deep sleepers”, upon awakening in the same stage, are more likely to report “thinking” but not “dreaming”. Certain scientific efforts to assess the uniquely bizarre nature of dreams experienced while asleep were forced to conclude that waking thought could be just as bizarre, especially in conditions of sensory deprivation.Ruth Reinsel, John Antrobus, & Miriam Wollman (1992), “Bizarreness in Dreams and Waking Fantasy”, in Antrobus & Bertini (eds.), The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. Because of non-REM dreaming, some sleep researchers have strenuously contested the importance of connecting dreaming to the REM sleep phase. The prospect that well-known neurological aspects of REM do not themselves cause dreaming suggests the need to re-examine the neurobiology of dreaming per se. Some of the old guard in paradoxical sleep research (Dement, Hobson, Jouvet), however, tend to resist the idea of disconnecting dreaming from REM sleep. ", "the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).", "Disturbances in REM sleep: disturbingly vivid dreams, and REM Sleep Disorder, characterized by acting out of dream content – can occur years prior to diagnosis .", "The tendency for REM sleep to increase REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).", "The midbrain, comprising the middle portion of the brainstem, includes the reticular formation (from the Latin word reticulum, meaning \"net\").The reticular formation also is important in regulating cortical arousal. Cats who have suffered surgical destruction of the reticular formation lapse into a constant state of sleep, and can be awakened only by loud noises or other intense stimulation, if at all. Cats whose reticular formation is continually stimulated by implanted microelectrodes remain constantly awake; when the current is turned off, they return to their regular sleep-wake cycle." ]

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[ "Which organ removes excess water, salts, uric acids, and chemicals from the blood? the kidneys, the lungs, the sweat glands, or the pharynx ?", "Which organ removes excess water, salts, uric acids, and chemicals from the blood? the kidneys, the lungs, the sweat glands, or the pharynx ?", "Which organ removes excess water, salts, uric acids, and chemicals from the blood? the kidneys the lungs the sweat glands the pharynx", "The kidneys are situated near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage. These glands control the blood fluid and mineral levels within the body by processing the blood to remove waste products and any excess fluid.", "The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage, with one located on either side of the spine. Every day, the two kidneys process about 200 quarts of blood to produce about 1 to 2 quarts of urine, which is made up of waste and extra water. The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through tubes called ureters. The bladder stores urine until releasing it through urination.", "The two kidneys are bean-shaped organs located near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage to the left and right of the spine. Each about the size of a fist, these organs act as sophisticated filters for the body. They process about 200 quarts of blood a day to sift out about 2 quarts of waste products and extra water that eventually leave the body as urine.", "The kidneys remove waste from the blood by filtering about 120 to 150 quarts of blood per day to produce 1 to 2 quarts of urine daily. After the blood is filtered, it returns into the body through the renal veins.", "Vertebrates have evolved a different answer to the problem of water balance and nitrogenous waste excretion: the kidneys. The two kidneys filter blood, removing urea in the form of urine, while also regulating the levels of water and salt present in the blood plasma. From each kidney, urine travels through a large duct called the ureter and empties into the urinary bladder. The bladder is a muscular organ that expands to store urine. When the bladder contracts, urine is pushed through another duct called the urethra and out of the body.", "The body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the urinary bladder, a balloon-like organ. The bladder connects to the urethra, the tube through which urine leaves the body.", "The kidney and bladder form a zang-fu pair: \"The kidney is connected with the bladder,\" states the Neijing; \"the bladder is the store house of the liquids and humors.\" This statement reminds us that the bladder, similar to the gallbladder and the small intestine, not only excretes unwanted waste materials, but comprises a temporary station along the body's complex highway of vital fluid transformation. Bladder function, particular its function of \"opening and closing,\" is largely dependent on the power of kidney qi. If kidney qi is strong, normal water metabolism will take place. The storage and excretion process of water through the bladder is thus intimately related to the general functioning of the kidney.", "In the collecting duct (see Figure 2), the permeability of the membrane is subject to being altered in response to the hormone vasopresin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH). When the body needs to retain water, as in dehydration situations, the concentration of ADH increases, and the high ADH level causes the water-permeability of these membranes to be great. Therefore, large amounts of water are reabsorbed into the blood, and only a little water will be excreted in the urine. However, when the body has plenty of water, the level of ADH drops, causing this portion of the membrane to become relatively impermeable to water. In this case, a larger amount of water remains in the nephron (in the collecting duct) to be excreted.", "The two kidneys are bean-shaped organs located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Everyday, the two kidneys filter about 120 to 150 quarts of blood to produce about 1 to 2 quarts of urine, composed of wastes and extra fluid.", "The Kidneys also regulate the salt balance in the blood by controlling the excretion and the reabsorption of various ions. As noted above, ADH plays a role in increasing water reabsorption in the kidneys, thus helping to dilute bodily fluids. The kidneys also have a regulated mechanism for reabsorbing sodium in the distal nephron. This mechanism is controlled by aldosterone, a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone promotes the excretion of potassium ions and the reabsorption of sodium ions. The release of Aldosterone is initiated by the kidneys. The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a renal structure consisting of the macula densa, mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. Juxtaglomerular cells (JG cells, also known as granular cells) are the site of renin secretion. Renin is an enzyme that converts angiotensinogen (a large plasma protein produced by the liver) into Angiotensin I and eventually into Angiotensin II which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone. The reabsorption of sodium ions is followed by the reapsorption of water. This causes blood pressure as well as blood volume to increase.", "This is also known as the renal system. It removes waste products from the blood and is made up of the kidneys, ureters and bladder.", "Listed among the fundamental organs, the kidneys play the role of purification of blood and elimination of waste products through excretion.", "Kidneys - Find the pair of bean-shaped kidneys lying against the back muscles on the dorsal side of the animal. These are often embedded in fat. The blood is brought into the kidney for processing and taken out of the kidney via the vessels that can be seen near the medial indentation. Remove some of the fat from around the kidneys and locate the adrenal glands. These are endocrine glands, not involved in excretion and found just anterior to the kidney. The hormone they are most famous for is adrenaline (epinephrine). This substance has a variety of effects on a body, preparing it for emergency situations. The cortex of the adrenal glands produces other hormones that can be categorized into three groups: (1) regulators of carbohydrate and protein metabolism, (2) regulators of salt and water balance, and (3) sex hormones.", "Urinary System: a group of organs in the body concerned with filtering out excess fluid and other substances from the bloodstream", "The liver, which is the largest organ inside the body, is located in the abdomen overlapping the stomach. The liver carries out many important functions including changing food into energy and cleaning poisons and alcohol from the blood. The liver also produces bile which is a liquid used by the stomach to help with digestion of food.", "As to veins, jugular anastomosis lets the blood flow from right to the left side of the body while the head is turned to one side. Jugulars take blood away from the head and the neck. Brachials take blood away from the wings. Pectorals empty the pectoral muscles and the anterior thorax. Superior vena cava, also known as the precava, carries blood from the anterior parts of the body. Inferior vena cava carries blood away from the posterior parts of the body. The hepatic vein drains blood from the liver. The hepatic portal carries blood away from the digestive tract. Coccygeomesenteric and hepatic portal vein drain the posterior digestive tract. Femorals take blood away from the legs. Sciatic veins empty blood from the thighs. The renal and renal portal veins carry blood away from the kidneys.", "It inhibits both arginine vasopressin secretion from neurons in the hypothalamus and hypothalamic thirst center. This leads to excess water elimination as dilute urine.", "The interstitium of the kidney increases in osmolarity outside as the loop of Henle descends from 600 mOsm/L in the outer medulla of the kidney to 1200 mOsm/L in the inner medulla. The descending portion of the loop of Henle is extremely permeable to water and is less permeable to ions, therefore water is easily reabsorbed here and solutes are not readily reabsorbed. The 300 mOsm/L fluid from the loop loses water to the higher concentration outside the loop and increases in tonicity until it reaches its maximum at the bottom of the loop. This area represents the highest concentration in the nephron, but the collecting duct can reach this same tonicity with maximum ADH effect.", "explanation says \"The large intestine is primarily involved in water reabsorption\" and the answer is D.", "Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released by the posterior pituitary gland. This increases water re-absorption in the collecting ducts of the kidney tubules so concentrated urine is produced and water loss is reduced. This helps maintain blood volume.", "Anti-diuretic hormone , which controls water balance and blood pressure. It is made by the hypothalamus but is stored in the posterior pituitary gland prior to being released into the bloodstream.", "Our circulatory system's \"pipes\" need to expand and contract to correct for the changing volume of our blood and body fluids. Studies have discovered that our bodies are about two quarts deficient in water before our thirst mechanism is activated. If our circulatory system didn't have a way to compensate for this, gravity would \"push\" the blood out of our heads resulting in a quick death.", "carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and return carbon dioxide and other water products", "Hypovolemia is characterized by salt (sodium) depletion and thus differs from dehydration, which is defined as excessive loss of body water.[3]", "Also, of importance in maintaining the blood flow are the presence of atrial volume receptors. These are low-pressure baroreceptors in the atria, which send signals to the hypothalamus when a drop in atrial pressure (which indicates a drop in blood volume) is detected. This triggers a release of vasopressin. ", "Adjusting the volume of blood in the body (by regulating the quantity of water in the blood - see above),", "Total body water is approximately 50% of lean body weight in men and 40% of lean body weight in women. For example, if a 70-kg man had a serum Na+ level of 160 mEq/L, the estimated free water deficit would be", "b. Controlling and adjusting the secretion and excretion of sweat, urine and saliva, and preventing the body fluid from escaping;", "● If you stop getting thirsty, you need to drink more water. When a human body is dehydrated, its thirst mechanism shuts off." ]

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[ "In order to carry out their individual functions, each section of the digestive system maintains a pH that suits the needs of the environment. The first part of the system prepares the food for digestion. This section’s weak acidic surroundings begin the process. The second area, the stomach, must supply enough acid to break the food into its nutrients. However, when the food continues into the intestines, it no longer needs acid. Both intestines bring the matter closer to the pH of the body.", "Stomach acid is not something most people think about. Yet it’s one of the most important aspects of your digestive system!", "A large part of digestion occurs in the stomach . The stomach, a saclike organ, secretes gastric digestive juices. The pH in the stomach is between 1.5 and 2.5. This highly- acidic environment is required for the chemical breakdown of food and the extraction of nutrients. When empty, the stomach is a rather small organ; however, it can expand to up to 20 times its resting size when filled with food. This characteristic is particularly useful for animals that need to eat when food is available.", "The mucosa of the large intestine also secretes bicarbonates to neutralise the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids and other digestive components at earlier parts of the intestines.", "As you chew, the food becomes a bolus. The bolus gets propelled by the muscular contractions of your swallow. When the food enters your stomach, it encounters the highly acidic pH of 1.3. Due in large part to the secretion of hydrochloric acid, the change in pH enables the dismantling of food. The stomach churns the food into chyme and kills unwanted germs in preparation for the small intestine. At the first section of the small intestine, the chyme enters your duodenum, which has a pH of 6 to 6.5. The acidity level begins to descend as the pH value rises.", "As would be expected of a substance inside the body that is able to digest the living tissue around it, some problems can arise with stomach acid that would require some of it to be neutralized. The most recognized problem is when the acid leaks upward through a valve into the esophagus, causing what is known as acid reflux or heartburn. Heartburn is when the stomach acids get into the esophagus and eat away at the lining, causing a burning sensation in the chest and throat. Leakage into the esophagus can be caused by a variety of reasons, including spicy foods, too much food, too little food, being overweight etc. In order to reduce the leakage of stomach acid into the esophagus, neutralization of some of the acid would be required, lest the esophagus receives permanent damage. In order to do this, antacids, which contain base materials, are taken.", "Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid, formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl) .05–0.1 M (roughly 5,000–10,000 parts per million or 0.5-1%) potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids.", "Inside the stomach, cells start to secrete different acids that help increase acidity to a pH of 2. This strong acidic environment kills most bacteria and starts to chemically break apart the food.  Movements of the smooth muscles in the stomach, known as peristalsis mix and churn the food up more.  After the food has been well mixed and has a consistency of oatmeal, it is ready to move to the small intestine.  At this stage it is known as chyme.", "Stomach is a muscular bag forming the most distensible part of the Human Digestive System. The regions occupied by stomach are epigastric, umbilical and hypochondriac regions. It lies between the esophagus and the duodenum on the upper-left portion of the abdominal cavity.", "Bile tends to be alkali on average. The pH of common duct bile (7.50 to 8.05) is higher than that of the corresponding gallbladder bile (6.80 to 7.65). It becomes more acidic in the gallbladder the longer you go without eating, though resting slows this fall in pH. As an alkali, it also has the function of neutralizing any excess stomach acid before it enters the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine. Bile salts also act as bactericides, destroying many of the microbes that may be present in the food.", "Glands in the mucous-membrane lining of the stomach make and store an inactive protein called pepsinogen. Impulses from the vagus nerve and the hormonal secretions of gastrin and secretin stimulate the release of pepsinogen into the stomach, where it is mixed with hydrochloric acid and rapidly converted to the active enzyme pepsin. The digestive power of pepsin is greatest at the acidity of normal gastric juice (pH 1.5–2.5). In the intestine the gastric acids are neutralized (pH 7), and pepsin is no longer effective.", "The stomach is a muscular bag located in the upper part of the abdomen, toward the left side. It squeezes and mixes food with digestive juices that are released from specialized cells in the wall of the stomach. Digestive juices include hydrochloric acid, which kills microorganisms and activates an enzyme called pepsin that helps break down proteins, and intrinsic factor, which is a substance that helps the small intestine absorb vitamin B12. Its lining contains cells that produce mucus to help protect the walls of the stomach from damage due to the acid.", "The stomach of fish is less well delineated than it is in the higher vertebrates, and in some cases it is considered to be absent. Where a true stomach is found to exist it is a muscular bag, or tube with a highly acidic internal environment. Unlike the Oesophagus, and the Intestines mentioned below the stomach is surrounded by a triple layer of non-striated muscle. The outer layer being longitudinal and the inner layer being circular with the middle layer running at an oblique angle to the two of these. Inside these muscular layer is a layer of columnar epithelium. The acidity of the stomach changes depending on whether it is full or not. Secretion of Hydrochloric acid is stimulated by the stretching or expansion of the stomach walls caused by the presence of food, so the the stomach is more acid when it is full that when it is empty. In most fish the pH of the stomach varies between 2 and 4. The main enzymes active in the stomach are Pepsins. The stomach may have the form of a swollen tube, it may be U-shaped with the open part of the U facing the mouth or it may be a blind sac with the entrance and exit valves quite adjacent to each other. The valve between the stomach and the intestines is called the pyloric valve.", "# The intestinal phase: The remaining 10% of acid is secreted when chyme enters the small intestine, and is stimulated by small intestine distension and by amino acids. The duodenal cells release entero-oxyntin which acts on parietal cells without affecting gastrin.", "Hydrochloric acid is created when Parietal cells that line the stomach use the chloride ion (Cl-) as an aid to digestion by combining it with a hydrogen ion (a proton, H+) to become hydrogen chloride (HCl). When the parietal cells secrete the hydrogen chloride into the stomach, it chemically reacts with water. In this reaction the hydrogen chloride breaks back down into the chloride ion by transfering its proton to the water molecule. The water molecule (H2O) becomes a hydronium ion (H3O+) when it gains the proton. In the presence of additional water in the stomach, these two oppositely charged ions (chloride and hydronium) stay dissolved. This combination of water, chloride and hydronium forms the solution called hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is the main ingredient of gastric (stomach) acid, which digests our food. Gastric acid's low PH level (about 1 or 2) denatures (unfolds) the proteins in our food so that enzymes in the stomach can break apart (digest) the bonds that hold the amino acids together.", "The stomach (which is in the abdominal area) is lined with thirty-five million glands that produce about three quarts (2.85 liters) of gastric juices daily. Hydrochloric acid makes up roughly five percent of these juices and, together with other acids and various enzymes, constantly works to digest food particles.", "Chemical digestion begins in the stomach. The stomach is a large, hollow, pouched-shaped muscular organ. Food in the stomach is broken down by the action of gastric juice, which contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin (an enzyme that digests protein). The stomach begins its production of gastric juice while food is still in the mouth. Nerves from the cheeks and tongue are stimulated and send messages to the brain. The brain in turn sends messages to nerves in the stomach wall, stimulating the secretion of gastric juice before the arrival of food. The second signal for gastric juice production occurs when food arrives in the stomach and touches the lining.", "( Body Atlas, The series, Part 6) The food we eat turns into us. But the process is far from simple. Digestion begins in the mouth, as teeth--the hardest substance in the body--tear and grind up food. The stomach takes over, with a chemical attack that breaks down more of the foodstuffs. It has a special lining that prevents the acid from digesting the stomach itself. The food is here between two and six hours, churning away without our noticing. Meanwhile, the kidneys are keeping a check on the water in our bodies. Each contains a million tiny filters, and all the blood in the body passes through them every five minutes. As the food passes from the stomach to the small intestine, bile attacks the fats and other ingredients tht have survived so far. Microscopic cilia start to absorb the nutrients, and they are carried to the body's chemical factory, the liver, to be processed into the substances we need for energy or to build up our bodies. (A study guide is available upon request)", "In the stomach, acids and enzymes are secreted to break down food into its nutrient components.", "numerous, tubular glands in the mucosa of the stomach that contain the cells which produce acid and pepsin. According to the species, they are usually found in the body and occasionally in the fundus.", "10 Stomach Positioned between the esophagus & small intestines Holds and breaks down food for digestion Produces HCl (hydrochloric acid) to break down food into chyme.", "The first few centimeters of the Duodenum, between the pylorus of the stomach and the Ampulla of Vater, contain numerous compound mucous glands called Brunner's Glands. These secrete an Alkaline rich mucous - pH between 8.0 & 8.9 - in response to various stimuli:", "In mammals, the small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract (gut) following the stomach, and is where the vast majority of digestion takes place.", "The stomach is the site of extracellular digestion and the liver is where absorption and of intracellular digestion takes place, in species where this occurs.", "A major digestive organ is the stomach. Within its mucosa are millions of embedded gastric glands. Their secretions are vital to the functioning of the organ.", "The ileum connects the small intestine to the large intestine. The internal environment of the ileum is maintained at 7 to 8 pH, which makes it slightly alkaline.", "23 Small Intestine (1)the duodenum, a receiving area for chemicals and partially digested food from the stomach (2)the jejunum, where most of the nutrients are absorbed into the blood (3)the ileum, where the remaining nutrients are absorbed before moving into the large intestine.", "Chloride (Cl−) and hydrogen (H+) ions are secreted separately in the stomach fundus region at the top of the stomach by parietal cells of the gastric mucosa into a secretory network called canaliculi before it enters the stomach lumen. ", "Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/The Gut and Digestion - Wikibooks, open books for an open world", "Mucous cells secrete the alkaline mucous for shielding the epithelium from hydrochloric acid. These are found in the fundic, cardiac, and pyloric region.", "FIG. 1054 A pyloric gland, from a section of the dogs stomach. (Ebstein.) m. Mouth. n. Neck. tr. A deep portion of a tubule cut transversely.", "When first secreted pepsinogen is inactive, but contact with acid converts it to the active form pepsin by splitting the pepsinogen molecule. Pepsin functions best at a pH between 1.8 and 3.5" ]

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[ "Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy. Although rare, scurvy results in severe symptoms and can cause death. People with scurvy are treated with vitamin C and should be under medical supervision.", "Scurvy is a disease resulting from Vitamin C deficiency. A deficiency of vitamin C prevents the normal synthesis of collagen, thus causing widespread and significant changes in connective tissue throughout the body. The name scurvy comes from the Latin scorbutus, and humans have known about the disease since ancient Greek and Egyptian times. Scurvy commonly is associated with sailors in the 16th to 18th centuries who navigated long voyages without enough vitamin C and frequently perished from the condition. Modern cases of scurvy are very rare. ", "Scurvy. Vitamin C deficiency can lead to scurvy. Signs and symptoms of this rare disease include bleeding under the skin and around the gums.", "Scurvy is possibly the oldest known nutritional disease, having been described in medical writings as early as 400 B.C. It is a deficiency disorder that is caused by a lack of vitamin C, or ascorbic acid , in the diet. It is also called vitamin C deficiency or scorbutus. Vitamin C is a very important anti-oxidant that is required for the production of collagen, which is necessary for healthy development of tissues, for the functioning of the immune system, and for the healing of wounds. It is found in certain fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits, and green leafy vegetables such as spinach and broccoli. It was once common in sailors and soldiers, who were away from sources of fresh fruits and vegetables for long periods of time; though it was known that scurvy was nutrition-related, it wasn’t until the 20th century that the exact cause of it was identified. In contemporary times, scurvy is rare in countries where fresh fruits and vegetables are easily accessible, and where vitamin C is added to some foods.", "Scurvy is a disease caused by a vitamin C deficiency. Symptoms of scurvy include weakness, anemia, gum disease, and bleeding from the mucus membranes. The disease was once common among sailors who were at sea for long periods without access to fresh fruit. When it became widely known that citrus fruits (with their abundant vitamin C) could prevent scurvy, sailors began taking lemon juice on long voyages and incidences of scurvy diminished greatly. Cases of scurvy in the U.S. are now rare, but the disease occasionally appears in older, malnourished adults.", "Oranges were historically used for their high content of vitamin C, which prevents scurvy. Scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency, and can be prevented by having 10 milligrams of vitamin C a day. An early sign of scurvy is fatigue. If ignored, later symptoms are bleeding and bruising easily. British sailors were given a ration of citrus fruits on long voyages to prevent the onset of scurvy, hence the British nickname of Limey.", "Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, a serious and painful disease in which defective collagen prevents the formation of strong connective tissue . Gums deteriorate and bleed, with loss of teeth; skin discolors, and wounds do not heal. Prior to the eighteenth century, this condition was notorious among long duration military, particularly naval, expeditions during which participants were deprived of foods containing Vitamin C.", "Oranges were historically used for their high content of vitamin C , which prevents scurvy . Scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency, and can be prevented by having 10 milligrams of vitamin C a day. An early sign of scurvy is fatigue. If ignored, later symptoms are bleeding and bruising easily. British sailors were given a ration of citrus fruits on long voyages to prevent the onset of scurvy, hence the British nickname of Limey .", "Scurvy or subclinical scurvy is caused by the lack of vitamin C. In modern Western societies, scurvy is rarely present in adults, although infants and elderly people are affected. [4] Vitamin C is destroyed by the process of pasteurization , so babies fed with ordinary bottled milk sometimes suffer from scurvy if they are not provided with adequate vitamin supplements. Virtually all commercially available baby formulas contain added vitamin C for this reason, but heat and storage destroy vitamin C. Human breast milk contains sufficient vitamin C, if the mother has an adequate intake.", "Scurvy is a condition caused by a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in the diet. Signs of scurvy include tiredness, muscle weakness, joint and muscle aches, a rash on the legs, and bleeding gums. In the past, scurvy was common among sailors and other people deprived of fresh fruits and vegetables for long periods of time.", "Deficiency, or a lack, of vitamin C in your body happens because of a lack of sufficient amounts of vitamin C in your diet. Over time, a lack of vitamin C means that new collagen cannot be formed. This causes various tissues in your body to start to break down and the health and repair of your body become affected. Persistent (chronic) vitamin C deficiency, usually over a period of around three months or more, can lead to an illness known as scurvy.", "Today, vitamin C deficiencies and scurvy are rare because of easy access to fresh fruits and vegetables, vitamin fortification of processed foods and drinks, and vitamin supplements. [106] However, cases of scurvy still sometimes appear. [107] Most cases in the United States occur in poor urban populations, alcoholics and the elderly. [108] Individuals who smoke or have illnesses such as cancer or renal failure are also prone to scurvy. [109] Today, elderly poor men develop vitamin C deficiencies more than any other group. [110] In fact, as many as 20% of poor, elderly men may have low amounts of vitamin C in their system, although actual scurvy rates are much lower. [111] Even in elderly, poor men, the rates of vitamin C deficiency are highest among those who are confined to their homes, chronically sick, or institutionalized. [112] Overall, scurvy is extremely rare in developed countries due to improved diets and vitamin supplementation. [113] However, cases still occur and medical personnel must be prepared to diagnose and treat this once deadly disease.", "Scurvy is a rare condition that can develop if you don't have enough vitamin C in your diet.", "Infants and children with severe malnutrition or restrictive diets are also at risk for scurvy [2] [3]. There are various factors or lifestyle issues that might increase the risk of scurvy. These include crash dieting, allergy diets, fussy eating and eating disorders like anorexia nervosa or bulimia . Certain cancers may also cause vitamin C deficiency [4]. Hemodialysis in the patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus may also cause scurvy [5] [6].", "1. Nelson, David L., Michael M. Cox, and Albert L. Lehninger. \"Inherited Human Diseases Resulting from Abnormal Accumulations of Membrane Lipids.\" Lehninger: Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W. H. Freeman and, 2005. N. pag. Print. Scurvy is a disease that causes degeneration of connective tissue. It is caused if there is a deficient amount of Vitamin C found in the body. Scurvy if left untreated can cause small hemorrhages, tooth loss, poor wound healing, the reopening of old wounds, bone pain and degeneration and heart failure. To regain the deficient vitamin C level one must eat fruits and vegetables.", "Infantile scurvy is a disease that is caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet. Symptoms of this disorder may be anemia, weakness, sores in the mouth, loosening of the teeth, irritability, loss of appetite, failure to gain weight and bleeding under the tissue layer covering the bones. Scurvy is treated with large amounts of vitamin C .", "1747 Dr. James Lind experimented with 12 sailors who had scurvy and discovered that consuming lemons and oranges for 6 days effected great improvement. Nearly 50 years passed before the British admiralty required that sailors receive daily lemon or lime juice. Scurvy is understood now to be a nutritional disease caused by lack of adequate Vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Fresh fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of this vitamin. (Levetin & McMahon, 1996) [See 1937]", "Scurvy (a form of avitaminosis ) results from lack of vitamin C, as an effect of its requirement for correct collagen synthesis. Scurvy leads to the formation of liver spots on the skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from all mucous membranes . The spots are most abundant on the thighs and legs, and a person with the ailment looks pale, feels depressed, and is partially immobilized. In advanced scurvy there are open, suppurating wounds and loss of teeth , and eventually, death.", "Administration of vitamin C is the specific therapy for scurvy. A dose of 250mg vitamin C 3 times daily by mouth should saturate the tissues quickly. The deficiencies of the patient’s diet should also be corrected and other vitamin supplements given if necessary [10].", "Notable human dietary studies of experimentally induced scurvy have been conducted on conscientious objectors during WW II in Britain, and on Iowa state prisoner \"volunteers\" in the late 1960s. These studies both found that all obvious symptoms of scurvy previously induced by an experimental scorbutic diet with extremely low vitamin C content, could be completely reversed by additional vitamin C supplementation of only 10 mg a day. In these experiments, there was no clinical difference noted between men given 70 mg vitamin C per day (which produced blood levels of vitamin C of about 0.55 mg/dl, about 1/3 of tissue saturation levels), and those given 10 mg per day (which produced lower blood levels). Men in the prison study developed the first signs of scurvy about 4 weeks after starting the vitamin C free diet, whereas in the British study, six to eight months were required, possibly due to the pre-loading of this group with a 70 mg/day supplement for six weeks before the scorbutic diet was fed. [39] Men in both studies on a diet devoid or nearly devoid of vitamin C had blood levels of vitamin C too low to be accurately measured when they developed signs of scurvy, and in the Iowa study, at this time were estimated (by labeled vitamin C dilution) to have a body pool of less than 300 mg, with daily turnover of only 2.5 mg/day. [40]", "Scurvy is more common in older adults and alcoholics suffering from malnutrition . Scurvy was commonly associated with sailors of the 16th to 18th centuries who navigated long voyages without enough vitamin C supplements [1]. Modern cases of scurvy are extremely rare.", "These days, scurvy is an extremely rare condition, almost exclusively caused by someone eating a completely unvaried diet . In most cases, high levels of oral supplementation of vitamin C are enough to reverse the condition in a matter of weeks, and death by scurvy is almost unheard of.", "Due to terrible diets or practicing bulimia to become anorexic, there has been a scurvy surge among teens. It can also afflict alcoholics or older people whose ability to absorb vitamin C has diminished from excessive medications or poor diets.", "Some animal products, including liver, Muktuk (whale skin), oysters, and parts of the central nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and adrenal medulla, contain large amounts of vitamin C, and can even be used to treat scurvy. Fresh meat from animals which make their own vitamin C (which most animals do) contains enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy, and even partly treat it. In some cases (notably in French soldiers eating fresh horse meat), it was discovered that meat alone, even partly cooked meat, could alleviate scurvy. In other cases, a meat-only diet could cause scurvy. ", "In the developed world, even if someone has a relatively unhealthy and imbalanced diet, it should provide an adequate supply of vitamin C. Therefore, for scurvy to develop, there are usually other contributing factors, such as:", "Scurvy can be prevented by a diet that includes certain citrus fruits such as oranges or lemons . Other sources rich in vitamin C are fruits such as blackcurrants, guava , kiwifruit , papaya, tomatoes , bell peppers, and strawberries . Additionally, many animal products, including liver , Muktuk (whale skin), oysters , and parts of the central nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and adrenal medulla, contain large amounts of vitamin C, and can even be used to treat scurvy. However, a diet rich in these animal products is likely to give you mad cow disease so you'd be better off dying of the scurvy.", "Patients at risk include those with chronic malnutrition, who are elderly or alcoholic, who subsist on diets devoid of fresh fruits and vegetables, and men who live alone (widower scurvy). Infants and children on restrictive diets because of medical, economic, or social reasons are at risk for scurvy. Occurrence of scurvy is uncommon in those younger than 7 months, although infants fed evaporated or condensed milk formulas may develop this disease. If a mother has an adequate diet, breast milk contains sufficient vitamin C for a baby's needs. Commercially available formulas and many prepared fruit juices are fortified with vitamin C.", "Regular consumption of fruits and vegetables helps to prevent scurvy. Particularly good sources include citrus fruits such as lemons, oranges, and grapefruit. Kiwi fruit, red and green peppers, brussels sprouts, strawberries, broccoli, tomato, cantaloupe, potato, cauliflower, and cabbage are also packed with vitamin C. One can also take vitamin C supplements. ", "Though scurvy is a very rare disease, it still occurs in some patients - usually elderly people, alcoholics, or those that live on a diet devoid of fresh fruits and vegetables. Similarly, infants or children who are on special or poor diets for any number of economic or social reasons may be prone to scurvy. ", "Though scurvy is a very rare disease, it still occurs in some patients - usually elderly people, alcoholics, or those that live on a diet devoid of fresh fruits and vegetables. Similarly, infants or children who are on special or poor diets for any number of economic or social reasons may be prone to scurvy.", "Following is a list of causes or underlying conditions (see also Misdiagnosis of underlying causes of Scurvy ) that could possibly cause Scurvy includes:", "Historically, scurvy was common among those with poor access to fresh fruit and vegetables, such as sailors , pirates and others who were on ships that were out to sea longer than perishable fruits and vegetables could be stored, as well as isolated soldiers . The earliest documented case was described by Hippocrates around the year 400 BC." ]

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[ "Three pairs of major veins return deoxygenated blood from the tissues of the head and neck to the heart. The left and right vertebral veins descend through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae to drain blood from the spinal cord, cervical vertebrae, and muscles of the neck. In the head, superficial structures on the exterior of the skull are drained by the pair of external jugular veins, which descend through the neck lateral to the vertebral veins. Most importantly, the brain is drained by a group of large cavities in the dura mater layer of the meninges known as dural venous sinuses. Blood collected in these sinuses drains into the largest veins in the head and neck - the left and right internal jugular veins. The internal jugular veins collect blood from the brain as well as the superficial structures of the head and neck before descending through the neck towards the heart.", "Anatomically, there are two of these veins that lie along each side of the neck. They each rest beside the thyroid gland at the center of the neck, just above the collarbone and near the trachea, or windpipe. These veins functions to carry oxygen-depleted blood from the brain, face, and neck, and transport it to the heart through the superior vena cava.", "Vena cava: The superior vena cava is the large vein which returns blood to the heart from the head, neck and both upper limbs. The inferior vena cava returns blood to the heart from the lower part of the body.", "Oxygen-poor blood travels from organs and tissues to the heart through veins. The vena cava is the major vein that returns blood to the right atrium of the heart. The vena cava superior returns blood from the head, neck, upper extremities, and chest. The vena cava inferior returns blood from the lower extremities, the pelvis, and the abdomen. The coronary sinus drains blood from the coronary arteries into the right atrium.", "The carotid arteries are two large blood vessels located toward the front of the neck that carry blood to the brain. Blood reaches the carotid arteries by traveling from the heart and passing through a large artery called the aorta. Then the blood moves through the carotid arteries to the brain. Each of the carotid arteries splits into two separate arteries near the top of the neck to form the left and right internal and external carotid arteries. The larger of these two branched arteries, called the internal carotid artery, delivers oxygenated blood to portions of your brain responsible for cognition, speaking, and motor skills. As a result, stroke victims often suffer from deficits in these areas.", "Blood is pumped out into the body via the main artery, the aorta. This takes the blood to the head, the limbs and all the body organs. After passing through a network of fine capillaries, the blood is returned to the heart in the largest vein, the vena cava (see diagrams 8.8, 8.12, 8.18 and 8.19).", "A major artery that carries blood from the heart to the head. There is a carotid artery on each side of the neck, and each one splits into two branches. The interior branch carries blood to the brain and eyes, and the exterior branch carries blood to the face, tongue, and outside parts of the head.", "There are two carotid arteries: one on the right side of the neck (which supplies blood to the right side of the brain) and one on the left side of the neck (which supplies blood to the left side of the brain).", "The carotid (pronounced ka-RAH-tid) arteries are located in your neck and are the main arteries supplying blood to the eyes and brain.", "The veins of the head and neck collect deoxygenated blood and return it to the heart. Anatomically, the venous drainage can be divided into three parts:", "Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium.", "     The systemic veins return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart via the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava.", "The deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body are collected by the two major veins called the vena cavae - superior vena cava collecting from the upper body and the inferior vena cava collecting from the lower body. The blood from the vena cavae is poured into the right auricle.", "Deoxygenated blood is carried back to the heart via the body's two largest veins, the superior & inferior this", "The right heart collects deoxygenated blood from two large veins, the superior and inferior venae cavae. Blood collects in the right and left atrium continuously. The superior vena cava drains blood from above the diaphragm and empties into the upper back part of the right atrium. The inferior vena cava drains the blood from below the diaphragm and empties into the back part of the atrium below the opening for the superior vena cava. Immediately above and to the middle of the opening of the inferior vena cava is the opening of the thin-walled coronary sinus. Additionally, the coronary sinus returns deoxygenated blood from the myocardium to the right atrium. The blood collects in the right atrium. When the right atrium contracts, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. As the right ventricle contracts, the tricuspid valve closes and the blood is pumped into the pulmonary trunk through the pulmonary valve. The pulmonary trunk divides into pulmonary arteries and progressively smaller arteries throughout the lungs, until it reaches capillaries. As these pass by alveoli carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. This happens through the passive process of diffusion.", "Axillary vein: This vein drains into the larger subclavian vein on its way to the heart. It is joined by the cephalic vein and the basilic vein.", "The superior vena cava (SVC) is the superior of the two venae cavae, the great venous trunks that return deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation to the right atrium of the heart. It is a large-diameter (24 mm), yet short, vein that receives venous return from the upper half of the body, above the diaphragm. (Venous return from the lower half, below the diaphragm, flows through the inferior vena cava.) The SVC is located in the anterior right superior mediastinum. It is the typical site of central venous access (CVA) via a central venous catheter or a peripherally inserted central catheter. Mentions of \"the cava\" without further specification usually refer to the SVC.", "The arteries are perceived as carrying oxygenated blood to the tissues, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. This is true of the systemic circulation, by far the larger of the two circuits of blood in the body, which transports oxygen from the heart to the tissues of the body. However, in pulmonary circulation, the arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, and veins return blood from the lungs to the heart. The difference between veins and arteries is their direction of flow (out of the heart by arteries, returning to the heart for veins), not their oxygen content. In addition, deoxygenated blood that is carried from the tissues back to the heart for reoxygenation in systemic circulation still carries some oxygen, though it is considerably less than that carried by the systemic arteries or pulmonary veins.", "dural sinuses  large venous channels forming an anastomosing system between the layers of the dura mater, draining the cerebral veins and some diploic and meningeal veins into the veins of the neck.", "There are two atria on either side of the heart. On the right side is the atrium that contains blood which is poor in oxygen. The left atrium contains blood which has been oxygenated and is ready to be sent to the body. The right atrium receives de-oxygenated blood from the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins. Atria facilitate circulation primarily by allowing uninterrupted venous flow to the heart, preventing the inertia of interrupted venous flow that would otherwise occur at each ventricular systole.", "Inferior vena cava - The large vein returning blood from the legs and abdomen to the heart.", "The pulmonary veins carry relatively oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. The superior and inferior venae cavae carry relatively deoxygenated blood from the upper and lower systemic circulations, respectively.", "The anterior jugular veins vary from person to person. They are paired veins, which drain the anterior aspect of the neck. Often they will communicate via a jugular venous arch. The anterior jugular veins descend down the midline of the neck, emptying into the subclavian vein.", "Deoxygenated blood is drained from the body by veins and returned to the caridnal sinuses, then the cardinal veins, then the sinus venosus", "     The facial, temporal and maxillary veins drain blood from the superficial tissues of the head. The temporal and maxillary veins drain into the external jugular v. and the facial vein drains into the internal jugular v. There is a broad anastomosis between the internal and external jugular veins at the angle of the mandible.", "One of the two largest veins in the body; carries blood from the lower extremities and the pelvic and the abdominal organs to the heart.", "The four veins that return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.", "suprascapular vein  the vein that accompanies the homonymous artery (sometimes as two veins that unite), opening usually into the external jugular, or occasionally into the subclavian vein.", "coronary sinus the dilated terminal portion of the great cardiac vein, receiving blood from other veins draining the heart muscle and emptying into the right atrium.", "Many blood vessels serve the esophagus, with blood supply varying along its course. The upper parts of the esophagus and the upper esophageal sphincter receive blood from the inferior thyroid artery, the parts of the esophagus in the thorax from the bronchial arteries and branches directly from the thoracic aorta, and the lower parts of the esophagus and the lower esophageal sphincter receive blood from the left gastric artery and the left inferior phrenic artery. The venous drainage also differs along the course of the esophagus. The upper and lower parts of the esophagus drain into the azygos and hemiazygos veins, and blood from the middle part drains into the left gastric vein. All these veins drain into the superior vena cava, with the exception of the left gastric vein, which is a branch of the portal vein. Lymphatically, the upper third of the esophagus drains into the deep cervical lymph nodes, the middle into the superior and posterior mediastinal lymph nodes, and the lower esophagus into the gastric and celiac lymph nodes. This is similar to the lymphatic drainage of the abdominal foregut structure which all drain into the celiac nodes.", "Circulation that is established through an anastomosis between two vessels supplying or draining two adjacent structures is called", "    The Anterior Vertebral Vein commences in a plexus around the transverse processes of the upper cervical vertebræ, descends in company with the ascending cervical artery between the Scalenus anterior and Longus capitis muscles, and opens into the terminal part of the vertebral vein." ]

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[ "DOUBLE JEOPARDY!!! Term for a series of uncontrollable intakes of air caused by sudden spasms of the diaphragm.", "Hiccups: A hiccup is an extraordinary type of respiratory movement involving a sudden inspiration (intake of air) due to an involuntary contraction of the diaphragm accompanied by closure of the glottis (the vocal apparatus of the larynx).", "\"Hiccups, more officially referred to as singultus (from the Latin, 'to catch your breath while sobbing'), are repeated, spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm causing a quick inhalation that is then cut short by an involuntary closing of the glottis.\"", "The main function of the diaphragm is as a muscle of respiration, meaning that it aids with breathing. It is aided by other muscles and accessory muscles of breathing when a person experiences shortness of breath . When the diaphragm contracts, the lungs expand and air is inhaled. This occurs because it creates negative pressure within the pleural cavity around the lungs and the elasticity of the lungs allows it to expand thereby drawing in air. When the diaphragm relaxes, it restores the pressure in the pleural cavity and the lungs recoil thereby pushing out air (exhalation). Sudden and repeat contractions of the diaphragm, which are involuntary, leads to hiccups .", "a spasm of the diaphragm producing a sudden breathing in followed by a closing of the glottis, resulting in a sharp sound Technical name singultus", "Singultus, commonly known as the hiccups, is also a form of diaphragm spasm, although much milder. A singultus episode impairs voluntary breathing control for brief moments (measured in milliseconds) rather than for several seconds.", "a quick, involuntary inhalation that follows a spasm of the diaphragm and is suddenly checked by closure of the glottis, producing a short, relatively sharp sound.", "The diaphragm sometimes contracts involuntarily due to certain irritations; these contractions can happen because we eat too quickly, drink carbonated beverages, experience some acid indigestion, or are dealing with a stressful day. If air is inhaled at these times of contraction, the space between the vocal cords at the back of the throat closes suddenly, producing the noise we call hiccups. Short-lived hiccuping episodes are very common. Longer-term hiccups (lasting for days) can occur as well and are usually caused by irritated nerves, though medical attention would be needed in order to rule out other health concerns.", "If the diaphragm is struck, or otherwise spasms, breathing will become difficult. This is called having the wind knocked out of you.", "Irritation of any of the nerves involved in this loop can cause the diaphragm to undergo involuntary contraction, or spasm, pulling air into the lungs. When this occurs, it triggers a reflex in the throat muscles. Less than a tenth of a second afterward, the trachea is closed off, making the characteristic \"hic\" sound.", "The symptoms of hiccups are widely known and tend to be quite prevalent and easily recognized. In most cases, there is little more than an involuntary contraction of the diaphragm, resulting in compression of the ribs and lungs.", "apnoea – where the muscles and soft tissues in the throat relax and collapse sufficiently to cause a total blockage of the airway; it's called an apnoea when the airflow is blocked for 10 seconds or more", "-up ) is a contraction of the diaphragm that repeats several times per minute. In humans, the abrupt rush of air into the lungs causes the epiglottis to close, creating a \"hic\" sound.", "In these instances, the stomach, which sits underneath and adjacent to the diaphragm, is distended or stretched. As they occur in relation to eating and drinking, hiccups are sometimes thought to be a reflex to protect a person from choking .", "In medicine, laryngospasm is an uncontrolled/involuntary muscular contraction (spasm) of the laryngeal cords. The condition typically lasts less than 60 seconds, and causes a partial blocking of breathing in, while breathing out remains easier. It may be triggered when the vocal cords or the area of the trachea below the cords detects the entry of water, mucus, blood, or other substance. It is characterized by stridor and/or retractions.", "Diaphragmatic rupture (also called diaphragmatic injury or tear) is a tear of the diaphragm, the muscle across the bottom of the ribcage that plays a crucial role in respiration. Most commonly, acquired diaphragmatic tears result from physical trauma. Diaphragmatic rupture can result from blunt or penetrating trauma", "But sometimes the diaphragm becomes irritated. When this happens, it pulls down in a jerky way, which makes you suck air into your throat suddenly. When the air rushing in hits your voice box, your vocal cords close suddenly and you're left with a big hiccup.", "Relaxation of the diaphragm and the inter-costal muscles returns the diaphragm and sternum to their normal positions and reduce the thoracic volume and thereby the pulmonary volume. This leads to an increase in intra-pulmonary pressure to slightly above the atmospheric pressure causing the expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e., expiration.", "To expel air from the lungs in a spasmodic manner. Can be a result of inflammation or irritation to the upper airways (pharynx, larynx or trachea) or may involve the lower airways of the lungs (deep cough).", "Asthma— A lung condition in which the airways become narrow due to smooth muscle contraction, causing wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath.", "act of breathing out - as the diaphragm relaxes, it moves upward, forcing air out of the lungs", "The diaphragm is crucial for breathing and respiration. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, thus enlarging the thoracic cavity (the external intercostal muscles also participate in this enlargement). This reduces intra-thoracic pressure: in other words, enlarging the cavity creates suction that draws air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, air is exhaled by elastic recoil of the lung and the tissues lining the thoracic cavity in conjunction with the abdominal muscles which act as an antagonist paired with the diaphragm's contraction.", "When you breathe in, the diaphragm contracts downward, creating a vacuum that causes a rush of fresh air into the lungs.", "Acute or severe bronchial asthma in an unmonitored setting or in the absence of resuscitative equipment", "Occasionally, a person may choke when food gets past the epiglottis or sticks to a structure within the pharynx and blocks the airway. The vocal folds contract to catch the blockage before it passes into the trachea. Coughing pushes air out of the lungs to force the blockage out of the airway.", "One of these conditions that can detriment our body;s ability to breath in is called Bibasilar Atelectasis. Bibasilar Atelectasis happens when one of the parts of the lung do not inflate or deflate properly. Although it can occur with no known causes, direct chest trauma and surgery are often the most common cause of this disorder.", "It is important to remember that the center of the diaphragm is pushed downwards when exhaling. It does not flatten entirely so it does not reach as low as the periphery. Fluid, a mass or other causes of raised pressure in the thoracic or abdominal cavity can push the middle of the diaphragm higher or lower. The liver sitting just under the right diaphragm causes it to be slightly higher than the left diaphragm. Read more on the .", "The diagnostic term for a chronic respiratory disease characterized by paroxysms of coughing, wheezing, panting with shortness of breath is:", "What is the condition where breathing is greatly increased, typically caused by stress or panic situations?", "when the muscles of the soft palate at the base of the tongue and the uvula relax and sag, the airway becomes blocked, making breathing labored and noisy and even stopping it altogether.", "When the muscles of the soft palate at the base of the tongue and the uvula relax and sag, the airway becomes blocked, making breathing labored and noisy and even stopping it altogether.", "Notably, the only muscle capable of separating the vocal cords for normal breathing is the posterior cricoarytenoid. If this muscle is incapacitated on both sides, the inability to pull the vocal folds apart (abduct) will cause difficulty breathing. Bilateral injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve would cause this condition. It is also worth noting that all muscles are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal branch of the vagus except the cricothyroid muscle, which is innervated by the external laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (a branch of the vagus)." ]

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[ "The eye is an incredibly complex organ that moves 100,000 times in an average day. Numerous muscles and tear ducts are in place to keep the eye constantly moist, protected, and functional. Our eyes process 1.5 million bits of information simultaneously and provide 80% of the sensory stimulation sent to the brain. They receive light images traveling at 186,000 miles per second through the iris, which opens or closes to let in just the right amount of light. These images travel through a lens, made of transparent cells, which focuses them on the retina at the back of the eyeball. The retina covers less than one square inch of surface, yet this square inch contains approximately 137 million light-sensitive receptor  cells. Approximately 130 million are rod cells (designed specifically to see in black and white), and 7 million are cone cells (allowing color vision). Finally, the image is sent at a rate of 300 miles per hour to the brain for processing. How could all of this have come about by some step-by-step, random-chance evolutionary process?", "Embedded in the retina are millions of light sensitive cells, which come in two main varieties: rods and cones.", "The retina ( , , pl. retinae,; from Latin rēte, meaning \"net\") is the third and inner coat of the eye which is a light-sensitive layer of tissue. The optics of the eye create an image of the visual world on the retina (through the cornea and lens), which serves much the same function as the film in a camera. Light striking the retina initiates a cascade of chemical and electrical events that ultimately trigger nerve impulses. These are sent to various visual centres of the brain through the fibres of the optic nerve.", "the innermost of the three tunics of the eyeball, surrounding the vitreous body and continuous posteriorly with the optic nerve. The retina is composed of two parts: an optical part in the fundus of the eye that is sensitive to light, and a nonsensitive pigmented part that lines the ciliary body and iris. The light-sensitive neurons are arranged in three layers; the first layer is made up of rods and cones and the other two transmit impulses from the rods and cones to the optic nerve The rods are sensitive to dim light of a variety of wavelengths, and the cones are sensitive to bright light of more restricted wavelengths and are responsible for color vision. Visual acuity is greatest in the central part of the retina. See also eye .", "Macula - The small area in the retina that contains special cells that are especially sensitive to light. The macula enables people to see fine details clearly.", "      The retina is the innermost layer making up the eye optical path. It is a thin, delicate, extremely complex sensory tissue composed of six layers of light sensitive cells. The retina encircles the rear portion of the eye. Photoreceptor cells in the rods and cones convert light first to chemical energy and then electrical energy. Rods function in dim light, allowing limited night vision. Typically, rods are used to see the stars; rods do not detect color, but they do detect movements and fine detail. There are about 126 million rods in each eye and about 6 million cones. This compares to only 1 million sensors in more common digital cameras. Cones function best in bright light and allow color vision. Cones are most heavily concentrated in a tiny hollow in the rear part of the retina.", "The central fovea is located in an area near the center of the retina, and positioned directly along the optical axis of each eye. Known also as the \"yellow spot\", the fovea is small (less than 1 square millimeter), but very specialized. These areas contain exclusively high-density, tightly packed cone cells (greater than 200,000 cones per square millimeter in adult humans; see Figure 4). The central fovea is the area of sharpest vision, and produces the maximum resolution of space (spatial resolution), contrast, and color. Each eye is populated with approximately seven million cone cells, which are very thin (3 micrometers in diameter) and elongated. The density of cone cells decreases outside of the fovea as the ratio of rod cells to cone cells gradually increases (Figure 4). At the periphery of the retina, the total number of both types of light receptors decreases substantially, causing a dramatic loss of visual sensitivity at the retinal borders. This is offset by the fact that humans constantly scan objects in the field of view (due to involuntary rapid eye movements), resulting in a perceived image that is uniformly sharp. In fact, when the image is prevented from moving relative to the retina (via an optical fixation device), the eye no longer senses an image after a few seconds.", "The retina is a delicate, multilayer, light sensitive membrane lining the inner eyeball. The layer highly sensitive to light is the layer of rods and cones, when light hits the retina photosensitive pigments within the rods and cones convert light rays into nerve impulses.", "The retina (the soft, light-sensitive layer of tissue that lines the back of the eyeball wall) is made up of millions of light receptors. These are called rods and cones. Rods are much more sensitive to light than cones. Each eye has about 120 million rods that help us see in dim light and detect shades of gray, but they cannot distinguish colors. In comparison, the 6 million cones in each eye allow us to see in bright light, and they also sense color and detail.", "There are two types of photoreceptor cells, rods and cones, which are sensitive to different aspects of light. [78] Rod cells are sensitive to the intensity of light over a wide frequency range, thus are responsible for black-and-white vision . Rod cells are not present on the fovea , the area of the retina responsible for central vision, and are not as responsive as cone cells to spatial and temporal changes in light. There are, however, twenty times more rod cells than cone cells in the retina because the rod cells are present across a wider area. Because of their wider distribution, rods are responsible for peripheral vision . [79]", "The retina is derived from the neural tube and is, therefore, part of central nervous system. It consists of two parts, the retinal pigment epithelium, which separates the middle, choroid coat of the eyeball from the other innermost component and the neural retina (Figure 14.16) – the dark pigments within the retinal pigment epithelium and choroid coat function to absorb light passing through the receptor layer, thus reducing light scatter and image distortion within the eye. The neural retina contains five types of neurons (Figure 14.17): the visual receptor cells (the rods and cones), the horizontal cells, the bipolar cells, the amacrine cells, and the retinal ganglion cells.", "Rods: One of the two types of light-sensitive cells, located primarily in the side areas of the retina (also see cones). There are about 125 million rods , which are responsible for visual sensitivity to movement, shapes, light and dark (black and white) and the ability to see in dim light.", "The human visual system response is logarithmic, not linear, resulting in the ability to perceive an incredible brightness range (interscene dynamic range) of over 10 decades. In broad daylight, humans can visualize objects in the glaring light from the sun, while at night large objects can be detected by starlight when the moon is dark. At threshold sensitivity, the human eye can detect the presence of about 100-150 photons of blue-green light (500 nanometers) entering the pupil. For the upper seven decades of brightness, photopic vision predominates, and it is the retinal cones that are primarily responsible for photoreception. In contrast, the lower four decades of brightness, termed scotopic vision, are controlled by the rod cells.", "and a single lens covers a retina of many sensory cells, where each sensory cell contributes one point or", "Retina: located on back of the eye, recieves light images from lens. Composed of ~132mill photoreceptor cells and other cell layers that process info.", "The retina lines the inside of the eyeball. This is the nerve layer of the eye. The cells of the retina react to light. They send messages to the brain through the optic nerve, making it possible for you to see.", "Photoreceptors: Microscopic light-sensitive cells that are located in the retina called rods and cones . There are approximately 7 million cones and 125 million rods", "Within the retina are buried receptor cells called rods and cones. When light energy strikes them, neural signals are created as a result of chemical changes. The signals are then routed through neighboring bipolar and ganglion cells that form the optic nerve. This nerve then transmits information to the brain's visual cortex. Our 120 million rods are responsible for our perception of black, white, and gray. They are the most sensitive in dim light. Our 6 million cones, on the other hand, are what enable us to see color and fine detail. They function in well-lit conditions and become ineffective with diminished illumination.", "The retina contains two types of photoreceptors, rods and cones. The rods are more numerous, some 120 million, and are more sensitive than the cones. However, they are not sensitive to color. The 6 to 7 million cones provide the eye's color sensitivity and they are much more concentrated in the central yellow spot known as the macula. In the center of that region is the \" fovea centralis \", a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones.", "All photoreceptor cells are arranged with the tips of the light sensitive outer segments resting against a thin pigment epithelium covering the inner surface of the choroid . The choroid's dense black pigment prevents light from reflecting back into the photoreceptors, and its smooth surface allows even alignment of the receptor tips where an image can be precisely focused. The cells of the pigment epithelium also break down the oldest layers of the outer segment as these grow into it.", "Similarly, in humans, the density of sensory cells in the retina declines away from the central fovea toward", "Below this central 200 micron diameter central foveal pit, the other layers of the retina are displaced concentrically leaving only the thinnest sheet of retina consisting of the cone cells and some of their cell bodies (right and left sides of Figs. 12a and 12b). This is particularly well seen in optical coherence tomography (OCT) images of the living eye and retina (Fig. 13a, B).  Radially distorted but complete layering of the retina then appears gradually along the foveal slope until the rim of the fovea is made up of the displaced second- and third-order neurons related to the central cones. Here the ganglion cells are piled into six layers so making this area, called the foveal rim or parafovea (Polyak, 1941), the thickest portion of the entire retina.", "The retina is a thin layer of neural cells that lines the back of the eyeball of vertebrates and some cephalopods. It is comparable to the film in a camera. In vertebrate embryonic development, the retina and the optic nerve originate as outgrowths of the developing brain. Hence, the retina is part of the central nervous system (CNS). It is the only part of the CNS that can be imaged directly.", "√ Many more rod cells than cone cells are found in the retina - especially outside the  macula;  rod cells predominate our peripheral vision", "The bottom figure shows the distribution of rods and cones in the retina. This data was prepared from histological sections made on human eyes.", "This is illustrated in the tangential section of the foveal cone mosaic (Fig. 19) where the hexagonal packing is distorted in many places by a larger-diameter cone (arrowed cones) breaking up the perfect mosaic into irregular subunits. The larger-diameter cones are S-cones. These cones have their lowest density in the foveal pit at 3-5% of the cones, reach a maximum density of 15% on the foveal slope (1 degree from the foveal pit) and then form an even 8% of the total population elsewhere in the retina (Ahnelt et al., 1987).", "The layer of tissue at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rodsand cones) and sensory receptors for vision", "Histopathology of a Dalen-Fuchs nodule. There is an accumulation of mainly macrophages beneath the retinal pigment epithelium (brown color). Hematoxylin & eosin; original magnification, ×200.", "response is larger - the eye has become more sensitive to light (the response is recorded in milliVolts,", "Photoreceptor Cells. Vision begins at the third level of scale, the photoreceptor cells. These light receptors are easily the most complex sensory cells we have. There are two basic types (illustrated above ): the roughly 100 million rods adapted for dim light and night vision, and the 6 million or so cones that perceive daylight luminance, contrast and color. The cones in turn come in three types or spectral classes, discussed below .", "1.     More than half the sensory receptors in the human body are located in the eyes.", "Other animals have different numbers of each cell type. Animals that have to see in the dark have many more rods than humans have." ]

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[ "The tympanic membrane is a vital component of the human ear, and is more commonly known as the eardrum.", "The tympanic membrane, also called the eardrum (or just the drum), is a stiff (but flexible), translucent, diaphragmlike structure. The eardrum moves synchronously in response to variations in air pressures, which constitute sound waves. The drum's vibrations are transmitted through the ossicular chain to the cochlea. In the cochlea, vibratory mechanical energy changes to electrochemical energy and streams via the eighth cranial nerve to the brain. The tympanic membrane and its attached ossicles thus act as a transducer, changing one form of energy into another form. See the image below.", "The ear drum (also known as the tympanic membrane) is an oval shaped structure, with an average size of 8 x 10 millimeters, and is composed of three layers. The outer layer consists of a thin layer of skin, the middle layer is made of fibrous tissue and the inner layer is mucosa (similar to the tissue in the mouth and nose). The tympanic membrane is secured to the sidewalls of the end of the outer ear canal by a thick band of tissue called the tympanic ring or annulus. This ring helps in the overall structural integrity and stability of the eardrum. The integrity of the tympanic membrane and associated structures is important for proper sound conduction.", "tympanic membrane - also called the eardrum. The tympanic membrane divides the external ear from the middle ear.", "eardrum - (also called the tympanic membrane) a thin membrane that vibrates when sound waves reach it.", "The tympanic membrane is called the 'eardrum' for a reason. (Tympanum, by the way, is Latin for drum). In order to understand how the tympanic membrane functions, let's first look at how a more traditional drum creates sound. A drum is a percussion instrument that consists of a thin, sturdy material, such as animal hide, polyester, or plastic stretched tightly across a hollow casing. When a mallet, drumstick, or hand strikes this material, it starts to vibrate at a particular frequency. These vibrations push the surrounding air molecules causing compression waves. Compression waves are named such because they are characterized by a compression or pushing of the air molecules.", "The eardrum is a small, delicate, oval-shaped membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear. This part of the ear serves as a barrier to help stave off infections from spreading to the middle ear from the outer ear. The eardrum is also an integral part of a person’s ability to hear. A hole or rupture in the eardrum is referred to as a tympanic membrane perforation, as the medical term for the eardrum is tympanic membrane. A perforated eardrum is commonly accompanied by a decreased ability to hear, and sometimes a liquid discharge. When the eardrum is perforated, the individual may also experience varying levels of pain. If you are experiencing any of the symptoms listed below, it is important for you to contact your ENT doctor in Arlington, Dallas or Fort Worth. A perforated eardrum can lead to more serious issues or infection, which could result in a loss of hearing or extreme pain.", "The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes the fleshy visible pinna (also called the auricle), the ear canal, and the outer layer of the eardrum (also called the tympanic membrane).", "The word comes from myringa, modern Latin for drum membrane, and tome, Greek for cutting. It is also called myringocentesis, tympanotomy, tympanostomy, or paracentesis of the tympanic membrane.", "Also known as the tympanic cavity, the middle ear is an air-filled, membrane-lined space located between the ear canal and the Eustachian tube, cochlea, and auditory nerve. The eardrum separates this space from the ear canal. The area is pressurized.", "The pars tensa forms most of the tympanic membrane. Its periphery is thick and forms a fibrocartilaginous ring called the anulus tympanicus. The central part of the pars tensa is tented inward at the level of the tip of malleus and is called the umbo. When the eardrum is illuminated during an examination, a cone of light radiates from the tip of the malleus to the periphery in the antero-inferior quadrant. The pars flaccida is above the lateral process of the malleus between the notch of Rivinus and the anterior and posterior malleal folds. It appears slightly pinkish.", "A serious sequalae of bacterial chronic otitis media includes otitis media with effusion (OME) that is associated with complications such as a ruptured tympanic membrane (TM). The failure of the Eustachian tube to expel or eliminate the natural secretions, microorganisms, biofilms and toxic products result in destruction of the tissues, TM rupture and hearing loss. When the fluid becomes infected the increased pressure is very painful and causes the delicate tympanic membrane to rupture releasing the toxins into the external ear canal for elimination", "Eustachian tube. Also known as the auditory tube, the Eustachian tube is an approximately 1-1/2 inch long conduit that serves to equalize air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane (eardrum), and to allow for drainage of the middle ear by serving as a portal into the nasopharynx (a region of the alimentary canal). [3]", "A mass of KERATIN-producing squamous EPITHELIUM that resembles an inverted (suck-in) bag of skin in the MIDDLE EAR. It arises from the eardrum (TYMPANIC MEMBRANE) and grows into the MIDDLE EAR causing erosion of EAR OSSICLES and MASTOID that contains the INNER EAR.", "Nor did he publish an engraving of the tube as part of the external auditory system in his 1651 Tabuli Anatomiceu, which also contained detailed figures of the ear ossicles and the tympanum membrane in man and dog. [3] It is likely that Eustachius held the long-standing belief that the Eustachian tube functioned as (another) avenue for breathing, since he postulated that other parts of the ear, especially the ossicles and tympanum, were involved in the mechanism of sound transduction. Not until 1683, with the work of French anatomist Guichard Joseph DuVerney (1648-1730) was this belief corrected. In Traité de l’organe de l’ouie, DuVerney described the Eustachian tube as a means for renewing air within the tympanum and for equalizing air pressure, believing that the tube was always open and it was the eardrum that maintained the flow of air.", "The membranes constituting cochlea, the reissner’s and basilar, divide the surounding perilymph filled bony labyrinth into an upper scala vestibuli and a lower scala tympani. The space within cochlea called scala media is filled with endolymph. At the base of the cochlea, the scala vestibuli ends at the oval window, while the scala tympani terminates at the round window which opens to the middle ear.", "There are two ways to approach the tympanic membrane perforation when performing tympanoplasty. These two approaches are known as the transcanal (through the ear canal) or the postauricular (behind the outer ear) approaches, described below.", "Although tympanic membrane perforations are common, there have been few systematic studies of the structural features determining the magnitude of the resulting conductive hearing loss. Our recent experimental and modeling studies predicted that the conductive hearing loss will increase with increasing perforation size, be independent of perforation location (contrary to popular otologic belief), and increase with decreasing size of the middle-ear and mastoid air space (an idea new to otology).", "First we will see the tympanic membrane with the ossicles, followed by the cochlea, antrum and semicircular canalls.", "The physiologic function of the TM involves conduction of sound to the middle ear through a system of small bones, the ossicles. The surface of the TM is approximately 25 times larger than that of the stapes footplate, with the resulting amplification of sound to 45 decibels, or 27 times ambient volume levels. At the same time, the TM forms a safe shield with the round window of the labyrinth against direct sound waves. This window is necessary for movement of the liquid in the cochlea, providing for transmission of the sound to the acoustic receptors in the organ of Corti. In addition, the TM protects the gentle mucosa of the middle ear from the external environment.", "Typical sources of primary otalgia are external otitis , otitis media , mastoiditis , and auricular infections . Most physicians are well trained in the diagnosis of these conditions. When an ear is draining and accompanied by tympanic membrane perforation , simply looking in the ear and noting the pathology can make the diagnosis. When the tympanic membrane appears normal, however, the diagnosis becomes more difficult.", "The membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear of mammals is called the", "  The Tensor tympani, the larger, is contained in the bony canal above the osseous portion of the auditory tube, from which it is separated by the septum canalis musculotubarii. It arises from the cartilaginous portion of the auditory tube and the adjoining part of the great wing of the sphenoid, as well as from the osseous canal in which it is contained. Passing backward through the canal, it ends in a slender tendon which enters the tympanic cavity, makes a sharp bend around the extremity of the septum, and is inserted into the manubrium of the malleus, near its root. It is supplied by a branch of the mandibular nerve through the otic ganglion.", "The membrane in the cochlea of the inner ear that separates the cochlear duct from the vestibular canal.", "The anterior aspect of the nasopharynx communicates through the choanae with the nasal cavities. On its lateral wall is the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube, somewhat triangular in shape, and bounded behind by a firm prominence, the torus tubarius or cushion, caused by the medial end of the cartilage of the tube which elevates the mucous membrane.", "the larger of two sacs within the membranous labyrinth of the vestibule in the inner ear (uter = leather bag)", "The membrane formed by the cuticular plates of the distal ends of supporting cells in the organ of Corti.", "The Eustachian tube was named in honor of the 16th century Italian anatomist Eustachius. Sources credit Almaceon of Sparta as the first to describe the structure in approximately 400 BC.", "tectorial membrane (tek-to´re-al) A gelatinous membrane positioned over the hair cells of the spiral organ in the cochlea.", "Cochlear duct - Lined by the basilar membrane upon which sits the organ of Corti containing the receptor cells.", "In addition to names for external ear structures, we also have names for the spaces and depressions among them. We have the intertragical notch, which is the small notch between the tragus and antitragus. We have the scapha, which is the long valley between the helix and the antihelix. And we have the triangular fossa, which is the depression between the two legs of the antihelix.", "Small aggregation of lymphoid tissue called __ in this region. Hypertrophy or edema of this may occlude auditory tube with accumulation of the secretions in the middle ear." ]

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[ "The abbreviation for red blood cells is RBCs. Red blood cells are sometime simply called red cells. They are also called erythrocytes or, rarely today, red blood corpuscles.", "Red blood cells are also known as RBCs, red cells, red blood corpuscles, haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek erythros for \"red\" and kytos for \"hollow vessel\", with -cyte translated as \"cell\" in modern usage). Packed red blood cells (pRBC) are red blood cells that have been donated, processed, and stored in a blood bank for blood transfusion.", "There are important cells in your body that travel in the blood. They are involved in a gas exchange that is essential to human life. Red blood cells (RBCs) are their most common name, but they are also called erythrocytes. In medical terminology, erythro- means red, while -cyte means cell.", "Red Blood Cells: Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are by far the most common type of blood cell and make up about 45% of blood volume. Erythrocytes are produced inside of red bone marrow from stem cells at the astonishing rate of about 2 million cells every second. The shape of erythrocytes is biconcave—disks with a concave curve on both sides of the disk so that the center of an erythrocyte is its thinnest part. The unique shape of erythrocytes gives these cells a high surface area to volume ratio and allows them to fold to fit into thin capillaries. Immature erythrocytes have a nucleus that is ejected from the cell when it reaches maturity to provide it with its unique shape and flexibility. The lack of a nucleus means that red blood cells contain no DNA and are not able to repair themselves once damaged.", "Erythrocyte (Erythro- cyte ) - cell of the blood that contains hemoglobin and transports oxygen to cells . It is also known as a red blood cell .", "Red blood cells (RBCs, also called erythrocytes) are shaped like slightly indented, flattened disks. RBCs contain the iron-rich protein hemoglobin. Blood gets its bright red color when hemoglobin picks up oxygen in the lungs. As the blood travels through the body, the hemoglobin releases oxygen to the tissues.", "A cell in the blood of vertebrates that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues. In mammals, the red blood cell is disk-shaped and biconcave, contains hemoglobin, and lacks a nucleus. Also called erythrocyte, red cell, red corpuscle.", "Erythrocyte Red blood cells  (RBCs),  also called erythrocytes,  are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen  (O2)  to the body tissues--via blood flow through the circulatory system.  RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs or gills and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries.", "The erythrocytes, or red blood cells, make up the largest population of blood cells, numbering from 4.5 million to 6 million per cubic millimeter of blood. They carry out the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the body tissues. To effectively combine with oxygen, the erythrocytes must contain a normal amount of the red protein pigment hemoglobin , the amount of which in turn depends on the iron level in the body. A deficiency of iron and therefore of hemoglobin leads to anemia and poor oxygenation of the body tissues.", "The red coloring of blood comes from the iron-containing protein hemoglobin (see [a] in ) The principal job of this protein is to carry oxygen, but it transports carbon dioxide as well. Hemoglobin is packed into red blood cells at a rate of about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin per cell. Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules so that each red blood cell carries one billion molecules of oxygen. There are approximately 25 trillion red blood cells in the five liters of blood in the human body, which could carry up to 25 sextillion (25 × 1021) molecules of oxygen at any time. In mammals, the lack of organelles in erythrocytes leaves more room for the hemoglobin molecules. The lack of mitochondria also prevents use of the oxygen for metabolic respiration . Only mammals have anucleated red blood cells; however, some mammals (camels, for instance) have nucleated red blood cells. The advantage of nucleated red blood cells is that these cells can undergo mitosis . Anucleated red blood cells metabolize anaerobically (without oxygen), making use of a primitive metabolic pathway to produce ATP and increase the efficiency of oxygen transport.", "( 9 ) The human red blood cell or erythrocyte is nearly all hemoglobin, 95% of the dry weight of the cell. Due to the high concentration of hemoglobin in the cell, and the corresponding lack of such usual cellular components as a nucleus, hemoglobin is easily isolated and had been a favorite subject for protein research since the second half of the 19th century. When Pauling turned his attention to the hemoglobin molecule in 1935, chemists knew that the molecule consisted of four heme or ironcontaining groups with which oxygen combines to form oxyhemoglobin, and globin, a bulky protein in which the heme is \"imbedded.\" At the time, little was known about the detailed structure of the globin portion of the molecule.", "As the name suggests, these red coloured cells give blood its red colour. (The word erythrocyte is from erythro-Gk.meaning red and Latin-cytos meaning cell.)  1 ml of blood contains approximately 5 million RBCs! The proportion of blood occupied by red blood cells is referred to as the hematocrit, and is normally about 45%. Mature RBCs are biconcave in shape, lack a Nucleus and many other organelles. They circulate in the system for about 120 days, carrying out their job, i.e., to supply oxygen.", "Many people who are not health care providers might assume that erythrocytes are blood or a medical term that can be used to refer to the blood; however, such use of the word is not completely accurate. Red blood cells are just one of four components that make up the liquid that is called blood. Leukocytes, plasma and platelets are the other components of blood. Leukocytes are white blood cells responsible for the destruction of microorganisms and the production of antibodies that help the body to protect itself against infection.", "Red blood cell (erythrocyte) also known as \"RBCs\". RBCs are formed in the myeloid tissue or most commonly known as red bone marrow, although when the body is under severe conditions the yellow bone marrow, which is also in the fatty places of the marrow in the body will also make RBCs. The formation of RBCs is called erythropoiesis ( erythro / red; poiesis / formation). Red blood cells lose nuclei upon maturation, and take on a biconcave, dimpled, shape. They are about 7-8 micrometers in diameter. There are about 1000x more red blood cells than white blood cells. RBCs live about 120 days and do not self repair. RBCs contain hemoglobin which transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body, such as to the muscles, where it releases the oxygen load.The hemoglobin gets its red color from their respiratory pigments.", "In the process of metabolism; the energy comes from red blood cells, which inside them there are molecules carrying oxygen named hemoglobin.", "A blood cell (i.e., a circulating cell that contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen to tissue). Each erythrocyte is a nonnucleated, biconcave disk averaging 7.7 µm in diameter. An erythrocyte has a typical cell membrane and an internal stroma made of lipids and proteins to which more than 200 million molecules of hemoglobin are attached. The total surface area of the erythrocytes of an average adult is 3820 sq m, or about 2000 times more than the external total body surface area. Synonym: red blood cell ; red blood corpuscle ; red cell ; red corpuscle See: illustration", "a blood cell of vertebrates that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide, combined with the red pigment haemoglobin, to and from the tissues Also called red blood cell", "Spherocytes are red cells which are almost spherical in shape. They are not biconcave like a normal red blood cell and do not have the central area of pallor which a normal red cell shows. These cells are associated with haemolytic anaemia", "Red blood cells give blood its colour, which comes from a combination of oxygen and hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein. The average person has about 25,000,000,000,000 (25 trillion) red blood cells. If they were the size of toonies, a stack of all of your blood cells would be 44,000,000 kilometres high and would almost reach from earth to mars. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the tissues and organs and pick up carbon dioxide and carry it back to the lungs for removal.", "A blood type (also called a blood group) is defined as the classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). A series of related blood types constitutes a blood group system, such as the Rh or ABO system. The frequencies of the ABO and Rh blood types vary from population to population.", "The name \"white blood cell\" derives from the physical appearance of a blood sample after centrifugation. White cells are found in the buff, a thin, typically white layer of nucleated cells between the sedimented red blood cells and the blood plasma. The scientific term leukocyte directly reflects its description. It is derived from the Greek roots leuk- meaning \"white\" and cyt- meaning \"cell\". The buffy coat may sometimes be green if there are large amounts of neutrophils in the sample, due to the heme-containing enzyme myeloperoxidase that they produce.", "The red blood cells carry oxygen to the body's tissues and remove carbon dioxide and other wastes.", "The next big step came when Gorter and Grendel extracted the lipids from red blood cells and compared the surface area of the lipids spread out on water compared to the surface area of the red blood cells. They found the lipid surface area was twice that of the red blood cells, and concluded that the lipids must be arranged in a layer two lipid molecules thick. This is what biologists now call the lipid bilayer, and to understand the construction of the bilayer, we need to understand the lipids themselves.", "The functions of erythrocytes include transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide. They owe their oxygen-carrying ability to hemoglobin , a combination of an iron-containing prosthetic group (heme) with a protein (globin). Hemoglobin attracts and forms a loose connection with free oxygen, and its presence enables blood to absorb some 60 times the amount of oxygen that the plasma by itself absorbs. Oxyhemoglobin is red, which gives oxygenated blood its red color. Erythrocytes are stored in the spleen, which acts as a reservoir for the blood system and discharges the cells into the blood as required. The spleen may discharge extra erythrocytes into the blood during emergencies such as hemorrhage or shock.", "The red respiratory portion of the red blood cells iron containing pigment of red blood cells functioning to carry oxygen to the cells.", "hemoglobin (he´muo-glo´´bin) The pigment of red blood cells constituting about 33% of the cell volume that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.", "blood cell  one of the formed elements of the blood; a leukocyte , erythrocyte , or platelet.", "Mammalian erythrocytes are unique among the vertebrates as they are non-nucleated cells in their mature form. These cells have nuclei during early phases of erythropoiesis, but extrude them during development as they mature in order to provide more space for hemoglobin. The enucleated erythrocytes, called reticulocytes, go on to lose all other cellular organelles such as their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.", "From this lesson you will learn about the cells in the body called erythrocytes. Find out how they are specifically designed to complete their functions related to oxygen and carbon dioxide.", "An erythrocyte with 10 to 30 spicules distributed over the surface of the cell, as seen in heart disease, stomach cancer, kidney disease, and dehydration. Synonym: echinocyte", "1. an abnormally thin erythrocyte that when stained shows a dark center surrounded by a pale unstained ring and a peripheral ring of hemoglobin; seen in certain anemias, thalassemias, hemoglobinopathies, obstructive jaundice, and the postsplenectomy state.", "Hematology is a branch of medicine concerning the study of blood, the blood-forming organs, and blood diseases. The word \"heme\" comes from the Greek for blood." ]

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[ "TRACHEA is the scientific word for the windpipe, the tube that connects the nose and pharynx to the lungs.", "Trachea. Scientific term for the windpipe. A tube that extends from the larynx to the bronchi, serving as the principle passageway of air to and from the lungs.", "What is the scientific word for the windpipe, the tube that connects the nose and pharynx to the lungs? A. esophagus B. larynx C. throat D. trachea", "The trachea, commonly known as the windpipe, is a tube about 4 inches long and less than an inch in diameter in most people. The trachea begins just under the larynx (voice box) and runs down behind the breastbone (sternum). The trachea then divides into two smaller tubes called bronchi: one bronchus for each lung.", "The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs. It divides into the right and left bronchi at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, channeling air to the right or left lung.", "Structure-The trachea, commonly called a windpipe, is a strong and wide tube that helps in transporting air to the bronchi. It is the most important part of animals that breathe in through their lungs.", "Windpipe: membranous tube with cartilaginous rings that conveys inhaled air from the larynx to the bronchi.", "The trachea, which is also known as our windpipe, has ciliated cells and mucous secreting cells lining it, and is held open by C-shaped cartilage rings. One of its functions is similar to the larynx and nasal cavity, by way of protection from dust and other particles. The dust will adhere to the sticky mucous and the cilia helps propel it back up the trachea, to where it is either swallowed or coughed up. The mucociliary escalator extends from the top of the trachea all the way down to the bronchioles, which we will discuss later. Through the trachea, the air is now able to pass into the bronchi, bronchioles and finally alveoli before entering the pulmonary capillaries.", "In vertebrate anatomy, the throat () is the anterior part of the neck, positioned in front of the vertebra. It contains the pharynx and larynx. An important section of it is the epiglottis, which is a flap separating the esophagus from the trachea (windpipe) preventing food and drink being inhaled into the lungs. The throat contains various blood vessels, pharyngeal muscles, the nasopharyngeal tonsil, the tonsils, the palatine uvula, the trachea, the esophagus, and the vocal cords. Mammal throats consist of two bones, the hyoid bone and the clavicle. The \"throat\" is sometimes thought to be synonymous for the isthmus of the fauces. ", ":  the main trunk of the system of tubes by which air passes to and from the lungs that is about four inches (10 centimeters) long and somewhat less than an inch (2.5 centimeters) in diameter, extends down the front of the neck from the larynx, divides in two to form the bronchi, has walls of fibrous and muscular tissue stiffened by incomplete cartilaginous rings which keep it from collapsing, and is lined with mucous membrane whose epithelium is composed of columnar ciliated mucus-secreting cells—called also windpipe", "All air-breathing creatures have a windpipe, or a trachea. The trachea is made up of several incomplete ring-like structures. The trachea is made from cartilage rather than soft tissue.", "Trachea (windpipe) – flexible cylinder, about 12.5 cm long, extends downward in front of the esophagus", "the air passage extending from the throat and larynx to the main bronchi; it is about 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide and 10 cm (4 in) long and is reinforced at the front and sides by a series of C-shaped rings of cartilage that keep the passage uniformly open. The gaps between the rings are bridged by strong fibroelastic membranes. The trachea is lined with mucous membrane covered with small hairlike processes called cilia that continuously sweep foreign material out of the breathing passages toward the mouth, a process retarded by cold but speeded by heat. Called also windpipe . adj., adj tra´cheal.", "The human respiratory system consists of the nasal cavity, mouth, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, and lungs. Air is normally taken in through the mouth and nose. The nose is lined with a membrane (mucosa) that contain tiny hair-like projections called cilia. To keep dust and foreign particles from reaching the lungs, the cilia trap them and sweep them out of the nose. Airstreams which enter through the nose and mouth meet in the back of the throat (the pharynx). Continuing downward, there are two passages, one for food and liquids (the esophagus) and the other for air (the trachea).", "Situated behind the tongue and in front of the voice box or larynx, at rest, the epiglottis is upright and allows air to pass through the larynx into the rest of the respiratory system. As swallowing commences, the epiglottis folds back to cover the larynx opening, preventing food matter and swallowed liquid from entering the windpipe. As the throat is composed of both the windpipe (an air passage) and the esophagus (a food passage), without this piece of elastic cartilage, air would enter the stomach and food would clog the lungs. After a swallow of food or liquid, the epiglottis returns to its resting orientation, the larynx rests, and the windpipe resumes airflow.", "We already know that the larynx is at the top of the windpipe, containing the vocal folds. The vocal folds can block off the windpipe so that food or liquids intended for the stomach do not get diverted into the lungs.", "Epiglottis. This is located above the larynx and works with the larynx and vocal cords to push the food into the esophagus, therefore keeping food from entering the windpipe.", "The esophagus (American English) or oesophagus (British English), commonly known as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates which consists of a fibromuscular tube through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the stomach. In humans, the esophagus is usually 18–25 centimetres long. During swallowing the epiglottis tilts backwards to prevent food from going down the larynx and lungs. The esophagus travels behind the trachea and heart, passes through the diaphragm and empties into the uppermost region of the stomach. The word esophagus is the Greek word for gullet.", "principal tube that carries air to and from the lungs. It is about 4 1-2 in. (11.4 cm) long and about 3-4 in. (1.9 cm) in diameter in the adult. It extends from the larynx larynx", "The air tube extending from the larynx into the thorax (level of the fifth or sixth thoracic vertebra), where it bifurcates into the right and left main bronchi. The trachea is composed of 16-20 rings of hyaline cartilage connected by a membrane (anular ligament); posteriorly, the rings are deficient for one fifth to one third of their circumference, the interval forming the membranous wall being closed by a fibrous membrane containing smooth muscular fibers. Internally, the mucosa is composed of a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with mucous goblet cells; numerous small mixed mucous and serous glands occur, the ducts of which open to the surface of the epithelium.", "The larynx is the organ that connects the lower part of the pharynx with the trachea. It serves (1) as a valve to guard the air passages, especially during swallowing, (2) for the maintenance of a patent airway, and (3) for vocalization.", "53-6 The so-called auditory tube, described by Eustachi (1563) but known even before the time of Christ, would be better named the pharyngotympanic tube. Its cartilaginous part is a diverticu1um of the pharynx that opens posterior to the inferior nasal concha (see fig. 53-4 ). The osseous part is a prolongation of the tympanic cavity opening from the anterior wall of the cavity. The tube is closed at rest but opens during swallowing and phonation, perhaps by a \"milking\" action of the levator and tensor (S. Seifand A. L. Dellon, Cleft Palate J., 15:329,1978; see also V. K. Misurya, Arch. Otolaryngol., 102: 265,1976). A detailed account of the tube is available in J. Terracol, A. Corone, and Y. Guerrier, La trompe d'Eustache,'Masson, Paris, 1949.", "The laryngopharynx, (Latin: pars laryngea pharyngis), also known as hypopharynx, is the caudal part of the pharynx; it is the part of the throat that connects to the esophagus. It lies inferior to the epiglottis and extends to the location where this common pathway diverges into the respiratory (larynx) and digestive (esophagus) pathways. At that point, the laryngopharynx is continuous with the esophagus posteriorly. The esophagus conducts food and fluids to the stomach; air enters the larynx anteriorly. During swallowing, food has the \"right of way\", and air passage temporarily stops. Corresponding roughly to the area located between the 4th and 6th cervical vertebrae, the superior boundary of the laryngopharynx is at the level of the hyoid bone. The laryngopharynx includes three major sites: the pyriform sinus, postcricoid area, and the posterior pharyngeal wall. Like the oropharynx above it, the laryngopharynx serves as a passageway for food and air and is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium. It is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus.", "Descriptions of the Eustachian tube contained more than just anatomy: they highlighted the physiological and therapeutic importance of diagnosing and treating ear diseases confined to the Eustachian tube or tympanum. Antoine Maria Valsalva (1666-1732) is historically credited for giving the tube its eponymous name in honor of Eustachius, whose work set the foundation for understanding the anatomy and physiology of the ear. Valsalva, a pupil of the famed physician Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), was appointed Professor of Anatomy at the University of Bologna in 1705, where his main interests were on anatomy and the function of the middle and internal ear.", "Tracheae are deep invaginations in the body surface and are lined with a thin layer of chitin, which forms a supportive spiral filament that prevents collapse of the tubule walls. In insects and solpugids, extremely slender branchings of the tracheae, tracheoles, thread through the entire body, entwining the organs and even penetrating the interiors of some cells. Thus, oxygen is delivered directly to the site where it is required, and gases are exchanged without the help of a circulatory system.", "The hypopharynx is a median lobe immediately behind the mouth, projecting forwards from the back of the preoral cavity; it is a lobe of uncertain origin, but perhaps associated with the mandibular segment; in apterygotes, earwigs, and nymphal mayflies, the hypopharynx bears a pair of lateral lobes, the superlinguae (singular: superlingua). It divides the cavity into a dorsal food pouch, or cibarium, and a ventral salivarium into which the salivary duct opens. It is commonly found fused to the libium. Most of the hypopharynx is membranous, but the adoral face is sclerotized distally, and proximally contains a pair of suspensory sclerites extending upwards to end in the lateral wall of the stomodeum. Muscles arising on the frons are inserted into these sclerites, which distally are hinged to a pair of lingual sclerites. These, in turn, have inserted into them antagonistic pairs of muscles arising on the tentorium and labium. The various muscles serve to swing the hypopharynx forwards and back, and in the cockroach, two more muscles run across the hypopharynx and dilate the salivary orifice and expand the salivarium.", "In the nudibranchs and sea slugs where complete detorsion has occurred, the mantle cavity and gill have disappeared all together.  Respiration takes place through the general body surface or through a secondary gill (i.e., a structure which is not really a true gill, but which performs the same function.). To help", "The idea that the human embryo contains gills has long been discredited. Even a standard embryology text 20 said as far back as 1981 that the grooves often called branchial (gill) clefts are now properly called pharyngeal, not branchial, because “in the human embryo real gills—branchia—are never formed.” 21", "The interior of the beak is rigid \"foam\" composed of bony fibers and drum-like membranes sandwiched between outer layers of keratin. The \"foam\" is covered with overlapping keratin tiles, each about 50 µm in diameter and 1 µm thick, glued together to form sheets.The closed, air-filled spaces reduce overall weight without loss of rigidity.", "Whale s have streamlike bodies with highly compressed neck vertebrae, dorsal fins, and a tail with two finlike flukes arranged horizontally. Modern whale s have greatly elongated anterior skull bones, and the nostrils are located on the top of the head, forming the blowhole.", "In 2010, researchers found bitter taste receptors in lung tissue, which cause airways to relax when a bitter substance is encountered. They believe this mechanism is evolutionarily adaptive because it helps clear lung infections, but could also be exploited to treat asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.", "Homologies between the branchial and hypobranchial muscles of several different vertebrate taxa are shown in Table 10.3." ]

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[ "Ovarian follicles are the essential units of female reproductive biology, each of which is packed with roughly spherical aggregations of cells found in the ovary . A Graafian follicle, or ovarian follicle, is present inside an ovary and is a minute cyst within which an egg, or ovum, develops. A Graafian follicle is a follicle that ruptures and releases its ovum when stimulated. Generally, women are born with many undeveloped follicles, each containing an immature ovum. As soon as puberty is attained and menstruation commences, one ovum matures each month inside its containing follicle. The follicle grows bigger and breaks at around day 14 of the cycle , discharging the ovum in a process known as ovulation.", "a structure in the ovary of a female mammal, consisting of an OOCYTE surrounded by granular FOLLICLE cells which enclose also a large, fluid filled cavity, the whole structure being encased in a wall of connective tissue. See Fig. 179 . The Graafian follicle begins to form deep inside the ovary, stimulated by FSH as the OESTROUS CYCLE develops, gradually enlarging and maturing as it moves to the surface, eventually appearing like a blister on the surface, just prior to release of the oocyte (ovulation) by rupture of the wall. After ovulation the follicle becomes a CORPUS LUTEUM . Further ovulation is normally prevented by the corpus luteum secreting PROGESTERONE , which in turn inhibits FSH production by the PITUITARY GLAND , so no further follicles develop. The presence of the cavity distinguishes the Graafian follicle (named after Regnier de Graaf) from the OVARIAN FOLLICLES of other vertebrates.", "The process of graafian follicle growth and development can be arbitrarily divided into several stages based on follicle size (Figs. 2 and 22). It is convenient and important for clinicians and researchers to identify the physiologic function of various types or classes of follicles over the cycle. The healthy human graafian follicle has a destiny to complete the transition from the small (1 to 6 mm), medium (7 to 11 mm), and large (12 to 17 mm) to the fully differentiated preovulatory state (18 to 23 mm). The atretic graafian follicle has a destiny to complete the transition from the small to the medium stage (1 to 10 mm) but appears incapable of growing to the large size under normal physiologic conditions. 56 Because the process of graafian follicle development is asynchronous, it produces a large, heterogeneous population of graafian follicles in the ovaries at any moment in time (Fig. 3). Each of these morphologically distinct graafian follicles is a dynamic structure undergoing a flow or progression of developmental change on its way to becoming more differentiated or more atretic (Fig. 22). It should be kept in mind that this results in the presence of an extremely heterogeneous pool of graafian follicles. It is the heterogeneity that makes it difficult to come to grips with a simple functional definition for the graafian follicle.", "Mutually, blood and lymph vessels are found in the loose connective tissue of the ovarian medulla. In the cortical compartment, the oocytes are found within a variety of follicle stages. The sex hormones manipulate the primordial follicles to grow and a restructuring to happen. Consecutively, from the primordial follicles the primary follicles, secondary follicles, and tertiary follicles develop. Only a small percentage of the primordial follicles reach the tertiary follicle stage - the great majority meets their end in advance in the various maturation stages. Large follicles leave scars behind in the cortical compartment and the small ones vanish without a trace. The tertiary follicles get to be the largest and, shortly before ovulation, can reach a diameter up to 2.5 mm through a special spurt of growth. They are then termed ‘Graafian follicles’. Occasionally, a Graafian follicle is unsuccessful to shrink after the ovum is discharged, or may not release it in any way. This makes the follicle to stay full of fluid and to persist to grow into a follicular ovarian cyst. Usually, these cysts vanish after a number of weeks without any required You do not have access to view this node.", "All graafian follicles can be divided broadly into two groups: healthy and atretic (Fig. 21). The main difference between these two groups is whether apoptosis is occurring in the granulosa cells. The development of a graafian follicle (healthy or atretic) follows a progressive course over time. This implies that variability or heterogeneity is a normal consequence of folliculogenesis. A healthy graafian follicle becomes progressively more differentiated with increasing time until it attains the preovulatory stage (Fig. 22). The time for this process (Fig. 2) is about 2 months in women. 3 As this occurs, there is a temporal and spatial pattern of expression of large numbers of genes. In healthy follicles, these genes direct cytodifferentiation, proliferation, and follicular fluid formation. In atretic follicles, the time-dependent changes in gene expression cause the cessation of mitosis and the expression of apoptosis (i.e. follicle atresia). During atresia, the oocyte and granulosa cells become committed to express genes that lead to apoptosis. 55 In healthy and atretic graafian follicles, the control mechanisms involve ligand-dependent signaling pathways that inhibit or stimulate the expression of differentiation and apoptosis (Fig. 22). Understanding the molecular mechanisms and cellular consequences of the ligand-receptor signaling pathways that control graafian follicle fate is a major goal of reproductive research.", "The size of a graafian follicle is determined largely by the size of the antrum, which is determined by the volume of follicular fluid, which is determined by the bioavailability of FSH in the fluid. 57 FSH is obligatory for graafian follicle development, and no other ligand by itself has the ability to induce follicular fluid formation. In the absence of FSH, follicular fluid is not produced, and no graafian follicles develop. The proliferation of the follicle cells also contributes to graafian follicle growth; in healthy follicles, the granulosa and theca cells proliferate extensively (as much as 100-fold), concomitant with the antrum becoming filled with follicular fluid ( Fig. 23 ). These events (i.e. increased follicular fluid accumulation and cell proliferation) are responsible for the tremendous growth of healthy graafian follicles. 3 , 58 In contrast, it is the cessation of mitosis and follicular fluid formation that determines the size of the atretic graafian follicle.", "Primordial follicles are indiscernible to the naked eye. However, these eventually develop into primary, secondary and tertiary vesicular follicles. Tertiary vesicular follicles (also called \"mature vesicular follicles\" or \"ripe vesicular follicles\") are sometimes called Graafian follicles (after Regnier de Graaf).", "The Graafian follicle is the stage after the first meiotic division has completed but before ovulation. The oocyte is now a 2N haploid. The follicle is characterized by a large follicular antrum that makes up most of the follicle. The secondary oocyte, having undergone the first meiotic division, is located eccentrically. It is surrounded by the zona pellucida and a layer of several cells known as the corona radiata. When released from the Graafian follicle and into the oviduct, the ovum will consist of three structures: oocyte, zona pellucida and corona radiata.", "Fig. 22. Diagram of the life cycle of graafian follicles in human ovaries.(From Erickson GF: The graafian follicle: A functional definition. In Adashi EY (ed): Ovulation: Evolving Scientific and Clinical Concepts. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000.)", "The theca compartments (i.e. theca externa and interna) express their differentiated functions at the beginning of graafian follicle development (at cavitation) and appear to constitutively express a mature phenotype throughout the life and death of the graafian follicle. In a broad sense, there is little or no evidence that major changes occur in the theca layers during the various stages of graafian follicle development beyond those related to vascular and proliferative activities. This could imply that it is the granulosa cells (and perhaps the oocyte) that are variable and therefore responsible for graafian follicle diversity.", "Throughout the antral period, the TICs of all graafian follicles (class 1 to 8) express this differentiated state ( Figs. 30 and 31 ). All antral follicles appear capable of responding to hormone stimulation with increased androstenedione production throughout their course of development. This idea is supported by the presence of high levels (about 1 μg/ml) of androstenedione in follicular fluid in all developing antral follicles. 67 The production of androstenedione (aromatase substrate) by the TICs targets them as being critically important in the regulation of follicle estrogen production. Accordingly, the LH-dependent processes that occur in the theca layer of developing graafian follicles are central to the process of folliculogenesis and fertility in women. Theca-derived androgens have been implicated in the mechanisms of atresia in rodents 99 , 102 ; however, there is little definitive evidence to support this concept in women.", "The entry of FSH into follicular fluid at cavitation is believed to provide the induction stimulus that initiates the process of graafian follicle growth and development. At the cellular level, it is the FSH receptor on the granulosa cell that is the fundamental player in this process. When an appropriate high FSH threshold is reached in one graafian follicle, it is selected to become dominant. 31 In contrast, the small graafian follicles in the cohort with subthreshold levels of FSH become nondominant ( Figs. 22 and 25 ). The mechanism whereby one small graafian follicle in a cohort is able to concentrate high levels of FSH in its microenvironment remains one of the mysteries in ovary physiology. An important point is that estradiol produced by the dominant follicle inhibits the secondary rise in FSH by a negative feedback mechanism ( Figs. 24 and 26 ). This is believed to ensure a subthreshold level of FSH in the nondominant cohort follicles, which then leads to atresia. Mitosis in granulosa cells of atretic cohort follicles can be stimulated by treatment with human menopausal gonadotropin (hMG) during the early follicular phase. 59 If FSH levels are increased to threshold levels within the microenvironment, then nondominant follicles may be rescued from atresia. This phenomenon could have implications for the way in which exogenous FSH or hMG triggers the formation of multiple dominant follicles in women undergoing ovulation induction.", "When a preantral follicle completes the secondary stage in development, it contains five distinct structural units: a fully grown oocyte surrounded by a zona pellucida, six to nine layers of granulosa cells, a basal lamina, a theca interna, and a theca externa ( Fig. 13 ). The first indication of the onset of tertiary follicle development is the appearance of a cavity in the granulosa cells. 31 In response to an intrinsic stimulus, a cavity begins to form at one pole of the oocyte. This process, called cavitation or beginning antrum formation, is characterized by the accumulation of fluid between the granulosa cells that in time results in the formation of an internal cavity ( Fig. 16 ). At completion of cavitation, the basic plan of the graafian follicle is established, and all the various cell types are in their proper position awaiting the stimuli that will shift them along paths of differentiation and proliferation ( Fig. 16 ). Based on evidence from polyoocyte follicles, the specification mechanism of cavitation probably is tightly regulated ( Fig. 17 ).", "When a preantral follicle completes the secondary stage in development, it contains five distinct structural units: a fully grown oocyte surrounded by a zona pellucida, six to nine layers of granulosa cells, a basal lamina, a theca interna, and a theca externa (Fig. 13). The first indication of the onset of tertiary follicle development is the appearance of a cavity in the granulosa cells. 31 In response to an intrinsic stimulus, a cavity begins to form at one pole of the oocyte. This process, called cavitation or beginning antrum formation, is characterized by the accumulation of fluid between the granulosa cells that in time results in the formation of an internal cavity (Fig. 16). At completion of cavitation, the basic plan of the graafian follicle is established, and all the various cell types are in their proper position awaiting the stimuli that will shift them along paths of differentiation and proliferation (Fig. 16). Based on evidence from polyoocyte follicles, the specification mechanism of cavitation probably is tightly regulated (Fig. 17).", "Animated video from New Hope Fertility Center ( http://newhopefertility.com ) showing the process of follicular development and ovulation. Follicles develop inside - and eventually rupture, being released outside - the ovaries. The float into the nearest fallopian tube which directs it to the uterus. Sperm can penetrate the egg beginning embryonic development, if it successfully implants in the uterus you will have a pregnancy.", "Fig. 21. The two major classes of graafian follicles: healthy and atretic. Each undergoes a regulated course of progressive change that results in ovulation or apoptosis.(From Erickson GF: The graafian follicle: A functional definition. In Adashi EY (ed): Ovulation: Evolving Scientific and Clinical Concepts. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000.)", "When do follicles become committed to the atretic pathway? Results of morphometric studies indicate that atresia is a rare event in primordial and growing preantral follicles. However, once a preantral follicle proceeds into the graafian stages, apoptosis can occur. Little is known about the potential for a follicle to undergo apoptosis in any species; however, there is evidence that oocytederived GDF-9 may play a role in determining the apoptotic potential of growing follicles. 26 If true, the oocyte may ultimately determine when a follicle acquires the capacity to die by apoptosis.", "An ovarian follicle progresses through several distinct phases before it releases its ovum. During the first five months of development, a finite number of primordial follicles form in the fetal ovary. These follicles consist of oocytes surrounded by a single layer of squamous follicular cells. These primordial follicles remain in the process of the first meiotic division. At puberty, they begin to develop further and become primary follicles.", "Fig. 19. Drawing of the wall of a graafian follicle.(From Bloom W, Fawcett DW: A Textbook of Histology. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1975.)", "- A few follicles leave the primordial state each day, and begin to develop; one proceeds to ovulation. The others undergo destruction", "The rate of preantral follicle development is slow, requiring about 300 days for a recruited primordial follicle to complete the whole preantral period ( Fig. 2 ). A long doubling time (about 10 days) for the granulosa cells is responsible for the slow growth rate. After antrum formation in the class 3 follicle (about 0.4 mm in diameter), the rate of growth accelerates ( Fig. 2 ). The time interval between antrum formation and the development of a 20-mm preovulatory follicle is about 50 days ( Fig. 2 ). The dominant follicle appears to be selected from a cohort of class 5 follicles at the end of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 About 15 to 20 days are required for a dominant follicle to grow and develop to the preovulatory stage ( Fig. 2 ). Atresia can occur in all follicles (preantral and antral) after the class 1 or secondary follicle stage; however, the highest incidence is seen in the antral follicles that are more than 2 mm in diameter (i.e. class 5, 6, and 7) ( Fig. 2 ).", "The rate of preantral follicle development is slow, requiring about 300 days for a recruited primordial follicle to complete the whole preantral period (Fig. 2). A long doubling time (about 10 days) for the granulosa cells is responsible for the slow growth rate. After antrum formation in the class 3 follicle (about 0.4 mm in diameter), the rate of growth accelerates (Fig. 2). The time interval between antrum formation and the development of a 20-mm preovulatory follicle is about 50 days (Fig. 2). The dominant follicle appears to be selected from a cohort of class 5 follicles at the end of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 About 15 to 20 days are required for a dominant follicle to grow and develop to the preovulatory stage (Fig. 2). Atresia can occur in all follicles (preantral and antral) after the class 1 or secondary follicle stage; however, the highest incidence is seen in the antral follicles that are more than 2 mm in diameter (i.e. class 5, 6, and 7) (Fig. 2).", "On the outside circumference of the follicles are the cuboidal follicular cells. The follicular cells produce two iodine based compounds, thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine, also known as T4) and triiodothyronine (also known as T3). On the inside circumference, or lumen of the follicle, is a brush border composed of hairlike extensions (not visible in the slide below). This allows for the easy deposit and removal of key hormonal components into the follicular lumen (see slide below) as required for production of T3 and T4.", "Fig. 4. Electron micrograph of a human primordial follicle shows the flattened granulosa cells (GC), the oocyte with its germinal vesicle (GV) or nucleus, the Balbiani body (BB), with all the oocyte organelles gathered at one pole of the GV, and basal lamina (BL).(From Erickson GF: The ovary: Basic principles and concepts. In Felig P, Baxter JD, Frohman L (eds): Endocrinology and Metabolism. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995.)", "Fig. 25. Illustration of the concept that the dominant follicle contains relatively high levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the follicular fluid, whereas FSH levels are low or undetectable in cohort follicles destined for atresia. A. In dominant follicles, FSH in follicular fluid induces P450arom activity that metabolizes androgen substrate to estradiol (E2 ). In such follicles, E2 and androstenedione (A4) accumulate in very high concentrations in the follicular fluid. B. In nondominant follicles, the low levels of FSH lead to a paucity of granulosa cells (GC) and low concentrations of estradiol, despite the high levels of A4.(From Erickson GF, Yen SSC: New data on follicle cells in polycystic ovaries: A proposed mechanism for the genesis of cystic follicles. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 2:231, 1984.)", "Fig. 25. Illustration of the concept that the dominant follicle contains relatively high levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the follicular fluid, whereas FSH levels are low or undetectable in cohort follicles destined for atresia. A. In dominant follicles, FSH in follicular fluid induces P450arom activity that metabolizes androgen substrate to estradiol (E2 ). In such follicles, E2 and androstenedione (A4) accumulate in very high concentrations in the follicular fluid. B. In nondominant follicles, the low levels of FSH lead to a paucity of granulosa cells (GC) and low concentrations of estradiol , despite the high levels of A4.(From Erickson GF, Yen SSC: New data on follicle cells in polycystic ovaries: A proposed mechanism for the genesis of cystic follicles. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 2:231, 1984.)", "In a larger perspective, the whole folliculogenesis from primordial to preovulatory follicle is located in the stage of meiosis I of ootidogenesis in oogenesis.", "Erickson GF. Follicular growth and development. In: Sciarra JJ, Speroff L, Simpson JL, eds. Gynecology and obstetrics, Vol. 5. Hager-stown: Harper & Row, 1982:(12) 1–16.", "*follicle – is formed from a single carpel, opens by one suture (e.g., milkweed), commonly seen in aggregate fruits (e.g., magnolia)", "The embryonic development doesn't differ from the male one, but follows the common path before gametogenesis. Once gametogonia enter the gonadal ridge, however, they attempt to associate with these somatic cells. Development proceeds and the gametogonia turn into oogonia, which become fully surrounded by a layer of cells (pre-granulosa cells).", "The granulosa cells in the dominant follicle have the ability to divide at a relatively rapid rate throughout the follicular phase of the cycle, 2 , 5 increasing from about 1 × 106 cells in the class 5 follicle at selection to more than 50 × 106 cells when it reaches the preovulatory stage ( Fig. 23 ). FSH has been shown to be an effective stimulator of primate granulosa proliferation in vivo 2 , 73 and in vitro. 73 , 74 Precisely how the FSH signaling mechanism controls the rate of mitosis is not understood. A variety of growth factors, including insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), 75 fibroblast growth factor, 76 and epidermal growth factor, 76 are also effective stimulators of mitosis in human granulosa cells grown in vitro. It is possible that these growth factors may serve as important stimulators of granulosa proliferation in the dominant follicle by autocrine/paracrine mechanisms. This proposition is supported by direct evidence that follicular fluid contains these growth factors and that human granulosa cells express receptors for and respond to these ligands. Granulosa cell division continues at a high rate until the end of the follicular phase, when the preovulatory LH surge shuts off granulosa mitosis in the dominant follicle. 77", "Hair pigments (melanin of different colors) are made by melanocytes at the base of the hair follicle." ]

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[ "The pisiform bone is a small bone found in the proximal row of the wrist (carpus). It is situated where the ulna joins the wrist, within the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. ", "The pisiform bone ( or), also spelled pisiforme (from the Latin pisifomis, pea-shaped), is a small knobbly, pea-shaped bone that is found in the wrist. It forms the ulnar border of the carpal tunnel.", "The pisiform bone, also known as the lentiform bone, is a small bone found in the wrist or carpal region.", "Pisiform (bone): A pea-shaped carpal bone that actually sits in the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.", "Sesamoid - The pisiform is a sesamoid bone; the patella or kneecap another. By definition these bones form within tendons, usually where they pass across joints. The word is derived from the Greek and means resembling a sesame seed.", "it articulates with the um; the pisiform bone provides a protective function for the flexor carpi ulnaris tendon by bearing the forces generated by the tendon riding across the triquitrum, especially during wrist extension; pisiform means \"pea-shaped\"", "The pelvic surface of the sacrum is concave from the top, and curved slightly from side to side. Its middle part is crossed by four transverse ridges, which correspond to the original planes of separation between the five sacral vertebrae. The body of the first segment is large and has the form of a lumbar vertebra; the bodies of the next bones get progressively smaller, are flattened from the back, and curved to shape themselves to the sacrum, being concave in front and convex behind. At each end of the transverse ridges, are four anterior sacral foramina, diminishing in size in line with the smaller vertebral bodies. The foramina give exit to the anterior divisions of the sacral nerves and entrance to the lateral sacral arteries. Each part at the sides of the foramina, is traversed by four broad, shallow grooves, which lodge the anterior divisions of the sacral nerves. They are separated by prominent ridges of bone which give origin to the piriformis muscle. If a sagittal section be made through the center of the sacrum, the bodies are seen to be united at their circumferences by bone, wide intervals being left centrally, which, in the fresh state, are filled by the intervertebral discs.", "The hip bone, also known as the coxal or innominate bone, is an irregularly shaped bone found in the pelvic region.", "The femur, or thighbone, is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body. The femur and pelvis form the hip joint at the proximal end. At the distal end, the femur, tibia, and patella form the knee joint. The patella, or kneecap, is a triangular bone that lies anterior to the knee joint; it is embedded in the tendon of the femoral extensors (quadriceps). It improves knee extension by reducing friction. The tibia, or shinbone, is a large bone of the leg that is located directly below the knee. The tibia articulates with the femur at its proximal end, with the fibula and the tarsal bones at its distal end. As the second largest bone in the human body it is responsible for transmitting the weight of the body from the femur to the foot. The fibula, or calf bone, parallels and articulates with the tibia. It is not weight-bearing, but acts as a site for muscle attachment while forming the lateral part of the ankle joint.", "The bone that forms each side of the pelvis. Each innominate bone is attached, behind, to the sides of the SACRUM and, in front, to the other innominate at the pubic junction (symphysis pubis). The innominate is nominally divided, for convenience, into the ilium, above, the ischium, below, and the pubis, in front. Bones were commonly named because of their resemblance to other things. The innominate bone bears little resemblance to any other shape, hence the term which means nameless.", "The fibula ( ) or calf bone is a leg bone located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones, and, in proportion to its length, the slenderest of all the long bones. Its upper extremity is small, placed toward the back of the head of the tibia, below the level of the knee joint, and excluded from the formation of this joint. Its lower extremity inclines a little forward, so as to be on a plane anterior to that of the upper end; it projects below the tibia, and forms the lateral part of the ankle-joint.", "In human anatomy the tibia is the second largest bone next to the femur. As in other vertebrates the tibia is one of two bones in the lower leg, the other being the fibula, and is a component of the knee and ankle joints. The leg bones (femur, tibia and fibula) are the strongest long bones as they have to support the rest of the body.", "The navicular bone in humans is located on the medial side of the foot, and articulates proximally with the talus, distally with the three cuneiform bones, and laterally with the cuboid.", "Sacrum – 5 (fused) – a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between the two hip bones. Its upper part connects with the last lumbar vertebra, and boTom part with the coccyx (tailbone). It consists of usually Fve ini±ally unfused vertebrae which begin to fuse between ages 16–18 and are usually completely fused into a single bone by age 34.It is curved upon itself and placed obliquely (that is, ±lted forward). It is kypho±c—that is, concave facing forward. ²he base projects forward as the sacral promontory internally, and ar±culates with the last lumbar vertebra to form the prominent sacrovertebral angle. ²he central part is curved outward toward the posterior, allowing greater room for the pelvic cavity. ²he two lateral projec±ons of the sacrum are called ala (wings), and ar±culate with the ilium at the L-shaped sacroiliac joints. Promontory/Sacral Promontory – in the midline of the ventral surface of the lumbosacral junc±on, a lip at the junc±on of the cranial extremity of the sacrum with its ventral surface, an easily recognized prominence of the roof of the pelvic cavity.", "The tibia is the shin bone, the larger of the two bones right below the knee. The tibia is the strongest weight-bearing bone in the human body. \"Tibia\" is the Roman name for a Greek flute and it is thought that the shin bone was given the same name because flutes were often fashioned out of the shin bones of animals.", "A large flat bone formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis (in the adult), constituting the lateral half of the pelvis; it articulates with its fellow anteriorly, with the sacrum posteriorly, and with the femur laterally.", "Zygomatic bone, also called cheekbone, or malar bone, diamond-shaped bone below and lateral to the orbit, or eye socket, at the widest part of the cheek. It adjoins the frontal bone at the outer edge of the orbit and the sphenoid and maxilla within the orbit. It forms the central part of the zygomatic arch by its attachments to the maxilla in front and to the zygomatic process of the temporal bone at the side. The zygomatic bone forms in membrane (i.e., without a cartilaginous precursor) and is ossified at birth.", "The hip bone is a large, flattened, irregularly shaped bone, constricted in the center and expanded above and below. It meets its fellow on the opposite side in the middle line in front, and together they form the sides and anterior wall of the pelvic cavity. It consists of three parts, the ilium, ischium, and pubis, which are distinct from each other in the young subject, but are fused in the adult; the union of the three parts takes place in and around a large cup-shaped articular cavity, the acetabulum, which is situated near the middle of the outer surface of the bone. The ilium, so-called because it supports the flank, is the superior broad and expanded portion which extends upward from the acetabulum. The ischium is the lowest and strongest portion of the bone; it proceeds downward from the acetabulum, expands into a large tuberosity, and then, curving forward, forms, with the pubis, a large aperture, the obturator foramen. The pubis extends medialward and downward from the acetabulum and articulates in the middle line with the bone of the opposite side: it forms the front of the pelvis and supports the external organs of generation.", "sacrum - wedge-shaped bone consisting of five fused vertebrae forming the posterior part of the pelvis; its base connects with the lowest lumbar vertebra and its tip with the coccyx", "The bone immediately below the sacrum, called the coccyx, is essentially the representative of the tail in man.", "paired; the os coxae forms the lateral part of the pelvis; it is formed by three fused bones: ischium, ilium & pubis; also known as the innominate bone", "/is·chi·um/ (is´ke-um) pl. is´chia   [L.] the inferior dorsal portion of the hip bone (os coxae); it is a separate bone in early life.", "Ossification.The tibia is ossified from three centers (Figs. 260, 261): one for the body and one for either extremity. Ossification begins in the center of the body, about the seventh week of fetal life, and gradually extends toward the extremities. The center for the upper epiphysis appears before or shortly after birth; it is flattened in form, and has a thin tongue-shaped process in front, which forms the tuberosity (Fig. 260); that for the lower epiphysis appears in the second year. The lower epiphysis joins the body at about the eighteenth, and the upper one joins about the twentieth year. Two additional centers occasionally exist, one for the tongue-shaped process of the upper epiphysis, which forms the tuberosity, and one for the medial malleolus.", "Surfaces.The external surface (Fig. 176) is marked in the median line by a faint ridge, indicating the symphysis or line of junction of the two pieces of which the bone is composed at an early period of life. This ridge divides below and encloses a triangular eminence, the mental protuberance, the base of which is depressed in the center but raised on either side to form the mental tubercle. On either side of the symphysis, just below the incisor teeth, is a depression, the incisive fossa, which gives origin to the Mentalis and a small portion of the Orbicularis oris. Below the second premolar tooth, on either side, midway between the upper and lower borders of the body, is the mental foramen, for the passage of the mental vessels and nerve. Running backward and upward from each mental tubercle is a faint ridge, the oblique line, which is continuous with the anterior border of the ramus; it affords attachment to the Quadratus labii inferioris and Triangularis; the Platysma is attached below it.", "The second largest of the tarsal bones, it is also one of the bones in the human body with the highest percentage of its surface area covered by articular cartilage. Additionally, it is also unusual in that it has a retrograde blood supply, i.e. arterial blood enters the bone at the distal end.", "39-10 At birth, a typical vertebra shows three primary ossific areas, one for the centrum and one for each half of the neural arch. (The centrum does not correspond to the whole of the body: see fig. 39-14 .) The three primary areas become united by bone in early childhood (3 to 6 years). A number of secondary centers (the ring epiphyses and centers for the tips of the transverse and spinous processes) appear at about puberty.", "83. Where in the human body is the only bone that doesn’t articulate with another bone?", "FIG. 237 Plan of ossification of the hip bone. The three primary centers unite through a Y-shaped piece about puberty. Epiphyses appear about puberty, and unite about twenty-fifth year. ( See enlarged image )", "The shaft begins to ossify during the eighth postovulatory week, and an epiphysial center is usually present in the superior end at birth. Centers appear for the inferior end during infancy (see fig. 12-30 ), commonly for the tuberosity (which ossifies mainly by inferiorward growth from the upper epiphysis) and sometimes for the tip of the medial malleolus.", "The shaft begins to ossify at about the junction of the embryonic and fetal periods. Centers appear for the inferior end during infancy and for the superior end during childhood. It should be noted that the inferior epiphysial line of the fibula is in line with the superior surface of the talus in the ankle joint (figs. 12-27 and 12-30 ).", "The fibula is ossified from three centers, one for the shaft, and one for either end. Ossification begins in the body about the eighth week of fetal life, and extends toward the extremities. At birth the ends are cartilaginous.", "the roughened protuberance on the anterior surface of the tibia located just distal to the condyles" ]

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[ "The patella, also known as the kneecap or kneepan, is a thick, circular-triangular bone which articulates with the femur (thigh bone) and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the knee joint. The patella is found in many tetrapods, such as mice, cats, and birds, but not in whales or most reptiles and amphibians such as snakes or frogs.", "The knee cap (patella) is a bone embedded within a tendon (the largest sesamoid) that rests over a groove at the bottom of the rounded thigh bone and the top of the shinbone. It protects the bones and soft tissue in your knee joint and helps with extension for your leg.", "The patella, more commonly known as the kneecap, is the hard, triangular bone that protects the front of the knee joint . Seeming to float in front of the knee joint, it is actually connected by ligaments to the muscles above and below the knee. Besides its role in protection, this bone serves as a lever for the leg muscles, increasing their ability to move the leg.", "The patella is commonly referred to as the kneecap. It is a small, freestanding, bone that rests between the femur (thighbone) and tibia (shinbone). The femur has a dedicated groove along which the kneecap slides. As a form of protection, both bones also contain cartilage — strong, flexible tissue — in the areas near the patella.", "The patella (pah-TELL-ah) or kneecap is a thick, flat, triangular-shaped bone that lies above and protects the knee joint. At that joint, the femur articulates with the larger of the two bones of the lower leg, the tibia (TI-bee-ah) or shinbone. The fibula (FI-byoo-lah), which lies along the outer side of the tibia, is slender and sticklike. It has no part in forming the knee joint, but provides a surface for muscle attachment and helps keep the ankle bones from sliding laterally (side to side). The inner and outer bulges at the ankle are formed by the ends of the tibia (the inner bulge) and fibula (the outer bulge).", "The patella, commonly known as the kneecap, is at the center of the knee. It aids in knee extension and protects the joint. As the knee bends, the patella slides along a groove in the femur.", "Joints are complex structures. They are designed to bear weight and move the body. Above the knee is the femur (thigh bone). Below the knee is the tibia (shin bone) and fibula. The kneecap is also called the patella. It rides on top of the lower portion of the femur and the top portion of the tibia. The muscles and ligaments connect these bones, and the space between them is cushioned by fluid-filled capsules (synovia) and cartilage. When you exercise, the muscles pull on the bones, strengthening them. The range of motion of a joint represents how far it can be flexed (bent) and extended (stretched).", "The patella, commonly known as the kneecap, helps increase leverage and support within the knee joint. Pain may develop in the patella as a result of overuse or injury, and often causes a fracture. Patella fractures can involve a single crack across the kneecap or a break into several pieces, and usually causes severe pain and swelling.", "The patella or knee cap is the bone between the fibula and femur. Each leg has a patella to protect its knee joint. The patella serves two functions:", "The knee is made up of four main bones- the femur or thigh bone, the tibia which is known as the shin bone, the fibula or outer shin bone and patella or kneecap. The main movements of the knee joint occur between the femur, patella and tibia.", "The patella, or knee cap (figs. 12-19 , 12-20 and 12-21 ), is a triangular sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of insertion of the quadriceps femoris muscle. The superior border of the patella is the base of the triangle, and lateral and medial borders descend to converge at the apex. The patella can be moved from side to side when the quadriceps is relaxed. A part of the quadriceps tendon covers the anterior surface of the bone and is continued, as the patellar ligament, to the tuberosity of the tibia. The patella articulates on its posterior side with the patellar surface of the condyles of the femur. The articular surface of the patella comprises a larger, lateral facet and a smaller, medial one. Lateral dislocation of the patella is resisted by the shape of the lateral condyle of the femur and by the medial pull of the vastus medialis. Excision of the patella results in minimal functional deficiency. The patella ossifies from several centers, which appear during childhood.", "Patella. The bone that sits over the other bones at the front of the knee joint and slides when the leg moves. Commonly referred to as the kneecap, the patella protects the knee and gives leverage to muscles.", "The hinge articulation between the lower end of the thigh bone ( FEMUR ) and the upper end of the main lower leg shin bone ( TIBIA ). The knee cap ( PATELLA ) is a flat bone lying within the massive tendon of the thigh muscles and is not an intrinsic part of the joint.", "Inferior - Below, towards the plantar (foot) end. The patella (knee cap) is inferior to the femur (thigh bone).", "The knee cap is located on the anterior side of the knee. It is embedded in the tendon of the thigh muscles. The knee cap serves the transmission of force while extending the knee and protects the internal regions of the joint.", "Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).", "The tibia (plural tibiae or tibias), also known as the shinbone or shankbone, is the larger and stronger of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates (the other being the fibula), and it connects the knee with the ankle bones. The tibia is found on the medial side of the leg next to the fibula, and closer to the median plane or centre-line. The tibia is connected to the fibula by the interosseous membrane of the leg, forming a type of fibrous joint called a syndesmosis with very little movement. The tibia is named for the flute tibia. It is the second largest bone in the human body next to the femur. The leg bones are the strongest long bones as they support the rest of the body.", "The femur, or thighbone, is the longest and largest bone in the human body. At its top, it helps create the ball-and-socket joint of the hip; its lower end helps create the knee joint.", "* The cruciate ligaments of the knee are the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL). These ligaments are two strong, rounded bands that extend from the head of the tibia to the intercondyloid notch of the femur. The ACL is lateral and the PCL is medial. They cross each other like the limbs of an X. They are named for their insertion into the tibia: the ACL attaches to the anterior aspect of the intercondylar area, the PCL to the posterior aspect. The ACL and PCL remain distinct throughout and each has its own partial synovial sheath. Relative to the femur, the ACL keeps the tibia from slipping forward and the PCL keeps the tibia from slipping backward.", "Figure 12-21 A, Child's knee, lateral view. Note the epiphyses for the inferior end of the femur and the superior end of the tibia. The patella has begun to ossify, and the fat deep to the ligamentum patellae is visible as a radiolucent area. B, lateral radiograph of the knee, showing fabella (arrow). C, Radiograph of the flexed knee. Note the radiological joint space between the femur and patella. The lateral condyle of the femur is that on the right-hand side of the illustration. D, Radiograph of dried bones of a 5-year old boy. Note the outline of the cartilage. E, Pneumoarthrogram of the knee produced by injecting air into the joint cavity. Note the medial meniscus and the cruciate ligaments. (A courtesy of V. C. Johnson, M.D., Detroit, Michigan. E courtesy of Sir Thomas lodge, Sheffield, England.)", "Scientists recently discovered a new body part that has eluded or remained undetected for over a century. As Science Daily  reports , two surgeons at University Hospitals Leuven have located a new ligament in the human knee. Dr. Steven Claes and Professor Dr. Johan Bellemans, after four years of research, discovered a new ligament and called it the anterolateral ligament.", "knee A region in the lower extremity between the thigh and the leg that contains a synovial hinge joint.", "Figure 12-20 A, Anteroposterior view of the knee. Note the obliquity of the femur, outline of the patella, radiolucent interval occupied by the menisci and articular cartilage, and intercondylar eminence of the tibia (showing the lateral and medial intercondylar tubercles). B, lateral view of the flexed knee. Note the patella, condyles of the femur, head of the fibula, (superior) tibiofibular joint, and tuberosity of the tibia. (Courtesy of V. C. Johnson, M.D., Detroit, Michigan.)", "An abnormally small angle is known as coxa vara and an abnormally large angle as coxa valga. Because changes in shape of the femur naturally affects the knee, coxa valga is often combined with genu varum (bow-leggedness), while coxa vara leads to genu valgum (knock-knees). ", "Inside the capsule, there are two strong ligaments that cross each other within the joint cavity. They are named according to their attachment to tibia as anterior cruciate and posterior cruciate ligaments. They are very important ligaments of the knee joint because they form the primary bond between tibia and femur through the entire range of movement.", "A small plate or saclike projection at the base of the hind tibia (like a bee knee pad).", "attachments on the tibial crest. The stifle has three synovial spaces: the femoropatellar joint and the medial and lateral femorotibial joints. The femoropatellar joint at the front of the stifle is the articulation of the patella and the two trochlear ridges. The femorotibial joint spaces are distinct from each other and are found between each meniscus and its corresponding femoral condyle. The two cruciate ligaments lie outside the joint cavity between the medial and lateral femorotibial joint compartments.", "There are two menisci located between the upper and lower leg bones in each knee. One on the right and one on the left side. ", "Two wedge-shaped pieces of cartilage act as \"shock absorbers\" between your thighbone and shinbone. These are called meniscus. They are tough and rubbery to help cushion the joint and keep it stable.", "12-6 One kneels chiefly on the tuberosity of the tibia (separated from the skin by the subcutaneous infrapatellar bursa) and the ligamentum patellae.", "Humans have been studying their own bodies for centuries, piecing together what all the parts are and how they work and interact, but apparently one tiny piece in the human knee has gone undiscovered until now.", "1. In the human body, which joint is formed at the junction of the tibia and femur?" ]

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[ "The cranium (also known as the neurocranium), is formed by the superior aspect of the skull. It encloses and protects the brain, meninges and cerebral vasculature.", "The cranium's main function is to protect the brain from trauma. The bones of the cranium are joined by sutures which look like wiggling lines across its surface. These joints fuse as a person matures. There are four major sutures:", "Your cranium is the large bony case that surrounds your delicate brain, protecting it from bumps and knocks. It is made up of eight large flat bones, joined together by fixed joints known as sutures. Your frontal bone forms your forehead, and the tops of your eye sockets. Most of the top and sides of your head are formed by two parietal bones. And the back of your skull is formed by your occipital bone which has an opening in it where your spinal cord connects to your brain.", "The skull, or cranium, protects the brain and the organs of special sensation, allows the passage of air and food, and supports the teeth. It consists of a series of bones, mostly united at immovable joints. The mandible, however, can move freely at a synovial articulation, the temporomandibular joint. Some bones of the skull are paired, whereas others are not. Each consists of external and internal tables of compact bone and a middle spongy layer, the diploe. The skull is covered by periosteum (pericranium) and lined by dura (endocranium). The top part (skull cap) is termed the calvaria (calvarium is incorrect) (fig. 42-1 ). The various bones are shown in figures 42-1 , 42-2 , 42-3 and 42-8 .", "The skull of mammals consists of 30 separate bones that grow together during development to form a solid case protecting the brain and sense organs. The “box “enclosing and protecting the brain is called the cranium (see diagram 6.4). The bony wall of the cranium encloses the middle and inner ears, protects the organs of smell in the nasal cavity and the eyes in sockets known as orbits. The teeth are inserted into the upper and lower jaws (see Chapter 5 for more on teeth) The lower jaw is known as the mandible. It forms a joint with the skull moved by strong muscles that allow an animal to chew. At the front of the skull is the nasal cavity, separated from the mouth by a plate of bone called the palate. Behind the nasal cavity and connecting with it are the sinuses. These are air spaces in the bones of the skull which help keep the skull as light as possible. At the base of the cranium is the foramen magnum, translated as “big hole”, through which the spinal cord passes. On either side of this are two small, smooth rounded knobs or condyles that articulate (move against) the first or Atlas vertebra.", "     The skull contains 22 bones of which 8 form the cranium that encloses and protects the brain suspended in the cranial cavity and 14 facial bones that protect and support the digestive and respiratory tracts. ", "The skull consists of two parts, of different embryological origin—the neurocranium and the facial skeleton (also called the viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face. The neurocranium includes the mandible.", "In humans, the adult skull is normally made up of 22 bones . Except for the mandible , all of the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures , rigid articulations permitting very little movement. Eight bones form the neurocranium (braincase)—including one frontal, two parietals, one occipital bone , one sphenoid , two temporals and one ethmoid —form a protective vault surrounding the brain . Fourteen bones form the splanchnocranium, the bones supporting the face. Encased within the temporal bones are the six ear ossicles of the middle ears , though these are not part of the skull. The hyoid bone , supporting the tongue , is usually not considered as part of the skull either, as it does not articulate with any other bones. The skull is a protector of the brain .", "Extracranial:  Outside the cranium, the bony dome that houses and protects the brain, as opposed to intracranial, inside the cranium.", "The skull is the part of the skeleton that covers and protects the brain and other sense organs. The human skull is composed of 22 types of bones. These bones are separated into two categories, the bones the form the cranium and facial bones", "Examples include cranial bones (protecting the brain), the sternum and ribs (protecting the organs in the thorax), and the scapulae (shoulder blades).", "The brain is protected from injury by the skull, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and the blood-brain barrier. In this post we will explore them all in detail, well, except for the skull since that was already discussed in other posts about the bones.", "The base of the cranium consists of the ethmoid, sphenoid, and occipital bones. There are three distinct regions in the base of the cranium which can be seen from above with the calvaria removed. These are called fossae and are named by their position with respect to the body: anterior, middle, and posterior fossae. The base of the cranium has several holes called foramina (singular, foramen) which allow blood vessels and nerves to enter and leave the cranium.", "The clade Craniata includes animals that have a cranium : a bony, cartilaginous, or fibrous structure that surrounds the brain, jaw, and facial bones.", "42-1 The cranium, a Latin form of a Greek term, means the skull. It is sometimes restricted to the skull without the mandible. The skull is complicated: the superb account by Augier in Poirier and Charpy's Traite d'anatomie humaine occupies nearly 600 pages! The various measurements used for the skull and for other parts of the skeleton can be found in G. Olivier, Practical Anthropology, trans. by M. A. MacConaill, Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1969.", "Some bones protect the brain. You can feel the bone at the back of your head and your forehead.", "The purpose of the bony skull is to protect the brain from injury. The skull is formed from 8 bones that fuse together along suture lines. These bones include the frontal, parietal (2), temporal (2), sphenoid, occipital and ethmoid (Fig. 1). The face is formed from 14 paired bones including the maxilla, zygoma, nasal, palatine, lacrimal, inferior nasal conchae, mandible, and vomer.  ", "The large bone at the base of the skull that has the ethmoid bone in front of it, the occipital bone behind it, and the parietal and temporal bones at the sides. It is shaped like a large moth. Its two broad, curved wings form the front walls of the middle cranial fossae, and its two “tails, ” the pterygoid processes, which hang in front of the neurocranium in the pterygoid fossa behind the facial skeleton. Between the wings, in the center of the body of the sphenoid bone, there is a deep, concave pocket (the sella turcica), in which the pituitary gland lies.", "Inferior portion of the sides and base of the cranium, inferior to the parietal bonesand anterior to the occipital bone.", "The bones that is shaped like a butterfuly and forms the anterior portion of the base of the cranium isthe", "Fonticuli, or fontanelles, are temporary membranous areas that bridge the gaps between the angles or margins of some of the ossifying bones ofthe skull. Usually six are present at birth, and these are situated at the angles of the parietal bones. The anterior fontanelle, the largest, is commonly seen to pulsate (because of the cerebral arteries) and is readily palpable in an infant. It is usually obliterated by the age of two years. It may be used to palpate the position of the fetal head, to estimate abnormal intracranial pressure in infancy, to assess cranial development, and to obtain blood from the superior sagittal sinus.", "42-20 The calvaria (L., cranial vault, an area that may become bald, calvus) is the skull cap. The plural is calvariae. There is no such word as \"calvarium.\"", "Posteriorly the choanae of the skull are situated. Laterally as with superiorly, a range of cranial bones surround the cavity including the maxilla, the ethmoid bone, the palatine bone , the sphenoid bone, the inferior nasal concha and the lacrimal bone .", "Part of a human skull was used as the \"face\", and was hidden under the smooth, translucent cover of the head.", "Figure 42-17 Superior aspect of the base of the skull. The right temporal bone (see fig. 42-19 ) has been removed, thereby displaying the head of the mandible. The floor of the cranial cavity presents three \"steps\"- the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae-separated by two ledges: (1) the lesser wings of the sphenoid and (2) the upper border of the petrous part of the temporal bone on each side.", "    Large wing-like processes that extend laterally from the body. The greater wings act as a brace that strengthens the sides of the skull.", "The skull in the neonate is large in proportion to other parts of the body. The facial skeleton is one seventh of the size of the calvaria. (In the adult it is half the size). The base of the skull is short and narrow, though the inner ear is almost adult size. ", "Two flaps of bone, related to the penetrating injury to the top of the head, can clearly be seen on the interior of the skull.", "A radiograph of the skull, showing the conjoined heads in the case above is shown below.", "A radiograph of the skull, showing the conjoined heads in the case in previous two images.", "Another important feature of the skull of Archae is the occipital condyle and the foramen magnum. In Archae these are well above the dorsal end of the quadrate. As Ostrom ( 1976 p. 136) writes:", "Soft skull bones and a delay in the closing of the soft spot at the top of your baby’s head (the anterior fontanelle)" ]

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[ "Diaphragm is the name of the large dome-shaped muscle under your lungs that helps you breathe.", "The diaphragm is a big muscle under your lungs. It pushes downward when you inhale , which enlarges the cavity in the chest and causes the lungs to expand. This causes air to flow into them. When the diaphragm relaxes, air flows out and you exhale . One name for this process is ventilation.", "Below your lungs is the diaphragm (say dye-a-fram). This is a big muscle that works with your lungs to get air in (inhale) and out (exhale).", "Your lungs are protected by your rib cage, which is made up of 12 sets of ribs. These ribs are connected to your spine in your back and go around your lungs to keep them safe. Beneath the lungs is the diaphragm (say: DY-uh-fram), a dome-shaped muscle that works with your lungs to allow you to inhale (breathe in) and exhale (breathe out) air.", "The chest cavity, or thorax (pronounced: THOR-aks), is the airtight box that houses the bronchial tree, lungs, heart, and other structures. The top and sides of the thorax are formed by the ribs and attached muscles, and the bottom by a large muscle called the diaphragm. The chest walls form a protective cage around the lungs and other contents of the chest cavity.", "The chest cavity, or thorax, is the airtight box that houses the bronchial tree, lungs, heart, and other structures. The top and sides of the thorax are formed by the ribs and attached muscles, and the bottom is formed by a large muscle called the diaphragm. The chest walls form a protective cage around the lungs and other contents of the chest cavity.", "The diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs, controls breathing and separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, the American Lung Association noted. When a breath it taken, it flattens out and pulls forward, making more space for the lungs. During exhalation, the diaphragm expands and forces air out.", "In treating pleural mesothelioma, sometimes part of the diaphragm, the muscle below the lungs that helps with breathing, is also removed during surgery because the diaphragm is so connected to the pleura (mesothelial lining of the lungs). Depending on how far the cancer has spread, a lung also may be removed (pneumonectomy).", "sheet of muscle located beneath the lungs that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity where other organs are located", "The lungs are shaped rather like an upside-down butterfly. The top, or apex, of each lung extends into the lowest part of the neck, just above the level of the first rib. The bottom, or base, of each lung extends down to the diaphragm, which is the major breathing-associated muscle that separates the chest from the abdominal cavity.", "In addition to moving the arm and pectoral girdle, muscles of the chest and upper back work together as a group to support the vital process of breathing. The diaphragm is a strong, thin, dome-shaped muscle that spans the entire inferior border of the rib cage, separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. Contraction of the diaphragm causes it to descend towards the abdomen, increasing the space of the thoracic cavity and expanding the lungs, filling them with air. Small muscles running between the ribs, known as the external intercostal muscles, lift the ribs during deep breathing to further expand the chest and lungs and provide even more air to the body. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity, forcing air out of the lungs. Additional air can be forced out of the lungs during deep exhalation by contraction of the internal intercostal muscles, which push the ribs together and help compress the thoracic cavity.", "The lungs are housed in the pleural cavity. The pleural cavity is created by the rib cage, which surrounds and protects the lungs, and by the diaphragm, a thin, flat muscle which separates the heart and lungs from the organs of the abdomen like a sheet. When the diaphragm is relaxed, it balloons upward. When the diaphragm contracts, it flattens out and pushes downward. When the muscles of the rib cage contract, they spread and raises the ribs. When both the diaphram and the muscles of the rib cage contract at the same time, the pleural cavity becomes larger and a vacuum is created which sucks air into the lungs. This process is called inhalation. When the rib muscles relax, the ribcage lowers and comes back together. At the same time, the diaphragm relaxes. The space inside the pleural cavity becomes smaller and the air is pushed back out of the lungs. This process is called exhalation.", "In the anatomy of mammals, the thoracic diaphragm, or simply the diaphragm, is a sheet of internal muscle that extends across the bottom of the rib cage. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs & ribs) from the abdominal cavity and performs an important function in respiration. A diaphragm in anatomy can refer to other flat structures such as the urogenital diaphragm or pelvic diaphragm, but the diaphragm generally refers to the thoracic diaphragm. Other vertebrates such as amphibians and reptiles have diaphragms or diaphragm-like structures, but important details of the anatomy vary, such as the position of lungs in the abdominal cavity.", "Diaphragm is the primary respiratory muscle of the body. It, on contraction, increases the vertical diameter of the chest cavity by pulling its central tendon downwards. In this way, the lungs get extra space to expand and air rushes into them.", "Breathing refers to the process by which air enters and leaves the lungs. It is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm at the bottom of the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm pulls the bottom of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed downward, increasing volume and thus decreasing pressure, causing air to flow into the airways. A number of muscles assist in this action, including the intercostal muscles and muscles that line the abdominal wall. The lung is not capable of expanding itself, and only expands because of a negative pressure between the two pleural walls outside the lung. The lungs are pulled by this negative pressure and expand or contract to fill it out. This draws air into the lungs, which passes through the respiratory tract and into the alveoli, where respiration occurs.", "Between the ribs are many small intercostal muscles that assist the diaphragm with expanding and compressing the lungs. These muscles are divided into 2 groups: the internal intercostal muscles and the external intercostal muscles. The internal intercostal muscles are the deeper set of muscles and depress the ribs to compress the thoracic cavity and force air to be exhaled from the lungs. The external intercostals are found superficial to the internal intercostals and function to elevate the ribs, expanding the volume of the thoracic cavity and causing air to be inhaled into the lungs.", "During quiet breathing, expiration is normally a passive process and does not require muscles to work (rather it is the result of the muscles relaxing). When the lungs are stretched and expanded, stretch receptors within the alveoli send inhibitory nerve impulses to the medulla oblongata, causing it to stop sending signals to the rib cage and diaphragm to contract. The muscles of respiration and the lungs themselves are elastic, so when the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax there is an elastic recoil, which creates a positive pressure (pressure in the lungs becomes greater than atmospheric pressure), and air moves out of the lungs by flowing down its pressure gradient.", "The lungs are large, lobed, paired organs in the chest (also known as the thoracic cavity ). Thin sheets of epithelium ( pleura ) separate the inside of the chest cavity from the outer surface of the lungs. The bottom of the thoracic cavity is formed by the diaphragm .", "�    The pectoralis major is a broad, powerful muscle located on the chest.  Except for the part beneath breast tissue, its convergent, superficial fibers are accessible.", "The diaphragm is the dome-shaped sheet of muscle and tendon that serves as the main muscle of respiration and plays a vital role in the breathing process. Also known as the thoracic diaphragm, it serves as an important anatomical landmark that separates the thorax, or chest, from the abdomen. The origins of the diaphragm are found along the lumbar vertebrae of the spine and the inferior border of the ribs and sternum. Openings in the diaphragm allow the esophagus, phrenic and vagus nerves, descending aorta, and inferior vena cava to pass between the thoracic and abdominal cavities....", " The diaphragm is the primary muscle for respiration. It is located within the lower aspect of the rib cage. Specifically, it has 3 origin areas - the xiphoid process of the sternum,  the inner surfaces of the lower 6 ribs, and a ligamentous structure called the arcuate ligaments that run from the bodies of the upper lumbar vertebrae up to T12.  The diaphragm then inserts into a thin, strong tendon called the central tendon or crura which spans the central portion of the muscle and is more anterior. This muscle forms  a dome shape in the rib cage and spans the space across the rib cage in a figure eight type of shape. This muscle separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.", "A lung is measured to be between 10-12 inches long. The two lungs are separated by a structure called \"media sternum\".", "The diaphragm is a double-domed sheet of skeletal muscle, located at the inferior-most aspect of the rib cage. It serves two main functions:", "The inferior limit of the lung that can be outlined by percussion extends laterally from the xiphisternal joint and about two intercostal spaces higher than the pleura. It crosses rib 6 in the midclavicular line and rib 8 in the midaxillary line and then proceeds toward the 10th thorac vertebra. Considerable individual variation occurs, however.", "The cords are referred to as the lateral, posterior, and medial cord, according to their relationship with the axillary artery, as seen in the image below. The cords pass over the first rib close to the dome of the lung and continue under the clavicle immediately posterior to the subclavian artery.", "(thoracic diaphragm) - dome shaped sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdomen - contraction and relaxation of this muscle that makes breathing possible", "principal tube that carries air to and from the lungs. It is about 4 1-2 in. (11.4 cm) long and about 3-4 in. (1.9 cm) in diameter in the adult. It extends from the larynx larynx", "Your lungs are located in the chest on either side of the heart. There are two of them. They are similar in appearance, but not identical.", "The right lung is bigger than left lung. The left lung is small so as to adjust heart in that part.", "intercostal muscles, innermost  the layer of muscle fibers separated from the internal intercostal muscles by the intercostal nerves.", "A triangular-shaped cartilage that lies at the base of the airway just in front of the arytenoid cartilages which cover the airway during swallowing. It is normally located above (dorsal) the soft palate.", "An improvement in the ability of the lung and chest wall to spring back during breathing" ]

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[ "The thyroid gland, or simply the thyroid, is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body, and consists of two connected lobes. It is found in the anterior neck, below the laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple). The thyroid gland controls rate of use of energy sources, protein synthesis, and controls the body’s sensitivity to other hormones. It participates in these processes by producing thyroid hormones. Hormonal output from the thyroid is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) produced by the anterior pituitary, which itself is regulated bythyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) produced by the hypothalamus.", "The thyroid is a small butterfly-shaped gland inside the neck, located in front of the trachea (windpipe) and below the larynx (voicebox). It produces two thyroid hormones—triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)—that travel though the blood to all tissues of the body.", "Description: The thyroid gland or simply, the thyroid /ˈθaɪərɔɪd/, in vertebrate anatomy, is one of the largest endocrine glands. The thyroid gland is found in the neck, below the thyroid cartilage (which forms the laryngeal prominence, or \"Adam's apple\"). The thyroid gland controls how quickly the body uses energy, makes proteins, and controls how sensitive the body is to other hormones.", "The thyroid is a vitally important hormonal gland, which mainly works for the body’s metabolism. It is located in the front part of the neck below the voice box and is butterfly-shaped. The functions of the thyroid gland include the production of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and tetraiodothyronine, also called thyroxine (T4).", "The thyroid (pronounced: THY-royd), located in the front part of the lower neck, is shaped like a bow tie or butterfly and produces the thyroid hormones thyroxine (pronounced: thy-RAHK-sin) and triiodothyronine (pronounced: try-eye-oh-doe-THY-ruh-neen). These hormones control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to produce energy.", "Derived from the Greek word meaning shield, the thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located in front of the windpipe (called the trachea) and just below the larynx or Adam’s apple in the neck. It is comprised of two halves, known as lobes, which are attached by a band of thyroid tissue called the isthmus.", "The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located at the back of the neck below the Adam's apple. It is the size of 2 cheeries. The thyroid consists of two lobes. The lobes are wrapped around the windpipe.", "The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland that sits low on the front of the neck. Your thyroid lies below your Adam’s apple, along the front of the windpipe. The thyroid has two side lobes, connected by a bridge (isthmus) in the middle. When the thyroid is its normal size, you can’t feel it.", "The butter-fly shaped thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine glands. The thyroid gland is in the front of the neck, just below the thyroid cartilage or “Adam’s apple”. The isthmus bridges the two lobes of the thyroid and is located below the cricoid cartilage. The thyroid gland controls how quickly the body uses energy (metabolism), calcium levels in the blood, how the body makes proteins, and how sensitive the body is to other hormones. It produces thyroid hormones, the principal ones being triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine which can sometimes be called tetraiodothyronine (T4) and calcitonin. These hormones regulate the heart rate, the rate of metabolism and affect the growth and rate of function of many other systems in the body. T3 and T4 are made from iodine and tyrosine. Calcitonin slows down the rate at which bone is broken down decreasing the amount of calcium dissolved in the blood.", "The thyroid gland is situated in the neck, just in front of the windpipe or trachea (see diagram 16.5). It produces the hormone thyroxine, which influences the rate of growth and development of young animals. In mature animals it increases the rate of chemical reactions in the body.", "The thyroid gland is located in the anterior throat. Thyroid follicles store colloid containing thyroglobulin, a glycoprotein from which thyroid hormone is derived.", "During development, the thyroid is actually located in the back of the tongue and has to migrate to the front of the neck before birth. There are rare instances when the thyroid migrates too far or too little. There are even cases when the thyroid remains in the back of the tongue—this is known as lingual thyroid.", "The thyroid gland is located in the neck, with the four parathyroid glands situated behind it.", "Thyroid - A gland located in the front of the neck, just below the voice box.", "Located just under your Adam’s apple, your thyroid secretes hormones into the blood stream to control the rate that every cell and organ turns nutrients into energy.", "The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck and wrapped around the lateral sides of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces 3 major hormones: ", "Hypothyroidism, also called underactive thyroid, is when the thyroid gland doesn’t make enough thyroid hormones to meet your body’s needs. The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. Thyroid hormones control the way the body uses energy, so they affect nearly every organ in your body, even the way your heart beats. Without enough thyroid hormones, many of your body’s functions slow down.", "Thyroid gland lies in the anterior part of our neck, immediately below the larynx and overlying the trachea (windpipe). A normal thyroid gland weighs between 25 and 40 gm. This butterfly shaped gland is highly vascular so it receives one of the highest rates of blood flow per gram of tissue. Thyroid gland moves with the larynx in swallowing and speaking - this feature helps a healthcare professional to differentiate swellings in the glands from those in the adjacent structures.", "Thyroid gland. A large, two-lobed, endocrine gland located in front of and on either side of the trachea (windpipe) in the neck that secretes the hormone thyroxin into the bloodstream. Thyroxin maintains normal body growth and metabolism. ", "The thyroid gland is located below the larynx and in front of the trachea. It consists of two lobes called isthmus and the largest of the endocrine gland, weighing 25g. It consists of sacs called thyroid follicles lined with cuboidal epithelia follicular cells. These follicular cells secrete thyroxine. Between the follicular cells are", "Hypothyroidism The thyroid gland is located in the neck and plays an important role in ensuring the normal development of the brain in the first years of life, and later in overall growth and development. Thyroxin, the hormone produced and released by the thyroid gland, contributes to the overall energy level and metabolism of an individual. However, when iron is deposited in the gland its ability to produce this hormone is reduced, resulting in a condition known as primary hypothyroidism. Patients suffering from primary hypothyroidism may feel extremely cold and sleepy and often show mental and physical sluggishness with weight gain. Severe damage to the thyroid caused by iron deposits may also affect the function of the heart. However, the condition is not always accompanied by clinical signs and is therefore best diagnosed by regular laboratory tests (TSH, T3 and T4), which are performed annually after the age of 10 years. When laboratory tests confirm the presence of hypothyroidism (elevated TSH with normal or decreased Free T4), then thyroxin is given therapeutically -- whether or not the patient has developed clinical symptoms.", "The thyroid gland of mammals consists of two lobes located on the ventral surface of the trachea.", "A large gland in the neck that functions in the endocrine system. The thyroid secretes hormones that regulate growth and metabolism.", "gland is underactive. The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in front of the neck that", "Thyroid Gland: endocrine gland that consists of two lateral masses that are attached to the trachea", "3, The thyroid gland consists of two lateral masses, connected by a cross bridge, that are attached to the trachea. They are slightly inferior to the larynx.", "thyroid gland consists of two lateral lobes joined across the midline by the isthmus; it may have a pyramidal lobe extending superiorly near midline which is a remnant of development that marks its route of migration from a primordium that originates at the foramen cecum or the tongue; thyroid gland is supplied by superior and inferior thyroid aa.; it produces thyroxin", "Thyroid enlargement, called a goiter, occurs in most people with hyperthyroidism. You may see or feel a lump in the front of your neck. Sometimes only your doctor will be able to detect a goiter.", "The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes connected by a bridge of tissue known as the: a. canal of schlemn. b. falciform ligament. c. isthmus. d. corpus collosum.", "3.  Larsen PR, Davies TF, Hay ID. The thyroid gland. In: Wilson JD, Foster DW, Kronenberg HM, Larsen PR, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; 1998:389-515.", "Microscopic appearance of the thyroid gland. By permission from Guyton R, Hall JE, Textbook of Medical Physiology, Saunders, 2000", "Braverman LE, Utiger RD. Werner and Ingbar's The Thyroid: A Fundamental and Clinical Text. 7th ed. Baltimore, Md: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1996. 694, 864." ]

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[ "Excess sugar eventually affects every organ in the body. Initially, it is stored in the liver in the form of glucose (glycogen). Since the liver's capacity is limited, a daily intake of refined sugar (above the required amount of natural sugar) soon makes the liver expand like a balloon. When the liver is filled to its maximum capacity, the excess glycogen is returned to the blood in the form of fatty acids. These are taken to every part of the body and stored in the most inactive areas: the belly, the buttocks, the breasts and the thighs.", "The liver stores excess glucose as glycogen, readying a buffer for blood glucose to meet the coming post-absorptive period.  Little glucose is normally converted to fat.  Note that over-eating carbohydrates (sucrose and fructose) can and does lead to fat production and storage.", "When you consume more carbohydrate than your body needs at the time, your body stores the extra glucose as glycogen in the liver. The pancreas continuously monitors your blood sugar levels. When glucose is low, the pancreas releases the hormone glucagon. The glucagon triggers the liver to break down glycogen and converts it back to glucose. The stored glucose enters the bloodstream and raises blood-glucose levels. This allows the body to keep blood sugar levels stable in between meals.", "The body has an ability to store excess glucose in the form of glycogen. In this way, energy can be stored for later use. Glycogen consists of long chains of glucose molecules and is primarily found in the liver and skeletal muscle. Liver glycogen stores are used to maintain normal levels of glucose in the blood while muscle glycogen stores are mainly used to fuel muscle activity.", "Glycogenesis - excess glucose, fructose, and galactose are converted to glycogen and stored in the liver.", "When you eat food, glucose gets absorbed from your intestines and distributed by the bloodstream to all of the cells in your body. Your body tries to keep a constant supply of glucose for your cells by maintaining a constant glucose concentration in your blood -- otherwise, your cells would have more than enough glucose right after a meal and starve in between meals and overnight. So, when you have an oversupply of glucose, your body stores the excess in the liver and muscles by making glycogen, long chains of glucose. When glucose is in short supply, your body mobilizes glucose from stored glycogen and/or stimulates you to eat food. The key is to maintain a constant blood-glucose level.", "Once glucose is inside the liver, glucose is phosphorylated into glucose-6-phosphate, or G6P. G6P is further metabolized into triglycerides, fatty acids, glycogen or energy. Glycogen is the form in which the body stores glucose. The liver can only store about 100 g of glucose in the form of glycogen. The muscles also store glycogen. Muscles can store approximately 500 g of glycogen. Because of the limited storage areas, any carbohydrates that are consumed beyond the storage capacity are converted to and stored as fat. There is practically no limit on how many calories the body can store as fat.", "Excess glucose is then removed from the blood, with the majority of it being converted into glycogen, the storage form of glucose, by the liver’s hepatic cells via a process called glycogenesis.", "Insulin stimulates the liver and muscle tissue to store excess glucose. The stored form of glucose is called glycogen.", "When the level of glucose in your blood rises, it signals certain cells (beta cells) in your pancreas, located behind your stomach, to release insulin. The insulin, in turn, unlocks your cells so that glucose can enter and provide the fuel your cells need to function properly. Any extra glucose is stored in your liver and muscles in the form of glycogen.", "Your liver, along with your kidneys, are an important organ in glucose metabolism. The liver converts glucose into glycogen. Glycogen provides the body with short term energy storage. Long term energy storage is contained in fat cells. Muscle cells can also convert glucose to glycogen. “Gluco” refers to sugar. The liver converts glycogen back to glucose for immediate use. Gluconeogenesis is the process of making glucose (genesis) from “new” products. Specifically, this refers to making glucose from amino acids, lactate and other non-sugar substances. Gluconeogenesis occurs in times of fasting and exercise – generally after all easily available reserves have been used up. To summarize, glycogenesis is the opposite of glycogenolysis (lysis means to break apart).", "Glycogen is the condensed form that any unused glucose takes when it is stored in the liver and around muscles. It is then readily available as required. ", "Glucose enters the bloodstream by absorption from the small intestine. It is carried via the portal vein to the liver, where part is stored as glycogen, the remainder reentering the circulatory system. Another site of glycogen storage is muscle tissue.", "All major dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block, as in starch and glycogen, or together with another monosaccharide, as in sucrose and lactose. In the lumen of the duodenum and small intestine the oligo- and polysaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides by the pancreatic and intestinal glycosidases. Glucose is then transported across the apical membrane of the enterocytes by SLC5A1 and later across their basal membrane by SLC2A2 (ref). Some of glucose goes directly to fuel brain cells and erythrocytes, while the rest makes its way to the liver and muscles, where it is stored as glycogen, and to fat cells, where it is stored as fat. Glycogen is the body's auxiliary energy source, tapped and converted back into glucose when there is need for energy.", "    Glycogen - Source of sugar used for quick energy, stored in the liver and muscles. Consuming carbohydrate before, during and after workouts helps prime, preserve and restore glycogen. See aerobic and anaerobic.", "Glycogen (commonly known as animal starch although this name is inaccurate) is a polysaccharide that is the principal storage form of glucose (Glc) in animal and human cells. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol in many cell types. Hepatocytes (liver cells) have the highest concentration of it - up to 8% of the fresh weight in well fed state, or 100–120 g in an adult. In the muscles, glycogen is found in a much lower concentration (1% of the muscle mass), but the total amount exceeds that in liver. Small amounts of glycogen are found in the kidneys, and even smaller amounts in certain glial cells in the brain and white blood cells. Glycogen plays an important role in the glucose cycle.", "When your body’s glycogen storage is running low, the body starts to conserve the sugar supplies for the organs that always require sugar. These include: the brain, red blood cells and parts of the kidney. To supplement the limited sugar supply, the liver makes alternative fuels called ketones from fats. This process is called ketogenesis. The hormone signal for ketogenesis to begin is a low level of insulin. Ketones are burned as fuel by muscle and other body organs. And the sugar is saved for the organs that need it.", "What hormone is released when blood sugar is low? Which cells does it act upon? What does it cause the target cells to do? Glucagon. It acts on liver and muscle cells. It causes target cells to break down stored glycogen into glucose. What is overweight in BMI? 25-29.9 What is obese in BMI? over 30 What 2 components contribute to obesity? Biological history and cultural influence What organic molecule is most energy dense? fat How/where do we store excess sugars short term? bound together as glycogen, which is stored in muscle cells and tissues. How are excess sugar, protein, and fat stored long term? once glycogen stores have been filled, excess energy is stored in form of triglycerides. What are the starting molecules for aerobic respiration? oxygen and glucose What are the end products aerobic respiration?", "When blood glucose falls too low, our adrenal glands will mobilize the body's stores of glycogen (starch like carbohydrate , many glucose molecules hooked end to end in a chain,stored in liver and muscle) and will also stimulate the synthesis of glucose from proteins and other substances present in our body.", "The pancreas is responsible for controlling the body's sugar levels and sits near the stomach in the abdomen.", "The pancreas controls the level of glucose in the blood. It is often transplanted with a kidney, because diabetes affects both organs.", "The bodys cells are working every moment of life and a steady supply of glucose must be supplied by the blood. The brain and spinal cord (which make up the central nervous system), the heart, the muscles, utilize glucose practically exclusively for energy purposes in performing their functions. A constant delivery of glucose is needed at every moment of life in order that such vital organs be adequately provided with their source of energy. These organs are never in a resting state.", "The stomach and small intestines absorb the glucose and then release it into the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, glucose can be used immediately for energy or stored in our bodies, to be used later.", "The synthesis of glucose from muscle proteins is a homeostatic mechanism providing circulating fuel when body activities require more than the liver can metabolize from its metabolic stores.", "Glucose gets absorbed by the stomach and intestines and then enters the bloodstream. It travels through the circulation to all body cells.", "Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology. It is used as an energy source in most organisms, from bacteria to humans. Use of glucose may be by either aerobic or anaerobic respiration (fermentation). Carbohydrates are the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing approximately 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g. starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Through glycolysis and later in the reactions of the Citric acid cycle (TCAC), glucose is oxidized to eventually form CO2 and water, yielding energy, mostly in the form of ATP. The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. A high fasting blood sugar level is an indication of prediabetic and diabetic conditions.", "Glucose it is the most easily used by the body. It is a simple carbohydrate that circulates in the blood and is the main source of energy for the muscles, central nervous system, and brain (the brain can also use ketone bodies).", "Overconsumption of sucrose has been linked with some adverse health effects. The most common is dental caries or tooth decay, in which oral bacteria convert sugars (including sucrose) from food into acids that attack tooth enamel. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has a high food energy content (4 kilocalories per gram or 17 kilojoules per gram), and thus can make a diet hypercaloric even in small amounts, contributing to obesity.", "Glucose: The main source of energy for the body and the sugar produced when you digest carbohydrates. Glucose is sometimes referred to as dextrose.", "Eating natural sugars like glucose instead of a sugar substitute can also have negative health effects. The calories contained in sugar-sweetened beverages contributes to increases in body weight and body fat, and replacement of sugar by artificial sweeteners reduces weight. Obesity contributes to diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Glucose has a high glycemic index, sucrose medium, and fructose low. The consumption of added sugars has been positively associated with multiple measures known to increase cardiovascular disease risk amongst adolescents as well as adults. There is \"convincing evidence from human intervention studies, epidemiological studies, animal studies and experimental studies, for an association between the amount and frequency of free sugars intake and dental caries\" while other sugars (complex carbohydrate) consumption is normally associated with a lower rate of dental caries.", "Depending on your genetic predisposition, your body might be better equipped to process sugar as energy, or you might be more likely to store it as fat.  Think of this like you think of people with faster metabolisms vs. people with slower metabolisms.", "form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides energy for body tissues; when low, we feel hunger" ]

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[ "The spinal column is made up of small bones called vertebrae. Offering support and structure to the human body, these bones are some of the most complex bones in the human body. Each vertebra has a specific function, working together to protect the spinal cord.", "Vertebrae. The spine is a column of small bones, or vertebrae, that support the entire upper body. The column is grouped into three sections:", "The spine or spinal column; formed of a number of bones called vertebrae, the discsbetween these vertebrae, and two composite bones (sacrum and coccyx).", "The spine (also called the vertebral column or spinal column) is composed of a series of bones called vertebrae stacked one upon another. There are four regions of the spine:", "Vertebral column, also called spinal column, spine, or backbone, in vertebrate animals, the flexible column extending from neck to tail, made of a series of bones, the vertebrae. The major function of the vertebral column is protection of the spinal cord; it also provides stiffening for the body and attachment for the pectoral and pelvic girdles and many muscles. In humans an additional function is to transmit body weight in walking and standing.", "The vertebral column consists of a series of bones called vertebrae linked together to form a flexible column with the skull at one end and the tail at the other. Each vertebra consists of a ring of bone with spines (spinous process) protruding dorsally from it. The spinal cord passes through the hole in the middle and muscles attach to the spines making movement of the body possible (see diagram 6.2).", "The vertebral column, or spinal column, is made up of a total of 33 vertebrae, which are subdivided into five regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccyx. At the cervical region the spinal column is further classified into an upper and lower cervical region. The axis is the second of seven bones in the cervical spine.", "The nerves of the spinal cord are encased in a protective skeletal structure called the vertebral column. The vertebral column is made up of bones called vertebrae. The rigidity of the vertebral column allows us to stand upright, and it protects our spinal cord from harm. However, the vertebral column also remains somewhat flexible, allowing us a wide range of motion. The vertebrae protecting the spinal cord are composed of much thicker bone than the skull, the bony plates that protect the brain. This suggests how important the spinal cord is to the human body; any system under such heavy protective armor must be important to our existence.", "There are seven cervical vertebrae (but eight cervical spinal nerves), designated C1 through C7. These bones are, in general, small and delicate. Their spinous processes are short (with the exception of C2 and C7, which have palpable spinous processes). C1 is also called the atlas, and C2 is also called the axis. The structure of these vertebrae is the reason why the neck and head have a large range of motion. The atlanto-occipital joint allows the skull to move up and down, while the atlanto-axial joint allows the upper neck to twist left and right. The axis also sits upon the first intervertebral disc of the spinal column.", "The individual bones of the spine are the vertebrae. These are the building blocks of the spinal column. The vertebrae protect and support the spinal cord. They also bear the majority of the weight put upon your spine. The body of each vertebra is the large, round portion of bone. The body of each vertebra is attached to a bony ring. When the vertebrae are stacked one on top of the other , this ring creates a hollow tube where the spinal cord passes through.", "The bottom of the spine is called the sacrum. It is made up of several vertebral bodies usually fused together as one. The remaining small bones or ossicles below the sacrum are also fused together and called the tailbone or coccyx. The spine above the sacrum consists of:", "VERTEBRAL COLUMN. The skull rests atop the vertebral column, which encloses the spinal cord. Also called the spine or backbone, the vertebral column protects the spinal cord and helps to support the weight of the body, transmitting that weight to the lower limbs. It also provides attachment sites for the ribs as well as the muscles that move the trunk (main part of the body). The individual bones making up the column are collectively called vertebrae (VER-te-bray). A single bone is called a vertebra (VER-te-brah).", "The coccyx, also known as the tailbone, is a small, triangular bone resembling a shortened tail located at the bottom of the spine. It is composed of three to five coccygeal vertebrae or spinal bones. The vertebrae may be fused together to form a single bone; however, in some cases, the first vertebra is separate from the others.", "The coccyx, sometimes known as the tailbone , marks the bottom of the vertebral column in humans as well as in some apes. This area is comprised of three to five very small vertebra and is believed to be the remnant of a tail structure. Although these bones are no longer needed to support a tail, the tailbone helps bear weight and provide balance, especially when sitting or leaning backward.", "In vertebrates a rachis can refer to the series of articulated vertebrae, which encase the spinal cord. In this case the rachis usually forms the supporting axis of the body and is then called the spine or vertebral column. Rachis can also mean the central shaft of pennaceous feathers.", "At the bottom of the spine is the coccyx (say cok-six), which is one bone made of 4 small vertebrae fused together. (Some people call this the monkey bone or tail bone. Can you work out why?)", "The sacrum is located within the pelvic girdle and is made up of five separate bones that fuse together as a person matures. At the very end of the vertebral column is the coccyx, which is also a part of the pelvic girdle. It is made up of three bones and is commonly known as the tailbone. [9]", "There is an extensive fusion of bones of the pelvic region to provide stiff support for the legs in order to deal with the stress of take-off and landing. The synsacrum is a fusion of the pelvic and 6 caudal (tail) vertebrae. At the end of the spinal column is the pygostyle, a fusion of the final few caudal vertebrae. The pygostyle supports the tail feathers and musculature.", "The vertebrae in the human vertebral column are divided into different regions, which correspond to the curves of the spinal column. The articulating vertebrae are named according to their region of the spine. Vertebrae in these regions are essentially alike, with minor variation. These regions are called the cervical spine, thoracic spine, lumbar spine, sacrum and coccyx.", "Humans have a \"tail bone\" (the coccyx) attached to the pelvis, formed of fused vertebrae, usually four, at the bottom of the vertebral column. It does not protrude externally.", "Cervical: The 7 vertebrae in the neck form the cervical region of the spine. Cervical vertebrae are the thinnest and most delicate vertebrae in the spine but offer great flexibility to the neck. The first cervical vertebra, C1, supports the skull and is named “atlas” after the Greek titan who held the Earth on his shoulders. The skull pivots on the atlas when moving up and down. The second cervical vertebra, C2, is also known as the “axis” because it allows the skull and atlas to rotate to the left and right.", "The cage formed by thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum is an essential component of the respiratory system. Thoracic vertebrae are distinguished by their tall dorsal spines, many of which point towards the hindquarter and are known as the feather bones.", "Cervical vertebrae possess transverse foramina to allow for the vertebral arteries to pass through on their way to the foramen magnum to end in the circle of Willis. These are the smallest, lightest vertebrae and the vertebral foramina are triangular in shape. The spinous processes are short and often bifurcated (the spinous process of C7, however, is not bifurcated, and is substantially longer than that of the other cervical spinous processes).", "Sacrum: This is a bone structure at the base of the spine, which includes the tailbone.", "Sacrum is a triangular, shield-shaped bony structure present below the lumbar vertebrae, and forms the posterior pelvic wall. It supports and strengthens the pelvis. The sacrum is formed by the fusion of 5 (sometimes 6) vertebrae known as the sacral vertebrae named as S1 to S5. Initially they exist as separate vertebrae, and begin to fuse after the age of 18. The fusion completes between the ages of 25 to 33.", "The next four vertebrae, C3 to C6, share a similar structure, and have short and bifid spinous processes. The last vertebra in this region, C7, has long and prominent spinous process, and hence is also called vertebra prominens. Spinous process is the region for attachment of muscles and ligaments.", "In a longitudinal osteofibrous canal on either side of the spine there is a group of muscles called the erector spinae which is subdivided into a lateral superficial and a medial deep tract. In the lateral tract, the iliocostalis lumborum and longissimus thoracis originates on the back of the sacrum and the posterior part of the iliac crest. Contracting these muscles bilaterally extends the spine and unilaterally contraction bends the spine to the same side. The medial tract has a \"straight\" (interspinales, intertransversarii, and spinalis) and an \"oblique\" (multifidus and semispinalis) component, both of which stretch between vertebral processes; the former acts similar to the muscles of the lateral tract, while the latter function unilaterally as spine extensors and bilaterally as spine rotators. In the medial tract, the multifidi originates on the sacrum.", "Individual vertebrae are named according to their region and position. From top to bottom, the vertebrae are:", "A notochord, or a longitudinal, flexible rod between the digestive tube and the nerve cord. In most vertebrates, it is replaced developmentally by the vertebral column. This is the structure for which the phylum is named.", "Figure 39-14 The neural arch and centrum (left half of figure), and the vertebral arch and body (right half). The terms centrum and neural arch refer to those parts of a vertebra ossified from primary centers. The terms vertebral arch and body are descriptive terms generally applied to adult vertebrae. The body of a vertebra includes the centrum and part of the neural arch. The vertebral arch, therefore, is less extensive than the neural arch. Note that the rib articulates with the neural arch and not with the centrum.", "Vertebrae with saddle-shaped articular surfaces on their bodies, are called \"heterocoelous\", which allows vertebrae to flex both vertically and horizontally, while preventing twisting motions. Such vertebrae are found in the necks of birds and some turtles. ", "FIG. 65 Scheme showing the manner in which each vertebral centrum is developed from portions of two adjacent segments. ( See enlarged image )" ]

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[ "Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.", "The human brain has many properties that are common to all vertebrate brains, including a basic division into three parts called the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, with interconnected fluid-filled ventricles, and a set of generic vertebrate brain structures including the medulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem, the cerebellum, optic tectum, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb, and many others.", "The cerebellum, “little brain”, is the second largest region of the brain. It is located behind and below the cerebrum and at the back of the brain stem and attached to the midbrain. It has two hemispheres and an outer cortex of gray matter and an inner core of white matter. The cerebellum is involved in movement and coordination, walking, posture, reflexes, eye and head movement. It coordinates subconscious movements such as balance and coordinated movement. The cerebellum is constantly receiving updates about the body’s position and movement. It also sends instructions to our muscles that adjust our posture and keep our body moving smoothly.", "The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance.", "The anterior and largest portion of the brain; includes the cerebral hemispheres , the limbic system , the  thalamus and hypothalamus , and the corpus callosum . Each of the hemispheres is divided into four lobes: frontal , parietal, occipital and temporal . Collectively, the forebrain functions to control cognitive , sensory and motor function, and regulate temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping and the display of emotions.       The midbrain or mesencephalon (from the Greek mesos - middle, and enkephalos - brain [1] ) is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation. [2] Anatomically, it comprises the tectum (or corpora quadrigemina), tegmentum , the ventricular mesocoelia (or \"iter\"), and the cerebral peduncles , as well as several nuclei and fasciculi. Caudally the mesencephalon adjoins the pons ( metencephalon ) and rostrally it adjoins the diencephalon (Thalamus, hypothalamus, etc.). The midbrain is located below the cerebral cortex , and above the hindbrain placing it near the center of the brain. [3]", "The hypothalamus is located in the brain and links the nervous and endocrine systems to each other. It secrets hormones that put the pituitary gland into action.", "Other structures and nerves are associated with the brainstem. The thalamus and the hypothalamus sit above the brainstem and below the cerebrum. The cranial nerves start in the brainstem and direct many functions, such as smelling and moving our eyes.", "The hypothalamus (from Greek ὑπό = under and θάλαμος = room, chamber) is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to theendocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis).", "The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and posterior to the optic chiasm . In humans, the hypothalamus is roughly the size of an almond. But within that small size, it contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus actually controls the pituitary gland; and it integrates many messages from parts of the brain based on feedback from all over the body and tells the pituitary what to do.", "Hypothalamus: this is a region at the base of the brain which monitors the conditions of your blood. It measures how much water, salts, bicarbonate ions and sugar is present; it also measures blood temperature. The hypothalamus helps to control the pituitary gland.", "The brain stem extends between the thalamus and the spinal cord, gradually decreasing in size and in the complexity of its internal structure. It is divided, from top to bottom, into the midbrain, the pons (bridge), and the medulla oblongata (usually simply referred to as the medulla). The entire brain stem is largely hidden from view by the highly developed masses of the cerebral and cerebellar hemispheres. The midbrain is attached to the base of the cerebral hemispheres by the cerebral peduncles, two massive, flattened bundles of nerve fibres. The longitudinal orientation of the cerebral peduncles is abruptly interrupted by the pons, which gives the impression of a giant ring, slipped on to the brain stem between the peduncles and the medulla. The medulla merges gradually with the spinal cord.", "The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system. In the terminology of neuroanatomy, it forms the ventral part of the diencephalon. All vertebrate brains contain a hypothalamus. In humans, it is the size of an almond.", "Separate from the brain stem, but also part of the hindbrain, is the cerebellum (from the Latin for \"little cerebrum\", because that's what it looks like -- similar shape, lots of folds). A major function of the cerebellum is to integrate sensory and motor data to help the organism maintain a sense of balance and exercise fine motor control. Cerebellar functioning can be impaired by alcohol, leading to loss of balance (in acute intoxication) or tremors (as a chronic effect). Although the cerebellum is the \"little\" cerebrum, in fact it contains many more neurons than the cerebral cortex -- by one popular estimate, about three times more.", "The hindbrain or metencephalon is particularly involved in swimming and balance. The cerebellum is a single-lobed structure that is typically the biggest part of the brain. Hagfish and lampreys have relatively small cerebellae, while the mormyrid cerebellum is massive and apparently involved in their electrical sense.", "region of the brain that serves as a relay between the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord; responsible for breathing, heart rate, and body temperature; the three levels are the mesencephalon (midbrain), pons, and medulla oblongata", "The hypothalamus is a brain structure made up of distinct nuclei as well as less anatomically distinct areas. It is found in all vertebrate nervous systems. In mammals, magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus produce neurohypophysial hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin. These hormones are released into the blood in the posterior pituitary. Much smaller parvocellular neurosecretory cells, neurons of the paraventricular nucleus, release corticotropin-releasing hormone and other hormones into the hypophyseal portal system, where these hormones diffuse to the anterior pituitary.", "Medulla. The medulla oblongata forms a transition from brain to spinal cord. Many columns of nerve fibers pass vertically through the medulla, going between the spinal cord and higher levels of the brain. The ventral surface of the medulla has a pair of ridges, the medullary pyramids, that contain motor nerve fibers carrying signals down to the spinal cord. Lateral to each pyramid is a mound, the inferior olive, containing neurons that relay information to the cerebellum. A central core of neurons, the reticular formation, contains control centers for the heartbeat and respiration. Three cranial nerves enter or leave the brainstem at the junction between the pons and medulla: the abducens nerve (VI), involved in eye movements; the facial nerve (VII), which controls the muscles of facial expression; and the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), which carries signals for hearing and balance. Motor rootlets of the hypoglossal nerve (XII) leave the ventrolateral surface of the medulla and supply muscles of the tongue. Dorsal to the olive are rootlets of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) and vagus nerve (X). The glossopharyngeal nerve is involved in taste, salivation, swallowing, and other functions. The vagus nerve supplies many organs of the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Inferior to the rootlets of the vagus nerve are those of the spinal accessory nerve (XI), which innervates several neck and shoulder muscles.", "metencephalon (met´´en-sef´ua-lon) The most superior portion of the hindbrain that contains the cerebellum and the pons.", "The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, and its organization and functional properties are similar to those of the spinal cord. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here.", " This system includes a simple brain, cranial nerves and spinal nerves.The brain is of primitive type, having a pair of cerebral hemispheres, apair of optic lobes, a reduced cerebellum and medulla oblongata whichis continued into a spinal cord. The diencephalon bears the pinealapparatus dorsally and the pituitary body and infundibulum ventrally.The brain encloses cavities called ventricles. Ten pairs of cranial nervesare present. Spinal nerves with separate dorsal and ventral roots arepresent.", "The hindbrain (or rhombencephalon) consists of the remaining brainstem as well as our cerebellum and pons. Neuroanatomists have a word to describe the brainstem sub-region of our hindbrain, calling it the myelencephalon, while they use the word metencephalon in reference to our cerebellum and pons collectively.", "Hindbrain structure that connects the medulla to the two sides of the cerebellum; helps coordinate and integrate movement on each side of the body.", "a.      Most vestibular branch fibers of the vestibulocochlear nerve enter the brain stem and terminate in the medulla; the remaining fibers enter the cerebellum.", "The hypothalamus also activates the adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla is part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).", "The brain stem consists of mesencephalon (midbrain), metencephalon, and myelencephalon. The metencephalon and myelencephalon together compose the rhombencephalon (hindbrain), which divides into pons, and medulla oblongata (Figures 1.11 and 1.12).", "The medial zone of the anterior and posterior lobes constitutes the spinocerebellum, also known as paleocerebellum. This sector of the cerebellum functions mainly to fine-tune body and limb movements. It receives proprioceptive input from the dorsal columns of the spinal cord (including the spinocerebellar tract) and from the cranial trigeminal nerve, as well as from visual and auditory systems. It sends fibers to deep cerebellar nuclei that, in turn, project to both the cerebral cortex and the brain stem, thus providing modulation of descending motor systems.", "The tegmentum is located in front of the tectum. It consists of fibre tracts and three regions distinguished by their colour—the red nucleus, the periaqueductal gray, and the substantia nigra. The red nucleus is a large structure located centrally within the tegmentum that is involved in the coordination of sensorimotor information. Crossed fibres of the superior cerebellar peduncle (the major output system of the cerebellum) surround and partially terminate in the red nucleus. Most crossed ascending fibres of that bundle project to thalamic nuclei, which have access to the primary motor cortex. A smaller number of fibres synapse on large cells in caudal regions of the red nucleus; those give rise to the crossed fibres of the rubrospinal tract, which runs to the spinal cord and is influenced by the motor cortex.", "The vestibular nuclei are scattered in the brainstem at the level of the vestibular area and behind the medullary striae, medial to the inferior cerebellar peduncle.", "medulla oblongata (myelencephalon) caudal aspect of the brainstem located between the pons and the spinal cord", "The brainstem is the portion of the central nervous system that is situated between the spinal cord and the brain. Hard to differentiate precisely from the brain itself, it contains primitive structures often assigned to the hindbrain and the midbrain, as described below. There is also a forebrain. These divisions are so named because, in most animals, the spinal cord runs horizontally. Thus, the hindbrain is toward the back of the animal, and the forebrain towards the front. However, humans walk upright. Thus, the hindbrain is at the bottom, closest to the spinal cord, while the forebrain is at the top, furthest away.", "Studies have suggested a crucial role by the hypothalamus in CPH. Functional neuroimaging studies have demonstrated activation of the hypothalamus in cases of trigeminal autonomic cephalgias. [ 9 , 10 ]", "the part of the medulla oblongata which controls the trigeminal, facial, vagal and hypoglossal nerve nuclei." ]

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[ "The most abundant element in the human body is oxygen, making up about 65% of the weight of each person.", "The bulk of the food that we consume provides us with water, which accounts for 50% to 70% of our body weight, and the energy-yielding nutrients, such as carbohydrates (sugars and starches), lipids (fats), and proteins (Figure 1). In addition to these major nutrients, our bodies require a variety of other molecules and ions to maintain proper function. These nutrients, which are required in much smaller amounts, are known collectively as vitamins and minerals.", "The adult human body contains approximately 5 litres of blood and accounts for approximately 7-8% of our total body weight.", "A fluid found in one of the fluid compartments of the body. The principal fluid compartments are intracellular and extracellular. A much smaller segment, the transcellular, includes fluid in the tracheobronchial tree, the gastrointestinal tract, and the bladder; cerebrospinal fluid; and the aqueous humor of the eye. The chemical composition of fluids in the various compartments is carefully regulated. In a normal 154 lb (70 kg) adult human male, 60% of total body weight (i.e., 42 L) is water; in a normal adult female is 55% of total body weight is water (39 L).", "Considering an average of 60% of body weight is contributed by water, an adult weighing 70kg has a total body water of 42 liters of which 28 is intracellular and 14 is extracellular. Water present in the body has electrolytes dissolved in it. Thus when the body looses water, it looses electrolytes as well.", "Of the elements found in the human body, four of them make up the largest percentage of our body weight (96.2%). The four elements are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen. Before you start thinking we should float away with all the oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen atoms, remember that the oxgen molecules are mainly part of the water in our body (H2O). In fact, over half of the human body is made up of water (50-70%).", "By mass, human cells consist of 65�90% water and also a significant portion of the body is composed of Carbon-containing organic molecules. Oxygen therefore contributes a majority of a human body's mass, followed by Carbon. (Because of its low atomic weight, even though 63% of the atoms in a body are Hydrogren, this equates to just 10% of the mass of a body).", "The human body is composed of approximately 60% of water. Please select the best answer from the choices provided. T F", "For example, your estimated body fat may be 24%. But have you ever wondered what makes up the other 76%?  Everything in your body that is not body fat is fat-free mass.", "Total body water is approximately 50% of lean body weight in men and 40% of lean body weight in women. For example, if a 70-kg man had a serum Na+ level of 160 mEq/L, the estimated free water deficit would be", "The total mineral content of the body is approximately 4 percent of body weight. Calcium makes up approximately 1.75 percent of total body weight, phosphorus makes up approximately 1.10 percent of total body weight, and magnesium makes up approximately 0.04 percent of total body weight.", "The human body has more than 600 muscles. Muscles make up half of a person's body weight. They are connected to bones by tough, cord-like tissues called tendons, which allow the muscles to pull on bones. If you wiggle your fingers, you can see the tendons on the back of your hand move as they do their work.", "Salt (sodium chloride) is essential for life. Total body sodium in an average 70-kg person is of about 4,200 mmol (~100 g), of which 40% is found in bone and 60% in the fluid inside and outside of cells (1) . Total body chloride averages 2,310 mmol (~82 g), of which 70% is distributed in the extracellular fluid and the remaining is found in the collagen of connective tissue (1) . Multiple mechanisms work in concert to tightly regulate the body's sodium and chloride concentrations. Although this review emphasizes the function and requirements of sodium, sodium and chloride ions work together to control extracellular volume and blood pressure (1) .", "Figure 12-10 shows that you're mostly made of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Calcium, a metal, and other elements make up the remaining four percent of your body's weight. Phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine are among other elements found in your body. These elements are classified as nonmetals.", "(i) The non-cellular part of blood is a yellowish liquid called plasma, which makes up 55% of whole blood. Plasma is made up of water and salts, as well as important proteins that it carries around the body, such as:", "Metabolism refers to the processes that the body needs to function. Basal Metabolic Rate is the amount of energy expressed in calories that a person needs to keep the body functioning at rest. Some of those processes are breathing, blood circulation, controlling body temperature, cell growth, brain and nerve function, and contraction of muscles. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) affects the rate that a person burns calories and ultimately whether that individual maintains, gains, or loses weight. The basal metabolic rate accounts for about 60 to 75% of the daily calorie expenditure by individuals. It is influenced by several factors. BMR typically declines by 1-2% per decade after age 20, mostly due to loss of fat-free mass, although the variability between individuals is high. ", "The average brain comprises 2 percent of a person's total body weight. Yet it requires 25 percent of all oxygen used by the body, as opposed to 12 percent used by the kidneys and 7 percent by the heart.", "Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a mammal's mass is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water.", "The average weight of skin in human body is about 10,886 grams (~10.1 kg; 384,0 oz) which varies according to the size and weight of human being. It is a major organ of the body, forming about 8% of its total mass and having an area between 1.2 to 2.2 meter square. Skin is most effective barrier against microbial invasion, mechanical, chemical, osmotic, thermal and phobic damage.", "This is the liquid part of blood and makes up about 60% of the blood's volume. Plasma is mainly made from water but also contains many different proteins and other chemicals, such as:", "The organism and all of its component parts are made up of atoms and molecules of chemical elements. If we examine these elements and their distribution in our bodies we see the following percentages by body weight:", "Most of the human body consists of water, which is made from hydrogen and oxygen.  Youst / Getty Images", "Next to water, protein is the most plentiful substance in your body. In fact, if all the water was squeezed out of you, half of your dry weight would be protein. One third of this protein would be in your muscles, a fifth in your bones and cartilage, a tenth in your skin, and the rest in your other tissues and body fluids. Even 95 percent of your hemoglobin is protein.", "Bone. The bones that protect your body and provide your body's structure are fat-free body mass.", "Humans shed about 600,000 particles of skin every hour about 1.5 pounds a year. By 70 years of age, an average person will have lost 105 pounds ", "There are about 2 million sweat glands in the average human body. The average adult loses 540 calories with every liter of sweat. Men sweat about 40% more than women.", "d. Mass Loss - The total mass of the body decreases by 3% to 4%. This is due primarily to loss of body fluids and, somewhat, to atrophy and loss of the mass of muscles that were used in 1-G (muscle mass loss is dependent on exercise regimes).", "a unit of metabolism. Metabolism, the sum of all the processes going on in the body to sustain life, is measured in units of power expended per unit of body surface area. One met is the metabolism of a seated, resting person, equal to about 58.15 watts per square meter (W/m2) or 13.89 calories per second per square meter (cal/m2·s) regardless of the person's size. Measurements of human metabolism generally fall in the range 0.8-3.0 met, although athletes can achieve 10 met or more.", "* Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0% lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of energy per 100 grams.", "What percentage of average adult human body is water? Zu wieviel % Wasser besteht der Körper eines durchschn. Erwachse", "\"Suppose an adult man to have lived a century, and to weigh on average 60 kilograms. He will have consumed in that time, besides other foods, the equivalent of 20,000 kilograms of flesh, and produced about 800 kilograms of urea. Of course there is no suggestion that this mass of flesh and urea could at any moment of his life form part of his being.", "The 656 muscles together weigh between 30-40 kg (66-88 pounds). Every muscle is composed of elastic connective tissue, up to 12 fibers, and cells." ]

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[ "The tubes through which the blood flows are the arteries, capillaries and veins. The heart pumps blood into arteries that carry it away from the heart. The arteries divide into very thin vessels called capillaries that form a network between the cells of the body. The capillaries then join up again to make veins that return the blood to the heart.", "capillaries Delicate blood vessels forming a dense network between the arteries and the veins. The interchange of cellular oxygen, nutrients, and waste products takes place in the capilliary �beds�.", "Capillaries, the smallest, thinnest-walled blood vessels in the body, connect veins and arteries. They can be as small as 5-10 micrometers wide — or 50 times thinner than a baby’s hair. Each of us contains about 10 billion of them, with the average adult body containing about 25,000 miles of capillaries.", "Arteries transport blood containing oxygen and nutrients to smaller tubes called arterioles, which then deliver blood to even smaller vessels called capillaries. Capillaries are tiny, thin blood vessels that allow oxygen and nutrients to flow to nearby tissue. After the oxygen and nutrients have been delivered to the body's tissues by the capillaries, another network in the body carries blood back to the heart. Small tubes called venules pick up the now oxygen-poor blood and transfer it to the veins, which carry it to the heart. Once the blood has returned to the heart and been pumped through the lungs to remove carbon dioxide and receive oxygen, it is pumped back into the rest of the body and starts the process again.", "The arterioles continue to branch from the artery, eventually forming the smallest of all blood vessels, capillaries. The capillaries function is to take blood as close as possible to cells, allowing rapid transport of substances between cells and blood - they form a network in every tissue known as a capillary.", "The small muscular arteries are more rigid, thus they create more resistance through the circulatory system than veins or larger arteries. These small arteries have very narrow lumina, which is also the case with the small arterioles. The smallest of the arteries branch off to form the arterioles. Any artery that is less than 100 micrometers in diameter will create the arterioles which range between 20 and 30 micrometers in diameter.", "Capillaries are the smallest of a body’s vessels; they connect arteries and veins, and most closely interact with tissues. They are very prevalent in the body; total surface area is about 6,300 square meters. Because of this, no cell is very far from a capillary, no more than 50 micrometers away. The walls of capillaries are composed of a single layer of cells, the endothelium, which is the inner lining of all the vessels. This layer is so thin that molecules such as oxygen, water and lipids can pass through them by diffusion and enter the tissues. Waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea can diffuse back into the blood to be carried away for removal from the body.", "Capillaries unite to form larger vessels called venules that join to form veins. Veins return blood to the heart and since blood that flows in veins has already passed through the fine capillaries, it flows slowly with no pulse and at low pressure. For this reason veins have thinner walls than arteries although there have the same three layers in them as arteries (see diagram 8.16). As there is no pulse in veins, the blood is squeezed along them by the contraction of the skeletal muscles that lay alongside them.", "Capillaries bridge the smallest of the arteries and the smallest of the veins. Near the arterial end, the capillaries allow materials essential for maintaining the health of cells to diffuse out (water, glucose, oxygen, and amino acids).", "Capillaries are small, thin walled vessels that form a network between the cells of the tissues.", "Capillaries, where exchange of materials occurs, are very thin and narrow, and red blood cells pass through single file. Capillaries are tiny but numerous, and their total volume is greater than that of supplying arteries.", "Veins and arteries both have two further tunics that surround the endothelium: the middle, tunica media is composed of smooth muscle, while the outer tunica externa is connective tissue (collagen and elastic fibers). The elastic, connective tissue stretches and supports the blood vessels, while the smooth muscle layer helps regulate blood flow by altering vascular resistance through vasoconstriction and vasodilation. The arteries have thicker smooth muscle and connective tissue than the veins to accommodate the higher pressure and speed of freshly-pumped blood. The veins are thinner walled as the pressure and rate of flow are much lower. In addition, veins are structurally different from arteries in that veins have valves to prevent the backflow of blood. Because veins have to work against gravity to get blood back to the heart, contraction of skeletal muscle assists with the flow of blood back to the heart.", "Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries. The capillaries merge to bring blood into the venous system. ", "metarteriole (met´´ar-tir´e-=ol) A small blood vessel that emerges from an arteriole, passes through a capillary network, and empties into a venule.", "A venule is a small vein that allows deoxygenated blood to return from the capillary beds to the larger blood veins, except in the pulmonary circuit were the blood is oxygenated. Venules have three layers; they have the same makeup as arteries with less smooth muscle, making them thinner.", "Arterioles - smallest of arterial vessels; smallest arterioles have single layer of smooth muscle cells spiralling around endothelial lining", "The blood from the heart is carried through the body by a complex network of blood vessels. This diagram illustrates the major human arteries and veins of the human body.", "Arterioles are the smallest arteries and regulate blood flow into capillary beds through vasoconstriction and vasodilation.", "The arteries, in their distribution throughout the body, are included in thin fibroareolar investments, which form their sheaths. The vessel is loosely connected with its sheath by delicate areolar tissue, and the sheath usually encloses the accompanying veins, and sometimes a nerve.", "The largest artery is the aorta, the main high-pressure pipeline connected to the heart's left ventricle. The aorta branches into a network of smaller arteries that extend throughout the body. The arteries' smaller branches are called arterioles and capillaries. The pulmonary arteries carry oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs under low pressure, making these arteries unique.", "  The deep veins follow the course of the arteries, forming their venæ comitantes. They are generally arranged in pairs, and are situated one on either side of the corresponding artery, and connected at intervals by short transverse branches.", "A group of small vessels that are filled with blood or veins that are raised and visible.", "Small lymphatic networks called plexuses exist beneath each of the three layers of the heart. These networks collect into a main left and a main right trunk, which travel up the groove between the ventricles that exists on the heart's surface, receiving smaller vessels as they travel up. These vessels then travel into the atrioventricular groove, and receive a third vessel which drains the section of the left ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. The left vessel joins with this third vessel, and travels along the pulmonary artery and left atrium, ending in the inferior tracheobronchial node. The right vessel travels along the right atrium and the part of the right ventricle sitting on the diaphragm. It usually then travels in front of the ascending aorta and then ends in a brachiocephalic node.", ". In a small blood vessel, blood flow may be completely cut-off resulting in death of tissue supplied by that vessel. ", "When blood vessels connect to form a region of diffuse vascular supply it is called an anastomosis (pl. anastomoses). Anastomoses provide critical alternative routes for blood to flow in case of blockages.", "  The deep veins of the forearm are the venæ comitantes of the radial and ulnar veins and constitute respectively the upward continuations of the deep and superficial volar venous arches; they unite in front of the elbow to form the brachial veins. The radial veins are smaller than the ulnar and receive the dorsal metacarpal veins. The ulnar veins receive tributaries from the deep volar venous arches and communicate with the superficial veins at the wrist; near the elbow they receive the volar and dorsal interosseous veins and send a large communicating branch (profunda vein) to the vena mediana cubiti.", "See this picture for an extended look at the human blood vessel system: [3] //dead link", "Circulation that is established through an anastomosis between two vessels supplying or draining two adjacent structures is called", "Craspedodromous.   Simple - With a single primary vein, all of the secondary veins and their branches terminating at the margin. Mixed - With a single primary vein, some of the secondary veins terminating at the margin and an approximately equal number otherwise", "Leg pain from peripheral artery disease that occurs with walking is called claudication. Since peripheral artery disease often affects more than one blood vessel, both legs may be affected, although the pain may be of different severity in each leg. The blood supply may decrease to the point that pain occurs at rest, even without exercise. Poor blood supply to the legs may also compromise the integrity of the skin and may allow infection to occur. As well, poor blood supply makes it difficult for wounds like lacerations or abrasions to heal.", "The blood in the veins is dark red in color because it contains very little oxygen.", "Points of origin and points of termination in relation to adjacent structures; used to designate the boundaries of arteries." ]

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[ "The hip bones (which have been named - they are no longer \"innominate\"!) meet anteriorly at the pubic symphysis. Together with the sacrum, they form a ring termed the bony pelvis. Each hip bone consists of an ilium, an ischium, and a pubis, all three of which in the adult are fused at the acetabulum to form a single bone.", "The two hip bones connect and make up the pelvic ring. It is formed where the hip bones meet at the pubic symphysis and connect with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints. The pubic symphysis is the cartilaginous joint where the left and right pubic bone meet. The sacrum is a large triangular bone, attached to the last lumbar vertebra and the tailbone , which is wedged between the two hip bones. This is connected to the hip bones by the sacroiliac joints.", "The pelvic girdle consists of the two hip bones. The hip bones are connected to each other anteriorly at the pubic symphysis, and posteriorly to the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints to form the pelvic ring. The ring is very stable and allows very little mobility, a prerequisite for transmitting loads from the trunk to the lower limbs.", "[Continued from above] . . . The ilium is the largest, widest, and most superior of the hip bones. When you place your hands on your hips, you can feel the curved ridge of the ilium known as the iliac crest. The narrow ischium is inferior to the ilium and is the bone, along with the coccyx, that you rest your body weight on while sitting. Anterior to the ischium is the pubis, the smallest of the hip bones. The ilium, ischium, and pubis meet in the center of the hip bone to form the deep, cup-like socket of the hip joint called the acetabulum.", "The hip bone is formed by three bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis. At birth, these three component bones are separated by hyaline cartilage. They join each other in a Y-shaped portion of cartilage in the acetabulum. By the end of puberty the three bones will have fused together, and by the age of 25 they will have ossified.", "The hip joint is the joint between the femur (thigh bone) and the acetabulum of the pelvis (hip bone). The pelvis is the largest bone formed by three bones namely Ilium, Ischium and Pubis.  The Ishium and ileum join behind with a single piece of a big bone called the sacrum. The pubis on either side, join in the front forming the pubic arch.", "The pelvic girdle attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton and is responsible for bearing the weight of the body and for locomotion. It is securely attached to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments. It also has deep sockets with robust ligaments to securely attach the femur to the body. The pelvic girdle is further strengthened by two large hip bones. In adults, the hip bones are formed by the fusion of three pairs of bones: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The pelvis joins together in the anterior of the body the pubic symphysis joint and with the bones of the sacrum at the posterior of the body.", "Adoption of ischium into English-language medical literature dates back to c. 1640; the Latin term derives from Greek ἰσχίον iskhion meaning \"hip joint\". The division of the acetabulum into ischium (ἰσχίον) and ilium (λαγών, os lagonicum) is due to Galen, De ossibus. Galen, however, omits mention of the pubis as a separate bone. ", "The two hip bones join each other at the pubic symphysis. Together with the sacrum and coccyx, the hip bones form the pelvis.", "The hip region is located lateral and anterior to the gluteal region (i.e., the buttock), inferior to the iliac crest, and overlying the greater trochanter of the femur, or \"thigh bone\". In adults, three of the bones of the pelvis have fused into the hip bone or acetabulum which forms part of the hip region.", "The hip joint is a synovial joint formed by the articulation of the rounded head of the femur and the cup-like acetabulum of the pelvis. It forms the primary connection between the bones of the lower limb and the axial skeleton of the trunk and pelvis. Both joint surfaces are covered with a strong but lubricated layer called articular hyaline cartilage.", "The femur, also known as the thigh bone, is the longest bone of the human skeleton located in between the hip bone", "The right and left os coxae form the pelvic girdle. Together, the pelvic girdle, sacrum, and coccyx (final 3-5 vertebrae) make up a ring of bones called the pelvis (bony pelvis).", "Ischiofemoral ligament: The posterior (backside) aspect of the capsule of the hip joint is reinforced by this ligament that attaches from the ischial part of the acetabulum (remember that the acetabular rim is formed by the union of three bones including the ischium) to the femur.", "Situated below the ilium and behind the pubis, it is one of these three bones whose fusion creates the hip. The superior portion of this bone forms approximately one third of the acetabulum.", "The hip joint is a multi-axial ball and socket synovial joint formed by the articulation of the rounded head of the femur (Thighbone) and the cuplike acetabulum of the pelvis. It acts as a pivot forming the primary connection between the bones of the lower limb and the axial skeleton of the trunk and the pelvis.", "The ischium, which forms the postero-inferior part of the hip bone, consists of a body and a ramus. The body is fused with the ilium and pubis and forms approximately the posterior two fifths of the acetabulum. The inferior end of the body forms a rough impression known as the ischial tuberosity, to which the hamstrings are attached (figs. 12-1 , 12-2 , 12-3 , 12-4 and 12-5 ). The tuberosity is covered by a bursa, which may become enlarged (\"weaver's bottom\"). The ischial tuberosity is obscured by the gluteus maximus when the hip is extended but is palpable when the thigh is flexed. The body weight rests on the ischial tuberosities in the sitting position. The body of the ischium presents three surfaces: one facing the thigh (femoral), another related to the ischiorectal fossa (pelvic), and still another (posterior), which is continuous with the gluteal surface of the ilium. Superiot to the ischial tuberosity, the lesser sciatic notch leads to the ischial spine, which is at the inferior limit of the greater sciatic notch. These notches are converted into foramina by the sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments. The ramus of the ischium extends medially from the body and tuberosity and joins the inferior ramus of the pubis. The conjoined rami of the ischium and pubis complete the inferior aspect of the obturator foramen. They have two surfaces: one faces the thigh and the other the pelvis and perineum.", "The hip is the body’s second largest weight-bearing joint (after the knee ). It is a ball and socket joint at the juncture of the leg and pelvis. The rounded head of the femur (thighbone) forms the ball, which fits into the acetabulum (a cup-shaped socket in the pelvis). Ligaments connect the ball to the socket and usually provide tremendous stability to the joint. The hip joint is normally very sturdy because of the fit between the femoral head and acetabulum as well as strong ligaments and muscles at the joint.", "Acetabulum:  the cup-shaped socket of the hip joint. The head (upper end) of the femur (the thighbone) fits into the acetabulum and articulates with it, forming a ball-and-socket joint. The word ”acetabulum“ in Latin means \"cup.\"", "The human skeleton contains two hip bones that together join to form the wall of the pelvic cavity.", "* in the pelvis, the proximal articular surfaces of the ischium with the ilium and the pubis are separated by a large concave surface (on the upper side of the ischium a part of the open hip joint is located between the contacts with the pubic bone and the ilium)", "In the hip, the ligament extending from the ischium to the ischial border of the acetabulum.", "�    Located distal to the iliac crest, the greater trochanter is the large, superficial mass located on the side of the hip.", "Pelvic girdle consists of two coxal bones. Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones – ilium, ischium and pubis. At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates. The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage.", "The gluteal region is an anatomical area located posteriorly to the pelvic girdle, at the proximal end of the femur. The muscles in this region move the lower limb at the hip joint.", "location: medial compartment of the femoral sheath, deep to inguinal ligament; opens into the abdominal cavity superiorly at femoral ring", "Ilium: bone of the pelvic girdle, comprised of the fusion of the ilium, the ischium and the pubic bone.", "A large flat bone formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis (in the adult), constituting the lateral half of the pelvis; it articulates with its fellow anteriorly, with the sacrum posteriorly, and with the femur laterally.", "Trochanter –Trokhos is the Greek word for a wheel a wheel. The spherical femoral head came to be known as trokhanter. Sometime later the meaning slid down to include the neck and became the word to describe the part that we nowadays know as the trochanter.", "Attachments: Originates from the gluteal (posterior) surface of the ilium, sacrum and coccyx. It slopes across the buttock at a 45 degree angle, then inserts into the iliotibial tract and the gluteal tuberosity of the femur.", "a heavy ridge on the posterior surface of the femur that connects the greater and lesser trochanters", "To determine whether shortening of the limb is in the head or neck of the femur (or in both), the relative positions of certain anatomical points are verified. For example, a line (Nelaton's) from the anterior superior iliac spine to the most promient part of the ischial tuberosity should normally lie superior to the greater trochanter." ]

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[ "The ureter is a small tube that connects a kidney to a urinary bladder . Humans, along with most other mammals, typically have two ureters, with one coming from each kidney. These ureters run down the back of the abdominal cavity before connecting to the urinary bladder. Kidney stones traveling down one of these tubes can be very uncomfortable or painful, and it can cause inflammation in the area.", "ureter - The two ureters are hollow tubes that link and carries urine from kidney to the bladder. The tubes have a muscular wall lined with transitional epithelium.", "This waste then trickles down the ureters — thin tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder . Your bladder is a container for your urine that holds it there until you are ready to go to the bathroom. When you are ready to get rid of this waste, your body relaxes a small muscle and the urine travels down the urethra — another small tube — and out of your body. Drinking lots of water will help this system of your body to stay healthy and to work properly. The kidneys of a healthy adult can process fifteen liters of water a day.", "The adult ureter is a thick-walled muscular tube, 25 - 30 cm in length, running from the kidney to the urinary bladder.", "Ureters. Ureters are the thin tubes of muscle—one on each side of the bladder—that carry urine from each of the kidneys to the bladder.", "In human anatomy, the ureters are muscular tubes that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.", "From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to the bladder. The ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long. Muscles in the ureter walls constantly tighten and relax to force urine downward away from the kidneys. If urine is allowed to stand still, or back up, a kidney infection can develop. Small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15 seconds.", "Salt and excess water are filtered from the blood by the kidneys. These bean-shaped organs are located on either side of the back of the abdomen. Ureters are the muscular tubes that lead from each of the kidneys to the urinary bladder.", "one of a pair of tubes, about 30 cm long, that carries urine from the kidney into the bladder. Each tube is composed of a fibrous, a muscular, and a mucous coat and divides into an abdominal part and a pelvic part. The abdominal part lies behind the peritoneum on the medial side of the psoas major and enters the pelvic cavity by crossing either the termination of the common iliac artery or the commencement of the external iliac artery. In men the pelvic part of the ureter runs caudally along the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity and reaches the lateral angle of the bladder just ventral to the upper tip of the seminal vesicle. In women the pelvic part of the ureter forms the posterior boundary of the ovarian fossa and runs medially and ventrally along the upper part of the vagina. The ureter enters the bladder through a tunnel that functions as a valve to prevent backflow of urine into the ureter when the bladder contracts. Connecting with the kidneys, the ureters expand into funnel-shaped renal pelves that branch into calyces. Urine is pumped through the ureters by peristaltic waves that occur an average of three times a minute. ureteral, adj.", "There are two kidneys, one on each side of the tummy (abdomen). They make urine which drains down tubes called ureters into the bladder. Urine is stored in the bladder and is passed out through the urethra from time to time when we go to the toilet.", "The kidneys extract waste and excess water from blood to make urine. The urine is sent to the urinary bladder through tubes called ureters. When the bladder is full, urine is released from the body through the urethra.", "Blood enters the kidneys through arteries that branch inside the kidneys into tiny clusters of looping blood vessels. Each cluster is called a glomerulus, which comes from the Greek word meaning filter. The plural form of the word is glomeruli. There are approximately 1 million glomeruli, or filters, in each kidney. The glomerulus is attached to the opening of a small fluid-collecting tube called a tubule. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus, and extra fluid and wastes pass into the tubule and become urine. Eventually, the urine drains from the kidneys into the bladder through larger tubes called ureters.", "Your kidneys are bean-shaped organs, each about the size of your fist. They are located near the middle of your back, just below the rib cage. The kidneys are sophisticated trash collectors. Every day, your kidneys process about 200 quarts of blood to sift out about 2 quarts of waste products and extra water. The waste and extra water become urine, which flows to your bladder through tubes called ureters (YOOR-uh-ters). Your bladder (BLAD-ur) stores urine until you go to the bathroom. (Source: excerpt from What Are Kidney Stones: NIDDK )", "A tube that carries urine downwards from each kidney to the urinary bladder for temporary storage. The ureters have muscular walls that can contract to assist in the propulsion of the urine.", "The tube that conducts the urine from the renal pelvis to the bladder; consists of abdominal and pelvic parts; lined with transitional epithelium surrounded by smooth muscle, both circular and longitudinal, and covered externally by an adventitia.", "The organs, tubes, muscles, and nerves that work together to create, store, and carry urine are the urinary system. The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles, and the urethra.", "Catheterization is accomplished by inserting a catheter (a hollow tube, often with an inflatable balloon tip) into the urinary bladder. This procedure is performed for urinary obstruction, following surgical procedures to the urethra, in unconscious patients (due to surgical anesthesia or coma), or for any other problem in which the bladder needs to be kept empty (decompressed) and urinary flow assured. Catheterization in males is slightly more difficult and uncomfortable than in females because of the longer urethra.", "After urine has been produced by the kidneys, it is transported through the ureters to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder fills with urine and stores it until the body is ready for its excretion. When the volume of the urinary bladder reaches anywhere from 150 to 400 milliliters, its walls begin to stretch and stretch receptors in its walls send signals to the brain and spinal cord . These signals result in the relaxation of the involuntary internal urethral sphincter and the sensation of needing to urinate. Urination may be delayed as long as the bladder does not exceed its maximum volume, but increasing nerve signals lead to greater discomfort and desire to urinate.", "* urethra (yoo-REE-thra) is the tube through which urine passes from the bladder to the outside of the body,", "The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. It is a hollow muscular, and elastic organ, and sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.", "After administration of anesthesia, the doctor, cystopically, will insert a catheter through the patient's urethra and into the bladder and then into the ureter so contrast dye can be injected. Once the contrast dye is distributed through the ureters and kidney, the doctor employs a fluoroscope to magnify details with the use of X-ray on a special florescent screen. This technique produces definitive images of stones and tumors thus allowing easy diagnosis of obstructions in the urinary system without relying on the ability of the kidneys to excrete the contrast media.", "A) Ureters contain sphincters at the entrance to the bladder to prevent the backflow of urine.", "In both sexes the ureters enter the bladder wall about five centimetres apart, although this distance is increased when the bladder is distended with urine. The ureters run obliquely through the muscular wall of the bladder for nearly two centimetres before opening into the bladder cavity through narrow apertures. This oblique course provides a kind of valvular mechanism; when the bladder becomes distended it presses against the part of each ureter that is in the muscular wall of the bladder, and this helps to prevent the flow of urine back into the ureters from the bladder.", "The muscle layer is the functional layer, using peristalsis to move the urine along. Peristalsis is a waving contraction of the muscles to propel the contents of a tube in one direction. In this case, the urine is propelled to an opening at the base of the bladder.", "The bladder is a muscular receptacle, or holding container, for pee (urine). It expands (gets bigger) as urine enters and then contracts (gets smaller) to push the urine out.", "CATHETER a tube placed near the spinal cord and used for anesthesia (indwelling epidural) during surgery", "The innermost layer of the bladder is the mucosa layer that lines the hollow lumen. Unlike the mucosa of other hollow organs, the urinary bladder is lined with transitional epithelial tissue that is able to stretch significantly to accommodate large volumes of urine. The transitional epithelium also provides protection to the underlying tissues from acidic or alkaline urine.", "Due to the location of the kidney, it comes into contact with various structures in the body.", "Anatomy of the Bladder and Urethra: Section about the Renal System (also known as the Urinary System).", "The indentation in the kidney through which all structures must pass as they enter or leave the kidney is the", "For this test, urologists inject a radioisotope \"tracer,\" a molecule to which a radioactive atom or \"tag,\" has been attached so that it can be followed through the kidney system with special detectors. While the isotopes such as iodine-123 or 131 are often used, many urologists prefer (-99m) technetium because of its superior imaging characteristics and short half-life. It is attached to DTPA (diethylenetriamine-pentaacetic acid) for imaging patients with normal kidney function or MAG3 (mercaptoacetyltriglycine) for those with kidney impairment. In either case, a series of X-ray images of the kidneys are obtained to evaluate blood flow as well as function.", "If you were to uncoil and untwist all the nephrons in a single kidney, they'd span over 5 miles. That makes for one long trip to the bathroom." ]

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[ "Cartilage is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, covering and protecting the ends of the long bones at joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many more other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is stiffer and less flexible than muscle.", "Cartilage is a connective tissue that is stiff yet flexible. Some of the main types include fibrous, elastic, and hyaline. Fibrous cartilage may be found in such areas as between vertebral discs of the spinal cord. The outer ear, nose, and larynx are some locations of elastic. Hyaline cartilage, also referred to as articular cartilage, covers joint surfaces and additionally may be found in the shoulder and hips as well.", "According to the University of Maryland Medical Center, cartilage is located in the nose and ears, as well as several of the body's joints, including the knees, hips, shoulders and fingers. Cartilage is one of the body's chief connective tissues. It takes the form of a matrix and contains proteins, sugars and collagen. Wikipedia notes that cartilage is also found in intervertebral discs and the bronchial tubes.", "The nasal root is the top of the nose, forming an indentation at the suture where the nasal bones meet the frontal bone. The anterior nasal spine is the thin projection of bone at the midline on the lower nasal margin, holding the cartilaginous center of the nose.[1] Adult humans have nasal hairs in the anterior nasal passage.", "Inner ear. The deepest part of the ear. It is contained within a system of spaces and canals, known as the osseous or bony labyrinth, in the temporal bone. These spaces and canals are divided into three sections: the vestibule, which contains two balance organs, the utricle and saccule; the semicircular canals, located behind the vestibule, and the cochlea. The spaces between the bony walls of the osseous labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth are filled with one of several types of fluid, which deliver nutrients to the cells of the inner ear; provide the chemical environment needed for transfer of energy from a vibratory stimulus to a neural signal; and function as the medium to carry vibratory stimuli from the oval window to the sensory structures along the cochlear partition. [3], [5]", "A specialized type of dense connective tissue; attached to the ends of bones and forming parts of structures, such as the nasal septum and the framework of the ear.", "The septum is cartilage that divides the nose into 2 separate chambers. A deviated septum is when the septum is shifted away from the midline.", "There are two regions in the vertebral disc; the nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus. The annulus fibrosis is tough and collagenous, surrounding the nucleus pulposus. The nucleus pulposus is jelly-like, and is located posteriorly.", "The tympanic membrane, or eardrum, is a thin layer of cone-shaped tissue that separates the outer ear from the middle ear. It facilitates hearing by transmitting sound vibrations from the air to the bones in the middle ear.", "the support structure of the skeletal system that provides cushioning between bones; also forms the nasal septum and portions of the outer ear", "The nasal septum is composed of the quadrangular cartilage, the vomer bone (the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone), aspects of the premaxilla, and the palatine bones. Each lateral nasal wall contains three pairs of turbinates (nasal conchae), which are small, thin, shell-form bones: (i) the superior concha, (ii) the middle concha, and (iii) the inferior concha, which are the bony framework of the turbinates. Lateral to the turbinates is the medial wall of the maxillary sinus. Inferior to the nasal conchae (turbinates) is the meatus space, with names that correspond to the turbinates, e.g. superior turbinate, superior meatus, et alii. The internal roof of the nose is composed by the horizontal, perforated cribriform plate (of the ethmoid bone) through which pass sensory filaments of the olfactory nerve (Cranial nerve I); finally, below and behind (posteroinferior) the cribriform plate, sloping down at an angle, is the bony face of the sphenoid sinus.", "Cartilage of the septum — also known as the quadrangular cartilage because it is roughly quadrilateral in shape — separates the nostrils. It also connects the nasal bones and the lateral cartilages.", "The tympanic membrane is comprised of three layers of tissue: the outer cutaneous layer, the fibrous middle layer, and a layer of mucous membrane on its innermost surface. The membrane is held in place by a thick ring of cartilage, a tough but flexible kind of tissue.", "The Eustachian tube extends from the anterior wall of the middle ear to the lateral wall of the nasopharynx, approximately at the level of the inferior nasal concha. It consists of a bony part and a cartilaginous part.", "The bony part (1/3) nearest to the middle ear is made of bone and is about 12 mm in length. It begins in the anterior wall of the tympanic cavity, below the septum canalis musculotubarii, and, gradually narrowing, ends at the angle of junction of the squamous and the petrous parts of the temporal bone, its extremity presenting a jagged margin which serves for the attachment of the cartilaginous part. ", "bones forming part of the lateral surfaces and the base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing.", "The frontal lobes of the brain rest on the ethmoid, frontal, and sphenoid bones. The crista galli projects up from the ethmoid bone and gives attachment to the falx cerebri. Behind and at each side of the crista galli, the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone transmits the filaments of the olfactory nerves from the nasal mucosa to the olfactory bulbs, which lie on the plate. The ethmoid bone articulates behind with the jugum sphenoidale, a part of the sphenoid bone that unites the right and left lesser wings. Laterally, the orbital plate of the frontal bone roofs the orbit and ethmoidal air sinuses and articulates behind with the lesser wing of the sphenoid bones. The sphenoidal ridge ofthe lesser wing projects into the lateral sulcus of the brain and ends medially in the anterior clinoid process.", "The meninges are composed by three fibrous connective tissues (Figure 1.6). The most external is a dense collagenous connective tissue envelope known as the dura mater (Latin for “hard mother”). The second, or the intermediated membrane, is a delicate non-vascular membrane of fine collagenous layer of reticular fibers forming a web-like membrane, known as the arachnoid (Greek for “spider”). It is separated from the inner pia layer by subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The inner most delicate connective tissue membrane of collagenous is the pia mater, a thin translucent elastic membrane adherent to the surface of the brain and the spinal cord. Blood vessels located on the surface of the brain and the spinal cord are found on top of the pia matter. The meninges are subject to viral and bacterial infection known as meningitis, a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical treatment.", "File:Gray919.png|Chain of ossicles and their ligaments, seen from the front in a vertical, transverse section of the tympanum.", "the very light, sievelike, and spongy bone at the base of the cranium, also forming the roof and most of the walls of the superior part of the nasal cavity. It consists of four parts: a horizontal plate, a perpendicular plate, and two lateral labyrinths.", "  The Labyrinth or Lateral Mass (labyrinthus ethmoidalis) consists of a number of thin-walled cellular cavities, the ethmoidal cells, arranged in three groups, anterior, middle, and posterior, and interposed between two vertical plates of bone; the lateral plate forms part of the orbit, the medial, part of the corresponding nasal cavity. In the disarticulated bone many of these cells are opened into, but when the bones are articulated, they are closed in at every part, except where they open into the nasal cavity.", "A light spongy bone located between the eye sockets, forming part of the walls and septum of the superior nasal cavity, and containing numerous perforations for the passage of the fibers of the olfactory nerves.", "the organ of smell in the nasal mucosa consisting of specialized cells with a tuft of very fine processes protruding into the nasal cavity. Internally they communicate with the olfactory nerves which pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone to synapse with cells in the glomeruli of the olfactory bulb of the brain.", "The cartilaginous part of the Eustachian tube is about 24 mm. in length and is formed of a triangular plate of elastic fibrocartilage, the apex of which is attached to the margin of the medial end of the bony part of the tube, while its base lies directly under the mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx, where it forms an elevation, the torus tubarius or cushion, behind the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube.", "The nose is the organ of smell located in the middle of the face. The internal part of the nose lies above the roof of the mouth. The nose consists of:", "column of nervous tissue from the brainstem through the vertebrae; responsible for nerve conduction to and from the brain and the body", "Type of tissue that lies between groups of nerve, gland, and muscle cells and beneath the skin cells.", "Astroglial cells, also known as \"astrocytes\" are found throughout the Central Nervous System (CNS), that is in the tissues of the Brain and Spinal Cord.", "consists of a hollowed out region of fluid-filled bony canals within the temporal bone called the osseous labyrinth and a system of fluid-filled membranes and ducts contained within called the membraneous labyrinth", "An organ that lies below the midbrain and above the medulla and contains numerous important nerve fibers, including those for sleep, respiration, and the medullary respiratory center.", "vestibular ligament  the membrane extending from the thyroid cartilage in front to the anterolateral surface of the arytenoid cartilage behind.", "An extension of the brain, composed of virtually all the nerves carrying messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It lies inside of and is protected by the spinal canal." ]

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[ "The renal arteries branch off of the abdominal aorta and supply the kidneys with blood. The arterial supply of the kidneys is variable from person to person, and there may be one or more renal arteries supplying each kidney. ", "The renal arteries branch off of the abdominal aorta and supply the kidneys with blood . The arterial supply of the kidneys varies from person to person, and there may be one or more renal arteries to supply each kidney.", "If we want to reach one of the kidneys, we have to follow a blood vessel, coming off of the surface of the abdominal aorta, which supplies a kidney with blood, called the renal artery. You have two renal arteries in your body, one for each kidney.", "After naming these new arteries, we continue our journey through them and eventually reach branches of the arcuate arteries that supply the renal cortex with blood, which are known as the interlobular arteries or the cortical radial arteries. The interlobular artery will eventually give off a branch called the afferent arteriole that will supply the functional unit of the kidney, the nephron, with blood.", "Follow the blood supply of the kidneys through the aorta and into the renal artery, then delve deeper into the blood supply as we look into the arcuate artery, interlobar artery, and interlobular artery. Finally, we will find out the function of the renal vein.", "Blood containing metabolic waste is transported to the kidney by the renal vein; the renal artery removes blood from the kidney once the waste has been removed.", "Renal Artery:  The name tells you exactly what it is.  This is the primary artery that feeds oxygenated blood to the kidneys.", "– Each segmentalartery supplies a distinct portion of the kidney with no collateral circulation between them. Thus, occlusion or injury to a segmental branch will cause segmental renal infarction.", "Renal artery = either of the two arteries arising from the abdominal aorta and supplying the kidneys.", "Arteriography. A catheter is placed under X-ray (fluoroscopic) control in the renal artery and contrast dye injected to outline the vessels in the kidney. Ninety-five percent of kidney tumors have an increased number of blood vessels. Arteriography may help the urologist (urologic surgeon) in planning tumor removal", "The inferior phrenic artery sometimes also supplies an \"accessory renal artery.\" A study of the arterial supply of the kidney (composite of 45 authors and 10,967 kidneys) demonstrated the following: Single artery to each kidney, 72% (SD 2.51; one artery with a single upper polar branch, 12.6% (412 of 3269 cases); two arteries, 11% (530 of 4901 cases); one hilar and one upper aortic polar branch, 6% (211 of 3384 cases); one hilar and one lower aortic polar branch, 3% (115 of 3674 cases); three arteries 1.7% (70 of 4019 cases); and two arteries, one with an upper polar branch, 2.7% (37 of 1370 cases.) Quain reported that three arteries occur in 3% of cases.", "Blood then leaves the glomerulus through the efferent arterioles and back to the renal vein and empties into the IVC . Renal vein s lies anterior to renal arteries. The left renal vein is longer than the right and it passes between the aorta and the superior mesenteric artery.", "The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped, brown organs about the size of your fist.It measures 10-12 cm long. They are covered by the renal capsule, which is a tough capsule of fibrous connective tissue. Adhering to the surface of each kidney is two layers of fat to help cushion them. There is a concaved side of the kidney that has a depression where a renal artery enters, and a renal vein and a ureter exit the kidney. The kidneys are located at the rear wall of the abdominal cavity just above the waistline, and are protected by the ribcage. They are considered retroperitoneal, which means they lie behind the peritoneum. There are three major regions of the kidney, renal cortex, renal medulla and the renal pelvis. The outer, granulated layer is the renal cortex. The cortex stretches down in between a radially striated inner layer. The inner radially striated layer is the renal medulla. This contains pyramid shaped tissue called the renal pyramids, separated by renal columns. The ureters are continuous with the renal pelvis and is the very center of the kidney.", "It is not only ludicrous but dangerous to suggest that the kidneys each receive only a single artery. This is commonly stated and shown in illustrations in textbooks of anatomy used by professional students of medicine and the allied health sciences. This could be easily rectified in a single sentence such as, \"The kidneys may receive a single artery athough each organ may equally be supplied by as many as six end arteries.\" The details follow.", "– The left renal vein is typically 6 to 10 cm in length and enters the left lateral aspect of the IVC after passing posterior to the superior mesenteric artery and anterior to the aorta.", "In 1 - 2% of cases, three hilar renal arteries are derived from the aorta. The typical pattern for triple renal arteries is that two are hilar (of aortic origin) and the third is a superior or a lower renal polar branch. The superior or the intermediate of the three renals may supply a superior renal polar or a suprarenal branch. The inferior vessel may provide a gonadal (ovarian or testicular) or inferior renal polar.", "At the base (peripheral edge) of the renal pyramids, the interlobar arteries branch into arcuate arteries.", "Abdominal aorta -> Renal arteries -> Segmental arteries -> Lobar arteries -> Interlobar arteries -> Arcuate arteries -> Interlobular arteries -> Afferent glomerular arterioles.", "Segmental arteries branch into lobar arteries, which further subdivide in the renal parenchyma to form interlobar arteries.", "Renal vascular disease affects the blood flow into and out of the kidneys. It may cause kidney damage, kidney failure, and high blood pressure.", "Each kidney receives its nerve supply from the corresponding renal sympathetic plexus. The afferent fibers from the kidney travel through the renal plexus and enter the spinal cord in the 10th, 11th and 12th thoracic segments.", "Figure 3C - The renal blood vessels are dissected free and tied off and cut. © N. Gordon", "– Interlobular arteries branch off the arcuate arteries and move radially, where they eventually divide to form the afferent arteries to the glomeruli.", "Every minute, more than 1 quart (about 1 liter) of blood goes to the kidneys. About one fifth of the blood pumped from the heart goes to the kidneys at any one time.", "The continuous blood supply entering and leaving the kidneys gives the kidneys their dark red color. While the blood is in the kidneys, water and some of the other blood components (such as acids, glucose, and other nutrients) are reabsorbed into the bloodstream. Left behind is urine.", "At the junction of the cortex and medulla, the interlobar arteries give off the arcuate arteries, which arch over the bases of the pyramids. Interlobular arteries, which ascend into the cortex, arise from the arcuate arteries and give off the afferent glomerular arterioles.", "this gives a clear picture of the blood vessel network and their abnormalities within the kidneys", "The kidneys are bean-shaped, reddish brown paired organs, concave on one long side and convex on the opposite. They are normally located high in the abdominal cavity and against its back wall, lying on either side of the vertebral column between the levels of the 12th thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae, and outside the peritoneum, the membrane that lines the abdomen.", "Diagram showing the location of the kidneys in the abdominal cavity and their attachment to major …", "The kidneys are a pair of organs located in the back of the abdomen. Each kidney is about 4 or 5 inches long -- about the size of a fist.", "Due to the location of the kidney, it comes into contact with various structures in the body.", "The cut end of the kidney is covered with fat, fascia or peritoneum (the thin lining of the abdominal cavity)" ]

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[ "When referencing the heart, the auricle typically describes part of either the left of the right atrium. The human heart is made up of four main chambers, two ventricles and two atria, one each on the left and right sides. Atria typically sit just above the ventricles and help process blood as it pumps. In decades past, medical experts often referred to the atria as the left and right auricles, but this reference isn’t usually made anymore. Today, the term is typically used to refer to the small, cone-shaped, muscular pouch that projects from the atrium, insulating and in some ways protecting it. These pouches help the atria hold more blood, and in this respect they essentially serve as reservoirs.", "In a four-chambered heart, such as that in humans, there are two ventricles that operate in a double circulatory system: the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the systemic circulation through the aorta.", "The heart has four chambers, two atria and two ventricles. The atria are smaller with thin walls, while the ventricles are larger and much stronger.", "The heart has four chambers. The two ventricles (right and left) are muscular chambers that propel the blood out of the heart. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood to all other organs.", "The human heart has four chambers: two upper chambers (the atria) and two lower ones (the ventricles), according to the  National Institutes of Health . The right atrium and right ventricle together make up the \"right heart,\" and the left atrium and left ventricle make up the \"left heart.\" A wall of muscle called the septum separates the two sides of the heart.", "There are four heart valves in a healthy human heart. The valves help to maintain proper blood flow through the heart , keeping blood moving efficiently and smoothly, and in the right direction. In addition to the valves there are four heart chambers -- the upper chambers are called the left and right atrium, the lower chambers are the left and right ventricle.", "The mammalian heart has four chambers, two upper atria, the receiving chambers, and two lower ventricles, the discharging chambers. The heart has four valves, which separate its chambers and ensures blood flows in the correct direction through the heart (preventing backflow). After gas exchange in the pulmonary capillaries (blood vessels in the lungs), oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via one of the four pulmonary veins. Blood flows nearly continuously back into the atrium, which acts as the receiving chamber, and from here through an opening into the left ventricle. Most blood flows passively into the heart while both the atria and ventricles are relaxed, but toward the end of the ventricular relaxation period, the left atrium will contract, pumping blood into the ventricle. The heart also requires nutrients and oxygen found in blood like other muscles, and is supplied via coronary arteries. ", "In humans, other mammals, and birds, the heart is divided into four chambers: upper left and right atria; and lower left and right ventricles. Commonly the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left counterparts as the left heart. Fish in contrast have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while reptiles have three chambers. In a healthy heart blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. The heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of fluid. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. ", "Humans have a four-chambered heart consisting of the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle. The atria, are the two upper chambers. The right atrium receives and holds deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, anterior cardiac veins and smallest cardiac veins and the coronary sinus, which it then sends down to the right ventricle (through the tricuspid valve) which in turn sends it to the pulmonary artery for pulmonary circulation. The left atrium receives the oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins, which it pumps to the left ventricle (through the mitral valve) for pumping out through the aorta for systemic circulation. ", "The heart has four chambers that are enclosed by thick, muscular walls. It lies between the lungs and just to the left of the middle of the chest cavity. The bottom part of the heart is divided into two chambers called the right and left ventricles, which pump blood out of the heart. A wall called the interventricular septum divides the ventricles.", "The heart is divided into four chambers: a right and left atrium and a right and a left ventricle . The ventricles are thick-walled and muscular and each one is connected by an opening with the atrium on its own side but is divided from its fellow ventricle by a wall or septum; the two atria are similarly divided from each other. Blood enters the atria by veins and is pumped out of the ventricles through arteries. Having circulated in the body, blood enters the right atrium and then passes into the right ventricle, which contracts and forces it along an artery to the lungs . There it receives oxygen and returns by a vein to the left atrium, passes into the left ventricle and is pumped into a large artery from which it circulates in the body. Having lost its oxygen it comes back to the right atrium and goes all the way around again.", "The heart has four chambers – an atrium and ventricle on each side. The atria are both supplied by large blood vessels that bring blood to the heart (see below for more details). Atria have special valves that open into the ventricles. The ventricles also have valves but, in this case, they open into blood vessels. The walls of the heart chambers are made mainly of special heart muscle. The different sections of the heart have to squeeze (contract) in the correct order for the heart to pump blood efficiently with each heartbeat.", "The lungs are composed of two �rows� (��arugot�), right and left, divided vertically, by a septum (�ṭarpesh ha-leb�) which rises from the pericardium (�kis ha-leb�) and is attached to the spinal column. The large bronchi (�bet ha-simponot�) enter respectively the inner side of each row (ib. 50a). Alongside of the bronchi enter also the large blood-vessels (�mizraḳim�; ib. 93b). The number of lobes in each lung is given correctly (ib. 47a). The pleura is composed of two layers, an outer, rough one (�ḳerama �illaya�) and an inner, rose-colored one (�ḳerama tatta�a,� �kittuna de-warda�; ib. 46a). The heart is composed of two ventricles (�ḥalal�), the right being larger than the left (ib. 45b). It is situated to the left of the median line (Men. 37b). Rab expressed a radical view for his time , namely, that the aorta (�ḳaneh shel-leb�) contains blood, not air (Ḥul. 45b). The large veins are called �weridim�; the small ones, �ḥuṭe dam.�", "The walls of the heart are made up of three layers, while the cavity is divided into four parts. There are two upper chambers, called the right and left atria, and two lower chambers, called the right and left ventricles. The Right Atrium, as it is called, receives blood from the upper and lower body through the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, respectively, and from the heart muscle itself through the coronary sinus. The right atrium is the larger of the two atria, having very thin walls. The right atrium opens into the right ventricle through the right atrioventicular valve(tricuspid), which only allows the blood to flow from the atria into the ventricle, but not in the reverse direction. The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs to be reoxygenated. The left atrium receives blood from the lungs via the four pulmonary veins. It is smaller than the right atrium, but has thicker walls. The valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle, the left atrioventicular valve(bicuspid), is smaller than the tricuspid. It opens into the left ventricle and again is a one way valve. The left ventricle pumps the blood throughout the body. It is the Aorta, the largest artery in the body, which originates from the left ventricle.", "First, the heart's two upper chambers, the atria (AY-tree-uh), contract. This contraction pumps blood into the heart's two lower chambers, the ventricles (VEN-trih-kuls). The ventricles then contract and pump blood to the rest of the body. The combined contraction of the atria and ventricles is a heartbeat.", "The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist with two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline.", "26 Heart Size of your fist Pumps blood to all parts of the body Divided into 4 chambers Upper chambers – right and left atrium Lower chambers – right and left ventricles A muscular wall called the septum separates the right side from the left side Each chambers have valves. The valves have different names. the tricuspid valve is at the exit of the right atrium the mitral valve is for the left atrium the pulmonary valve is at the exit of the right ventricle the aortic valve is at the exit of the left ventricle. Their purpose is to allow blood to move forward through the heart and to prevent it flowing backwards into the previous chamber.", "The Heart is divided into separate right and left sections. Each of these (right and left) sections is also divided into upper and lower compartments known as atria and ventricles, respectively. ", "* heart is at the posterior end of body consisting of a ventricle and a pair of auricles", "It's a very ancient system, says Rutgers University anthropologist Susan Cachel -- and it's not unique to humans. The organ systems we find in most animals contain one heart and two lungs. That is, with the exception of earthworms and cephalopods -- the invertebrate class which includes octopi and squid. Earthworms have five heart-like structures. Cephalopods have three hearts (two to send blood to the gills, and one to send blood to the rest of the body) and no lungs.", "From this it will be understood that in the human embryo, and in the embryos of animals in which the communications are not closed, the same thing happens, namely, that the heart by its motion propels the blood by obvious and open passages from the vena cava into the aorta through the cavities of both the ventricles, the right one receiving the blood from the auricle, and propelling it by the pulmonary artery and its continuation, named the ductus arteriosus, into the aorta; the left, in like manner, charged by the contraction of its auricle, which has received its supply through the foramen ovale from the vena cava, contracting, and projecting the blood through the root of the aorta into the trunk of that vessel.", "The tricuspid valve is often called the \"forgotten valve\" or \"lost valve,\" because it is understudied relative to the other cardiac valves; variations in anatomic structures have been reported in the literature. The tricuspid valve has been described as having as few as 2 and as many as 6 leaflets, [ 2 ] whereas the papillary muscles have been reported to number from 2 to 9. [ 3 ]", "Most agree that an adult, full-grown human has 206 distinct bones. However, this number may vary to a slight degree depending on individual interpretation. For example, some sources indicate that there are 208 bones if you consider the three sternum sections. The problem is that depending on how much the bones have fused together it may be difficult to actually distinguish three sternum bones. Since they are not always distinguishable in a large number of cases its best to count the sternum as just one bone. Therefore, you arrive at 206 bones and not 208. Variation also exists with the sacrum and coccyx so it's best to just count each as one.", "The heart is cone-shaped, with its base positioned upwards and tapering down to the apex. An adult heart has a mass of 250–350 grams (9–12 oz). The heart is typically the size of a fist: 12 cm (5 in) in length, 8 cm (3.5 in) wide, and 6 cm (2.5 in) in thickness. Well-trained athletes can have much larger hearts due to the effects of exercise on the heart muscle, similar to the response of skeletal muscle. ", "Therefore, the right side of the heart is concerned with the deoxygenated blood and the left side of the heart is concerned with the oxygenated blood. Further, the auricles are the receiving chambers and the ventricles are the pumping chambers. When the ventricles pump blood into the blood vessels, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves prevent the backflow into the auricles.", "From 300 to 2,000 infants are born annually with the fatal heart defect hypoplastic left heart syndrome, he said, explaining that such infants are essentially born with half a heart and most die within a few weeks. A corrective surgical technique is being tried on some of these children but, according to Dr. Bailey, the surgery is just as risky as a baboon transplant. Baby Fae was born with this defect.", "About 2,100 heart transplants are performed in the United States each year. But because of a severe shortage of donors, surgeons are testing self-contained artificial hearts and other mechanical devices to keep patients alive until a donor heart becomes available for transplant. Researchers are also trying to develop cross-species transplants.", "Ventricular Brain Ratio. The ventricles are a pair of large horn-shaped organs in the brain, visible in MRI.", "The human heart is not on the left-hand side of the body; it's in the middle", "Following normal dissection along the inflow and outflow tracks, the right-sided chambers are opened so that the tricuspid valve is visible. A full-thickness square of tissue containing the tricuspid valve anulus is taken from between the coronary sinus ostium (posterior) and the membranous septum, at the insertion of the septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve (anterior). If the section is taken correctly, the upper half of the square should be the inferior portion of the atrial septum, and the lower half should be the superior portion of the interventricular septum, with a horizontal groove (the fibrous anulus) separating the two. The tricuspid and mitral valves should be attached to either side of the fibrous anulus, with the mitral valve located more superiorly than the tricuspid valve. The square is serially sectioned perpendicular to the fibrous anulus for embedding. [ 13 , 15 ]", "Atrioventricular valves: large, multi-cusped valves that prevent backflow from the ventricles into the atria during systole", "File:Gray476.png|Human embryo with heart and anterior body-wall removed to show the sinus venosus and its tributaries." ]

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[ "The tube that connects the mouth and the stomach is the esophagus, according to Dictionary.com. The esophagus is a muscular passage found in vertebrate and invertebrate animals. It's sometimes referred to as the \"gullet.\"", "Esophagus (or oesophagus or gullet) is a muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) with the stomach. During swallowing food travels from the mouth through the pharynx into the esophagus and to the stomach by peristaltic contraction of the esophagus. Esophagus is a tube of about 25 to 30 cm long connecting the mouth to the stomach; food takes only 7 to 10 seconds to travel through the esophagus. When the body is in the upright position, even then, liquids can travel through esophagus and reaches the stomach due to this peristaltic contraction.", "The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects your mouth and your stomach. Rings of muscle (sphincters) in the upper and lower portions contract and relax to allow food and liquids to pass.", "The esophagus (also spelled oesophagus/esophagus) or gullet is the muscular tube in vertebrates through which ingested food passes from the throat to the stomach. The esophagus is continuous with the laryngeal part of the pharynx at the level of the C6 vertebra. It connects the pharynx, which is the body cavity that is common to both the digestive and respiratory systems behind the mouth, with the stomach, where the second stage of digestion is initiated (the first stage is in the mouth with teeth and tongue masticating food and mixing it with saliva).", "Esophagus:  The tube that connects the pharynx (throat) with the stomach. The esophagus lies between the trachea (windpipe) and the spine. It passes down the neck, pierces the diaphragm just to the left of the midline, and joins the cardiac (upper) end of the stomach. In an adult, the esophagus is about 25 centimeters (10 inches) long. When a person swallows, the muscular walls of the esophagus contract to push food down into the stomach. Glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus, which keeps the passageway moist and facilitates swallowing. Also known as the gullet or swallowing tube. From the Greek oisophagos, from oisein meaning to bear or carry + phagein, to eat.", "The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a passageway between the pharynx and stomach. As it descends, it is posterior to the trachea and anterior to the vertebral column. It passes through an opening in the diaphragm, called the esophageal hiatus, and then empties into the stomach. The mucosa has glands that secrete mucus to keep the lining moist and well lubricated to ease the passage of food. Upper and lower esophageal sphincters control the movement of food into and out of the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter is sometimes called the cardiac sphincter and resides at the esophagogastric junction.", "1930 J. A. Ryle, British physician, invented Ryle’s tube. A thin flexible tube of rubber or plastic, which is inserted into the stomach through the mouth or nose of a patient and is used for withdrawing fluid from the stomach.", "Alimentary Canal: The alimentary canal is a straight tube and runs between first to last segment of the body. A terminal mouth opens into the buccal cavity (1-3 segments) which leads into muscular pharynx. A small narrow tube, oesophagus (5-7 segments), continues into a muscular gizzard (8-9 segments). It helps in grinding the soil particles and decaying leaves, etc. The stomach extends from 9-14 segments.", "Food is moved through the pharynx and then enters the esophagus. This is the muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach. Your esophagus is about 10 inches long, and it acts only as a passageway for food and drink. The esophagus passes behind the airway to the lungs and in front of the spinal column. It pierces the diaphragm before reaching the stomach.", "A structure with the same name is often found in invertebrates, including molluscs and arthropods, connecting the oral cavity with the stomach. In terms of the digestive system of snails and slugs, the mouth opens into an esophagus, which connects to the stomach. Because of torsion, which is the rotation of the main body of the animal during larval development, the esophagus usually passes around the stomach, and opens into its back, furthest from the mouth. In species that have undergone de-torsion, however, the esophagus may open into the anterior of the stomach, which is the reverse of the usual gastropod arrangement. There is an extensive rostrum at the front of the esophagus in all carnivorous snails and slugs. In the freshwater snail species Tarebia granifera, the brood pouch is above the esophagus. ", "* esophagus (eh-SAH-fuh-gus) is the soft tube that, with swallowing, carries food from the throat to the stomach,", "After food is chewed and swallowed, it enters the esophagus, a tube that carries food through the neck and chest to the stomach. The esophagus joins the stomach at the gastroesophageal (GE) junction, which is just beneath the diaphragm (the thin sheet of breathing muscle under the lungs). The stomach is a sac-like organ that holds food and starts to digest it by secreting gastric juice. The food and gastric juice are mixed and then emptied into the first part of the small intestine called the duodenum.", "A sizing device called a bougie is then placed into the pyloric channel. The thick antrum or cavity of the stomach is divided by cutting transversely around the bougie to create a gastric tube.  The pylorus, the valve that regulates emptying of the stomach, is spared along with a portion of the antrum ensuring preserved gastric emptying. The stomach is divided up to the level of the gastroesophageal junction, the lower part of the esophagus that connects to the stomach.", "one for administering food into the alimentary tract. See also enterostomy tube, jejunostomy tube, tube gastrostomy , nasoesophageal tube (below).", "The pharynx is a muscular tube lying behind the nasal cavity and mouth, carrying air from the nose toward the larynx and food from the mouth toward the esophagus. Pharynx is what your doctor can see through your mouth during “checking your throat” (Picture 2).", "A collapsible tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach; contractions of the muscle in the wall of the esophagus propel food and liquids through it to the stomach.", "stomach Gr. stomachos; originally derived from stoma = mouth, and for a time applied to the esophagus, with the thought that the gullet is the mouth of the stomach.", "The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut (element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx, esophagus, and Crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Here, digestion starts as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (mostly amylases), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders.", "stomach - A Levin tube is a #16 French, plastic catheter used in gastric intubation that has a closed weghted tip and an opening on the side", "TRACHEA is the scientific word for the windpipe, the tube that connects the nose and pharynx to the lungs.", "This is a way of cleansing the esophagus, the food pipe, from the throat to the stomach, by inserting a special rubber tube down the throat into the stomach. It should be about three feet in length and about 1 cm wide. Make sure to clean and disinfect it thoroughly before and after use.", "The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut (element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of chitin and proteins as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx, esophagus and crop and proventriculus (any part may be highly modified) which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut.", "Good post, but minor correction: we don't swallow food and breathe in air through the same tube. Food goes down the esophagus and air goes down the trachea. They're two different tubes, both located in the throat. Otherwise, you're spot on.", "The position and relations of the pharyngeal opening are described with the nasal part of the pharynx. The mucous membrane of the tube is continuous in front with that of the nasal part of the pharynx, and behind with that of the tympanic cavity; it is covered with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelia and is thin in the osseous portion, while in the cartilaginous portion it contains many mucous glands and near the pharyngeal orifice a considerable amount of adenoid tissue, which has been named by Gerlach the tube tonsil.", "a U-shaped tube with one end closed, for determining gas production by bacteria. Called also Durham tube.", "You may have a thin plastic tube inserted through your nose into your stomach to remove air that you swallow. The tube will be taken out when your bowels start working normally again. You won’t be able to eat or drink until the tube is removed.", "Research has shown that the Eustachian tube (ET) in humans is lined with a substance that lowers surface tension and thus facilitates the opening of the Eustachian tube and aeration of the middle ear. However, when a human suffers from ETD, oftentimes a mucosal film is found on the surface of the pharynx and over the stoma of the Eustachian tube. The surface tension of this mucosal film can be sufficiently great as to hinder or prevent the tube from opening to aerate the inner ear and equalize the negative pressure differential.", "The Eustachian tube is a small tube-like canal which connects the inner part of the ear called the middle ear to the back of the nose and upper throat area known as the pharynx with the stoma (opening) of the tube being located in the pharynx. The tube stoma in the pharynx is normally in a closed position to prevent food particles and mucous from being forced into the tube as a result of blowing one's nose, coughing or other similar bodily functions. The function of the Eustachian tube is to equalize the air pressure within the middle ear and the pressure outside it. While a positive pressure differential within the middle ear is generally easily relieved, most individuals having difficulty with Eustachian tube dysfunction primarily experience difficulty when there is a negative pressure differential within the middle ear and the tube opening in the pharynx failing to open to equalize the pressure. The greater outside ambient air pressure compared to the pressure within the inner ear further contributes to the pharynx stoma remaining closed.", "The Eustachian tube, also known as the auditory tube or pharyngotympanic tube, is a tube that links the nasopharynx to the middle ear. It is a part of the middle ear. In adult humans the Eustachian tube is approximately 35 mm long and 3 mm in diameter. It is named after the sixteenth-century anatomist Bartolomeo Eustachi. ", "The actions of the levator palatini (pharyngeal plexusпїЅIX, X), tensor palatini (Vc) and salpingopharyngeus (pharyngeal plexusпїЅIX, X) in the closure of the nasopharynx and elevation of the pharynx opens the auditory tube, which equalises the pressure between the nasopharynx and the middle ear. This does not contribute to swallowing, but happens as a consequence of it.", "The Eustachian tube (or auditory tube or pharyngotympanic tube) is a tube that links the pharynx to the middle ear.", "Patient Care. In addition to frequent and periodic checking for tube placement and monitoring of gastric residuals to prevent aspiration, other maintenance activities include monitoring effectiveness of the feeding and assessing the patient's tolerance to the tube and the feeding. Special mouth care is essential to maintain a healthy oral mucosa. A summary of the complications related to tube feeding, their causes and contributing factors, and interventions to treat or prevent each complication is presented in the accompanying table." ]

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[ "The tarsals are the seven bones of the ankle, which transmits the weight of the body from the tibia and the fibula to the foot. The metatarsals are the five bones of the foot, while the phalanges are the 14 bones of the toes .", "The foot contains 26 bones that are divided into three regions: the tarsals (or ankle and heel), the metatarsals (forming the sole of the foot), and the phalanges (forming the digits). While sharing a similar underlying structure with the hand, the foot is visibly and structurally different to account for its greater load-bearing and locomotive duties, and reduced fine movements.", "The metatarsals are the bones that make up the main part of the foot in humans, and part of the leg in large animals or paw in smaller animals. The number of metatarsals are directly related to the mode of locomotion with many larger animals having their digits reduced to two (elk, cow, sheep) or one (horse). The metatarsal bones of feet and paws are tightly grouped compared to, most notably, the human hand where the thumb metacarpal diverges from the rest of the metacarpus.", "The foot itself can be divided into 3 parts: the hindfoot, the midfoot, and the forefoot. The hindfoot is composed of 2 of the 7 tarsal bones, the talus, and the calcaneus; the midfoot contains the rest of the tarsal bones; and the forefoot contains the metatarsals and the phalanges.", "The forefoot consists of the five toes and their connecting long bones, the metatarsals. Each toe (phalanx) is made up of several small bones called phalanges. The phalanges of all five toes are connected to the metatarsals by metatarsophalangeal joints at the ball of the foot. The forefoot bears half the body's weight and balances pressure on the ball of the foot.", "foot The terminal portion of the lower extremity, consisting of the tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges.", "     61.  In which parts of the body would you find the phalanges bones ?      A.    HANDS & FEET", "The phalanges make up the bones of the toes. They are connected to the rest of the foot by the metatarsal-phalangeal joint. The first toe, also known as the great toe due to its relatively large size, is the only one to be comprised of only two phalanges. These are known as the proximal phalanx (closest to the ankle) and the distal phalanx (farthest from the ankle).", "The phalanges (singular: phalanx) are digital bones in the hands and feet of most vertebrates. In primates, the thumbs and big toes have two phalanges while the other digits have three phalanges. The phalanges are classed as long bones.", "a part of the foot, consisting of five bones, numbered I to V from the medial side. Each bone has a long, slender body; a wedge-shaped proximal end; a convex distal end; and flattened, grooved sides for the attachment of ligaments. The metatarsal bones articulate with the tarsus proximally and the first row of phalanges distally. Deformities of the metatarsus include metatarsus valgus and metatarsus varus. -metatarsal, adj.", "metatarsus (met´´ua-tar´sus) The region of the foot between the ankle and the phalanges that includes the five metatarsal bones.", "Extending from the distal end of the metatarsals are the tiny phalanges of the toes. The phalanges connect to several muscles in the leg via long tendons. The phalanges can flex or extend to change the shape of the foot for balance, and provide added leverage to the foot during walking.", "The group of seven bones lying between the leg and the metatarsals and forming part of the ankle.", "short for metacarpal bones; the bones between the tarsals and the phalanges (toes) of the footn", "The proximal base articulates with the cuboid bones, and distally with the proximal phalanges, and each metatarsal also articulates laterally with adjacent metatarsals. The interossei of the foot originate from the shafts of the metatarsals.", "The long bones of the foot are the first metatarsal on the arch or big toe side of the foot. Beside that is the second metatarsal, then the third metatarsal, the fourth metatarsal and the fifth metatarsal on the little toe side.", "The skeleton of the human hand consists of 27 bones: the eight short carpal bones of the wrist are organized into a proximal row (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral and pisiform) which articulates with the bones of the forearm, and a distal row (trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate), which articulates with the bases of the five metacarpal bones of the hand. The heads of the metacarpals will each in turn articulate with the bases of the proximal phalanx of the fingers and thumb. These articulations with the fingers are the metacarpophalangeal joints known as the knuckles. The fourteen phalanges make up the fingers and thumb, and are numbered I-V (thumb to little finger) when the hand is viewed from an anatomical position (palm up). The four fingers each consist of three phalanx bones: proximal, middle, and distal. The thumb only consists of a proximal and distal phalanx. Together with the phalanges of the fingers and thumb these metacarpal bones form five rays or poly-articulated chains.", "a greatly developed metatarsal or metacarpal bone in the shank or cannon part of the leg in hoofed mammals", "Some lower bones of the foot are fused to form tarsometatarsus – a third segment of the leg specific for birds. It consists of merged distals and metatarsals II, III and IV. Metatarsus I remains separated as a base of the first digit.", "Most birds are digitigrade animals, which means that they walk on their toes, not the entire foot. Some of their lower bones of the foot (distals and most of metatarsals) are fused to form tarsometatarsus – a third segment of the leg, specific to birds. The upper bones of the foot (proximals) in turn are fused with the tibia to form tibiotarsus, as over time the centralia disappeared. The fibula is also reduced.", "The great toe (and frequently the little toe) has two phalanges, whereas each of the other toes has three. They are designated proximal, middle, and distal. Each phalanx is technically a long bone, consisting of a base proximally, a shaft, and a head distally. Although the phalanges of the foot are shaped differently from those of the hand, their basic arrangement is similar; e.g., each distal phalanx ends distally in a tuberosity. The middle and distal phalanges of the little toe are often fused. The phalanges usually begin to ossify during fetal life, and centers appear postnatally in the bases of most of them (see fig. 12-30 C).", "The tarsometatarsal and intermetatarsal joints are plane articulations that allow gliding. The medial cuneiform and first metatarsal have an independent joint cavity (see fig. 12-31 A). The second metatarsal fits into a socket formed by the three cuneiforms (see fig. 12-32 ). The metatarsophalangeal joints are ellipsoid, and the interphalangeal joints are hinge, but the ligamentous arrangements of both are similar. Collateral ligaments are present, as are fibrous or fibrocartilaginous pads termed plantar ligaments (cf. palmar ligaments of fingers). The pads are interconnected by the deep transverse metatarsal ligament, which helps to hold the metatarsal heads together. The metatarsophalangealjoints allow flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction. The interphalangeal joints permit flexion and extension. The metatarsophalangeal joint ofthe big toe is specialized. Two grooves on the plantar aspect of the head of the first metatarsal articulate with the sesamoids that are embedded in the plantar ligament (fig. 17-9 ). The sesamoids are attached to the plantar aponeurosis and anchored to the phalanx. The sesamoids of the big toe take the weight of the body, especially during the latter part of the stance phase of walking. The sesamoid mechanism is deranged in bunions and in hallux valgus. A bunion is a swelling medial to the joint, and it is due to bursal thickening. In hallux valgus the big toe is displaced laterally because of angulation at the metatarsophalangeal joint.", "In the distal phalanges of the hand the centres for the bodies appear at the distal extremities of the phalanges, instead of at the middle of the bodies, as in the other phalanges. Moreover, of all the bones of the hand, the distal phalanges are the first to ossify.", "The terms \"Phalanges\" and \"Phalange bones\" are plural. The singular word for one of these bones is a phalanx.", "The proximal phalanges are found at the base of the toes, closest to the tarsus. These bones are longer than the play an important role in movement of the foot.", "The distal phalanges are a series of bones found at the tip of the foot, following the intermediate phalanges.", "This bone is found in each tarsus / ankle and thus contributes two bones to the human body skeleton.", "The bones of the ankle and foot form the most distal region of the lower limb in the appendicular skeleton. These bones are responsible for the propulsion, balance, and support of the body’s weight through many diverse activities, such as standing, walking, running, and jumping.", "The Talus (astragalus; ankle bone) (Figs. 270 to 273 ).The talus is the second largest of the tarsal bones. It occupies the middle and upper part of the tarsus, supporting the tibia above, resting upon the calcaneus below, articulating on either side with the malleoli, and in front with the navicular. It consists of a body, a neck, and a head", "Tarsus – (1) The instep; the seven bones forming the back portion of the foot (2) Connective tissue framework of the eyelids", "The talus bone (; Latin for ankle ), astragalus, or ankle bone is one of the group of foot bones known as the tarsus. The tarsus forms the lower part of the ankle joint through its articulations with the lateral and medial malleoli of the two bones of the lower leg, the tibia and fibula. Within the tarsus, it articulates with the calcaneus below and navicular in front within the talocalcaneonavicular joint. Through these articulations, it transmits the entire weight of the body to the foot. ", "What are two differences in the phalanges of the foot as compared with the phalanges of the hand?" ]

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[ "Synovial fluid is a viscous colourless fluid that bathe movable joints between the bones of vertebrates. It nourish and lubricates the cartilage at the end of respectively bone.", "Bones meet each other at joints that are held together by ligaments and are often bathed in a lubricating and cushioning fluid called synovial fluid. Joints allow bones to meet and bind together without actually grinding together. In this way, joints allow for smooth skeletal movement.", "Freely moveable joints are subject to wear and tear, and they therefore have some protective features. The cavity of a diarthrotic joint contains synovial fluid, which cushions and lubricates the joint. This fluid is produced by the synovial membrane that lines the joint cavity. The ends of the articulating bones are cushioned and protected by cartilage. Synovial joints are stabilized and strengthened by ligaments, which connect the articulating bones. A bursa is a small sac of synovial fluid that cushions the area around a joint. Bursae are found at stress points between tendons, ligaments, and bones.", "A bursa is a fluid-filled sac that cushions an area of friction between tissues, such as tendon and bone. Bursae reduce friction between moving parts of the body, such as around the joints of the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, and adjacent to the Achilles tendon in the heel.", "Synovial fluid is in adjectives of your freely movable joints. Elbow, Knee ,etc. It's rush is that it keeps your joint lubricated so that there is no friction. So not to mess up your bones.", "Most articulations in the body are produced by freely movable joints. These joints are called diarthrosis joints. The ends of the bones forming these joints are bound together by an articular capsule formed out of ligaments. A synovial membane lines the interior of the capsule and secretes synovial fluid that lubricates the joint. The ends of the bones forming the joints are covered with articular cartilage which protects the bones and reduces friction.� Freely movable joints are classified into groups based on their structure and types of movement.", "In a normal joint, bones have a smooth surface made of a substance called articular cartilage on their ends that allows one bone to glide easily against another. Joints are lubricated by a thin layer of fluid (synovial fluid) that acts like oil in an engine to keep parts gliding smoothly. When the articular cartilage wears out, is damaged, or the joint fluid is abnormal, problems develop, and joints often become stiff and painful. This is arthritis, which may be possible to treat with this procedure.", "The articular surfaces of the bones are covered with cartilage, which is usually hyaline in type. The bones are united by a joint capsule and ligaments. The joint capsule consists of an outer, fibrous layer, with a vascular, connective tissue lining its inner surface. This is termed the synovial membrane, which produces the synovial fluid (synovia) that fills the joint cavity and lubricates the joint. The joint cavity is sometimes partially or completely subdivided by fibrous or fibrocartilaginous discs or menisci.", "Most of your joints are 'synovial joints'. They are movable joints containing a lubricating liquid called synovial fluid. Synovial joints are predominant in your limbs where mobility is important. Ligaments help provide their stability and muscles contract to produce movement. The most common synovial joints are listed below:", "Many joints have a complex internal structure. They are composed not merely of ends of bones but also of ligaments, which are tough whitish fibers binding the bones together; cartilage, which is connective tissue, covering and cushioning the bone ends; the articular capsule, a fibrous tissue that encloses the ends of the bones; and the synovial membrane, which lines the capsule and secretes a lubricating fluid (synovia).", "3. Freely Moveable or Synovial Joints: At these joints the ends of the bones are covered with cartilage and there is a cavity that separates the bones. The bones are held in place by ligaments which stop the bones from moving too much. In addition to the ligaments the two bones are joined together by sleeve-like capsule.� The capsule encloses the synovial cavity. The outer layer of the capsule is composed of ligaments.� As stated previously, the ligaments keep bones together preventing dislocation and control the range of movement.� The inner layer of the capsule is the synovial membrane.� The synovial membrane secretes the lubricating synovial fluid.� Lubrication is essential to prevent frictional wear and tear.� The cartilage at the contact ends of the bones also reduces friction. The cartilage pads also acts as shock absorbers against mechanical damage.", "     4. synovial fluid - the lubricating fluid of the joint. It is essentially a filtrate of blood plasma with hyaluronic  cid.", "A firm, gelatinous substance called cartilage cushions the ends of the bones in the joints. Articular cartilage covers the ends of the bones like upholstery fabric on a chair. You may have seen cartilage at the end of chicken leg bones.", "The cartilage covering the ends of all the bones that meet at a joint is a Teflon-like substance that is both very hard and very smooth. Cartilage is made up of cells that receive their nourishment from a solution called synovial fluid that fills the inside of the joint space. Synovial fluid contains proteins and sugars and is produced by a layer of cells lining the joint. Synovial fluid is thick like molasses, enabling it to protect the joint from transmitting the normal forces associated with movement to the underlying bones.", "Also found within the articular cartilages, synovial fluid provides a slippery, weight-bearing film that reduces friction between the cartilages.  Without  this lubricant, rubbing would wear away joint surfaces and excessive friction could overheat and destroy the joint tissues, essentially \"cooking\" them.", "Acting as a cushion between joints, cartilage can help distribute the load of pressure and weight over the surface of joints. It also can serve as a shock absorber. Composed mainly of water and collagen, shock absorbency can be possible by the hydration in the tissue. Proper function is enabled by the arrangement of internal components and composition.", "Bursa: The joint is surrounded by bursae , fluid-filled pockets that provide buffering where there might otherwise be friction between the skin and joint, between two bones, and between a tendon or a ligament and a bone.", "Inner lining in the bursae and synovial joints that secretes synovial fluid, which acts as a lubrucant to make joint movement smooth", "To improve lubrication of the joints, it is one embodiment of the present invention to insert a minimal invasive recirculation pump. Articular cartilage is elastic, fluid-filled, and backed by a relatively impervious layer of calcified cartilage and bone. This means that load-induced compression of cartilage would force interstitial fluid to flow laterally within the tissue and to surface through adjacent cartilage. As that area, in turn, becomes load bearing, it is partially protected by the newly expressed fluid above it. This is a special form of hydrodynamic lubrication, so-called because the dynamic motion of the bearing areas produces an aqueous layer that separates and protects the contact points.", "Synovial fluid is a thick, stringy, yolk-like fluid that is secreted by the synovial tissue inside the knee capsule. It nourishes the cartilage and lubricates the knee joint.", "Other lubricating mechanisms have been proposed; some remain under investigation. Interestingly, hyaluronic acid, the molecule that makes synovial fluid viscous (synovia means \"like egg white\") has largely been excluded as a lubricant of the cartilage-on-cartilage bearing. Instead, hyaluronate lubricates a quite different site of surface contact-that of synovium on cartilage. The well-vascularized, well-innervated synovium must alternately contract and then expand to cover non-loaded cartilage surfaces as each joint moves through its normal range of motion. This process must proceed freely. Were synovial tissue to be pinched, there would be immediate pain, intraarticular bleeding and inevitable functional compromise. The rarity of these problems testifies to the effectiveness of hyaluronate-mediated synovial lubrication.", "The joints between two vertebrae allow very limited movement, whereas synovial joints have a wide range of motion due to the presence of capsules that surround the articulating surfaces of the joint. The presence of the synovial fluid within the capsule prevents friction. Many of the joints present in the body are synovial joints. While muscle contractions enable the movements of these joints, ligaments help provide stability to these joints. These are further categorized into hinge joints, ball and socket joints, pivot joints, condyloid joints, saddle joints, and plane/gliding joints. The following paragraphs will shed some light on the structure and function of hinge joints and pivot joints, with the help of examples.", "Valves have been proposed for use with synovial fluid. U.S. Pat. No. 5,870,303 proposes a valve to relieve excess pressure in synovial fluid. U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0064169 proposes a valved cushion where valves control the entrance and/or exit of fluid into/out of a reservoir and thereby control a cushioning effect during gait. Some aspects of the invention relate to a system including valves and a reservoir as described in U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0064169 with fluid being forced from the reservoir into the meniscal space between the condyle and tibial plateau for the purposes of improved lubrication.", "Normal articular cartilage has no microvascular supply of its own and therefore is at risk in ischemic joints. In this tissue, the normal process of diffusion is supplemented by the convection induced by cyclic compression and release during joint usage. In immature joints, the same pumping process promotes exchange of small molecules with the interstitial fluid of underlying trabecular bone. In adults however this potential route of supply is considered unlikely and all exchange of solutes may occur through synovial fluid. This means that normal chondrocytes are farther from their supporting microvasculature than are any other cells in the body. The vulnerability of this extended supply line is clearly shown in synovial ischemia.", "31. Walker PS, Dowson D, Longfield MD et al: \"Boosted lubrication\" in synovial joints by fluid entrapment and enrichment. Ann Rheum Dis 27:512, 1968", "One group of substances much used in the physical sciences as boundary lubricants for transforming hydrophilic subphases to hydrophobic surfaces are surfactants. Moreover, SAPL, known as a surfactant in the lung, is present in the SF of normal joints in appreciable quantities. These small molecules bind to amino acid groups that comprise the protein chains in proteoglycans such as lubricin. The lipid content of cartilage amounts to 0.3 to 4% and lipid is composed of three basic components, cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids. The first two predominate in most sites in which fat is located in the body. In the normal joint and in the lung, the major component (about 60%) is phospholipid, whereas a major sub-fraction of phospholipid is phosphatidylcholine.", "The ends of the joint bones are covered with smooth , glass-like hyaline cartilage which reduces friction during movement.", "A fluid-filled sac or cavity that prevents friction within a joint is known as a: A. Bursa B. Tendon C. Ganglion D. Ligament", "The synovial fluid saturated compressive pumping layer stores fluid until compression forces the fluid out on to the tibial plateau. Relief of compressing refills the layer. In one embodiment, a device surface may contain sponge interstices to transiently store synovial fluid or made lipophilic to attract SAPL by treating the surface with reactable chemicals containing lipid components or by dip-coating lipids onto the surface. The cartilage-like mechanical properties of the device will reside with the core material.", "Some physicians compare joint cartilage to a very dense car sponge. Exchange of the liquid in the dense sponge with the surrounding fluid is slow without any movement.", "The preferred embodiments of the present invention described below relate particularly to medical devices for treating a joint, for example a knee join. Joints are the place where two bones meet. All of our bones, except for one (the hyoid bone in our neck), form a joint with another bone. Joints hold our bones together and allow our rigid skeleton to move. While the description sets forth various embodiment specific details, it will be appreciated that the description is illustrative only and should not be construed in any way as limiting the invention. Furthermore, various applications of the invention, and modifications thereto, which may occur to those who are skilled in the art, are also encompassed by the general concepts described below.", "Between the tibia and femur bone are two crescent-shaped pads of connective tissue that reduce friction and disperse the weight of the body across the joint. They are:" ]

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[ "Hemoglobin (pron.: /hiːməˈɡloʊbɪn/; also spelledhaemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates[1] (with the exception of the fish familyChannichthyidae[2]) as well as the tissues of someinvertebrates. Hemoglobin in the blood carries oxygen from the respiratory organs (lungs or gills) to the rest of the body (i.e. the tissues) where it releases the oxygen to burn nutrients to provide energy to power the functions of the organism, and collects the resultant carbon dioxide to bring it back to the respiratory organs to be dispensed from the organism.", "Haemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells throughout the body.", "Hemoglobin is the oxygen-carrying component of the red blood cells. It consists of two different proteins, an alpha and a beta. If the body doesn’t produce enough of either of these two proteins, the red blood cells do not form properly and cannot carry sufficient oxygen. The result is anemia that begins in early childhood and lasts throughout life.", "Anemia (AmE) or anaemia (BrE), from the Greek (Ἀναιμία) meaning \"without blood\", refers to a deficiency of red blood cells (RBCs) and/or hemoglobin. This results in a reduced ability of blood to transfer oxygen to the tissues, causing hypoxia. Since all human cells depend on oxygen for survival, varying degrees of anemia can have a wide range of clinical consequences. Hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying protein in the red blood cells) has to be present to ensure adequate oxygenation of all body tissues and organs.", "The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. Red blood cells transport oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from, the body tissues.", "Myoglobin (symbol Mb or MB) is an iron- and oxygen-binding protein found in the muscle tissue of vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It is related to hemoglobin, which is the iron- and oxygen-binding protein in blood, specifically in the red blood cells. In humans, myoglobin is only found in the bloodstream after muscle injury. It is an abnormal finding, and can be diagnostically relevant when found in blood.", "Oxygen: The oxygen carrying protein in the whole body is hemoglobin, found in the blood. ...Read more", "Through the very thin walls of the alveoli, oxygen from the air passes to the surrounding capillaries (blood vessels). A red blood cell protein called hemoglobin (HEE-muh-glow-bin) helps move oxygen from the air sacs to the blood.", "Red blood cells are red only because they contain a protein chemical called haemoglobin , which is bright red in colour. Haemoglobin contains the element Iron, making it an excellent vehicle for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide. As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen molecules attach to the haemoglobin. As the blood passes through the body's tissue, the haemoglobin releases the oxygen to the cells. The empty haemoglobin molecules then bond with the tissue's carbon dioxide or other waste gases, transporting it away.", "In the process of metabolism; the energy comes from red blood cells, which inside them there are molecules carrying oxygen named hemoglobin.", "Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are red because of the pigment haemoglobin, a globular protein, the main function of which is to transport oxygen from the lungs to respiring tissues. Red blood cells are relatively short-lived, they become more fragile as time goes on and rupture within the circulatory system but are replaced by the bone marrow. A list of their structures and functions are below.", "Red blood cells: The blood cells that carry oxygen. Red cells contain hemoglobin and it is the hemoglobin which permits them to transport oxygen (and carbon dioxide). Hemoglobin, aside from being a transport molecule, is a pigment. It gives the cells their red color (and their name).", "a conjugated protein in red blood cells, comprising globin and iron-containing heme, that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body.", "helping to form haemoglobin – the substance in red blood cells that carries oxygen around the body", "The main component of the RBC is hemoglobin protein, of which there are about 250 million per cell. The word hemoglobin comes from \"hemo\" meaning blood and \"globin\" meaning protein. Hemoglobin is composed of four protein subunits: polypeptide globin chains that contain anywhere from 141 to 146 amino acids. Hemoglobin is responsible for the cell’s ability to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. Hemoglobin, iron, and oxygen interact with each other, forming the RBCs' bright red color. You can call this interaction by product oxyhemoglobin. Carbon Monoxide binds with hemoglobin faster than oxygen, and stays bound for several hours, making hemoglobin temporarily unavailable for oxygen transport. One red blood cell contains about 200 million hemoglobin molecules. If all this hemoglobin was in the plasma rather than inside the cells, blood would be so \"thick\" that the heart would have a difficult time pumping it through. The thickness of blood is called viscosity. The greater the viscosity of blood, the more friction there is, and more pressure is needed to force blood through.", "Erythrocyte: A cell that contains hemoglobin and can carry oxygen to the body. Also called a red blood cell (RBC). The reddish color is due to the hemoglobin. Erythrocytes are biconcave in shape, which increases the cell's surface area and facilitates the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. This shape is maintained by a cytoskeleton composed of several proteins. Erythrocytes are very flexible and change shape when flowing through capillaries. Immature erythrocytes, called reticulocytes, normally account for 1-2 percent of red cells in the blood.", "Erythrocyte:  A cell that contains hemoglobin and can carry oxygen to the body. Also called a red blood cell (RBC). The reddish color is due to the hemoglobin. Erythrocytes are biconcave in shape, which increases the cell's surface area and facilitates the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. This shape is maintained by a cytoskeleton composed of several proteins. Erythrocytes are very flexible and change shape when flowing through capillaries. Immature erythrocytes, called reticulocytes, normally account for 1-2 percent of red cells in the blood.", "Erythrocytes consist mainly of hemoglobin, a complex metalloprotein containing heme groups whose iron atoms temporarily bind to oxygen molecules (O2) in the lungs or gills and release them throughout the body. Oxygen can easily diffuse through the red blood cell's cell membrane. Hemoglobin in the erythrocytes also carries some of the waste product carbon dioxide back from the tissues; most waste carbon dioxide, however, is transported back to the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs as bicarbonate (HCO3−) dissolved in the blood plasma. Myoglobin, a compound related to hemoglobin, acts to store oxygen in muscle cells. ", "As we have seen, hemoglobin is the protein that carries O2 through the bloodstream to the muscles. This protein consists of four polypeptide chains", "a red protein containing heme that carries and stores oxygen in muscle cells. It is structurally similar to a subunit of hemoglobin", "Hemoglobin A healthy red blood cell in your body has about 300 mil. of these oxygen-carrying molecules", "Deoxyhemoglobin Deoxyhemoglobin is the form of hemoglobin without the bound oxygen. The absorption spectra of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin differ. The oxyhemoglobin has significantly lower absorption of the 660 nm wavelength than deoxyhemoglobin, while at 940 nm its absorption is slightly higher. This difference is used for measurement of the amount of oxygen in patient's blood by an instrument called pulse oximeter. This difference also accounts for the presentation of cyanosis, the blue to purplish color that tissues develop during hypoxiaOxyhemoglobin is formed during physiological respiration when oxygen binds to the heme component of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells. This process occurs in the pulmonary capillaries adjacent to the alveoli of the lungs. The oxygen then travels through the blood stream to be dropped off at cells where it is utilized in aerobic glycolysis and in the production of ATP by the process of oxidative phosphorylation. It does not, however, help to counteract a decrease in blood pH. Ventilation, or breathing, may [47] .", "In the Redback Spider the oxygen is bound to \"hemocyanin\" a copper-based protein that turns their blood blue, a molecule that contains copper rather than iron. Iron-based hemoglobin in red blood cells turns the blood red", "(Hb) component of a red blood cell containing iron, that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and consists of four polypeptide chains designated alpha, beta, gamma and delta", "The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing biomolecule that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red color of the cells. The cell membrane is composed of proteins and lipids, and this structure provides properties essential for physiological cell function such as deformability and stability while traversing the circulatory system and specifically the capillary network.", "The sequestration of oxygen-carrying proteins inside specialized cells (as opposed to oxygen carriers being dissolved in body fluid) was an important step in the evolution of vertebrates as it allows for less viscous blood, higher concentrations of oxygen, and better diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the tissues. The size of erythrocytes varies widely among vertebrate species; erythrocyte width is on average about 25% larger than capillary diameter, and it has been hypothesized that this improves the oxygen transfer from erythrocytes to tissues.", "Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes): cells that collect oxygen in the lungs and deliver it through the blood to the body tissues", "protein hormone secreted in response to low oxygen levels that triggers the bone marrow to produce red blood cells", "A hemeprotein (or hemoprotein or haemoprotein), or heme protein, is a metalloprotein containing a heme prosthetic group, either covalently or noncovalently bound to the protein itself. The iron in the heme is capable of undergoing oxidation and reduction (usually to +2 and +3, though stabilized Fe+4 and even Fe+5 species are well known in the peroxidases). Hemoproteins probably evolved from a primordial strategy allowing to incorporate the iron (Fe) atom contained within the protoporphyrin IX ring of heme into proteins. This strategy has been maintained throughout evolution as it makes hemoproteins responsive to molecules that can bind divalent iron (Fe). These molecules included, but are probably not restricted to, gaseous molecules, such as oxygen (O2) nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Once bound to the prosthetic heme groups of hemoproteins these gaseous molecules can modulate the activity/function of those hemoproteins in a way that is said to afford signal transduction. Therefore, when produced in biologic systems (cells), these gaseous molecules are referred to as gasotransmitters.Haemoglobin contains the prosthetic group containing iron, which is the haem. It is with in the haem group that carries the oxygen molecule through the binding of the oxygen molecule to the iron ion (Fe2+) found in the haem group [27] .", "Contain hemoglobin that transfers oxygen from lungs to body. Mature erythrocytes have no nucleus or organelles. Flexible: squeeze through capillaries. Life span of four months. ", "A heme group consists of an iron (Fe) ion (charged atom) held in a heterocyclic ring, known as a porphyrin. This porphyrin ring consists of four pyrrole molecules cyclically linked together (by methine bridges) with the iron ion bound in the center. The iron ion, which is the site of oxygen binding, coordinates with the four nitrogen atoms in the center of the ring, which all lie in one plane. The iron is bound strongly (covalently) to the globular protein via the N atoms of the imidazole ring of F8 histidine residue (also known as the proximal histidine) below the porphyrin ring. A sixth position can reversibly bind oxygen by a coordinate covalent bond, completing the octahedral group of six ligands. Oxygen binds in an \"end-on bent\" geometry where one oxygen atom binds to Fe and the other protrudes at an angle. When oxygen is not bound, a very weakly bonded water molecule fills the site, forming a distorted octahedron.", "An iron-containing protein (haemoprotein) found in virtually all aerobic organisms. It functions as an electron-carrier in a variety of oxidationreduction reactions that take place within living cells during normal metabolism. Cytochromes are generally membrane-bound proteins that contain heme groups and carry out electron transport. cytochrome c) or as subunits of bigger enzymatic comple…" ]

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[ "The endocrine system is made up of a group of glands that produce the body's long-distance messengers, or hormones. Hormones are chemicals that control body functions, such as metabolism, growth, and sexual development. The glands, which include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, thymus gland, pineal body, pancreas, ovaries, and testes, release hormones directly into the bloodstream, which transports the hormones to organs and tissues throughout the body.", "The human body secretes and circulates some 50 different hormones. A wide variety of these chemical substances are produced by endocrine cells, most of which are in glands. The hormones then enter the blood system to circulate throughout the body and activate target cells. The endocrine system, tightly linked to the nervous system , controls a large number of the body’s functions: metabolism, homeostasis, growth, sexual activity, and contraction of the smooth and cardiac muscles.", "The endocrine system affects nearly every cell and organ in the body. It is made up of glands that release chemicals to control many bodily functions, including cell growth and development, mood, sexual functions, and metabolism , the process of converting fuel from foods into energy for the body to function. Although the endocrine system is comprised of many glands, all of which work together, it is the thyroid gland that directly effects metabolism.", "The endocrine system is comprised of a group of ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the spaces surrounding their cells. From there, the bloodstream picks them up and circulates them throughout the body -- ultimately reaching the organ or cells designed to respond to a particular hormone. It is the ductless nature of the glands that defines them as part of the endocrine system. As for hormones, they are the body's chemical messengers that tell the body what to do, and when. Hormones produced by the endocrine system are necessary for normal growth and development, reproduction, and maintaining bodily functions (homeostasis). In humans, the major endocrine glands are the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, the ovaries, and the testes.", "Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.", "In essence, the thyroid gland is the thermostat of the body. It regulates both the rate and intensity of chemical/metabolic processes. It is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body and specifically controls how quickly the body uses energy, how it makes proteins, and the body's sensitivity to other hormones. The function of the thyroid gland is to take iodine and convert it into thyroid hormones -- primarily, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). As it turns out, thyroid cells are the only cells in the body which can absorb iodine. These cells combine iodine and the amino acid tyrosine (as bound to thyroglobulin) to make T3 and T4. (We will cover this process in more detail a little later.) T3 and T4 are then released into the bloodstream and transported throughout the body, where they control metabolism (i.e., the conversion of oxygen and calories to energy). Every cell in the body depends upon thyroid hormones for regulation of their metabolism.", "chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.", "Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by the body’s glands and cause or control a particular bodily function. The human body produces and uses millions of hormones. In men, a critical class of hormones is called “androgens” and they have a wide range of functions.", "The endocrine system is made up of organs and tissues that produce hormones. Hormones are natural chemicals produced in one location, released into the bloodstream, then used by other target organs and systems.", "endocrine system - the system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity", "Endocrine glands are ductless glands of human body that pour their secretions (hormones) directly into the blood. They have three characteristic features that are:", "The pituitary gland hormones may then stimulate their target endocrine glands to produce their own hormones. These locally produced hormones do the actual work of regulating your body.", "It controls the secretion of hormones from the hypophysis which is an important part of the brain and master secretory organ in your body. Pituitary is associated with the release of eight essential hormones in the body; two of which are synthesized by the hypothalamus, while the remaining six are produced locally. Some of the other endocrine and exocrine functions of hypothalamus include the control of autonomic nervous system, maintenance of homeostasis, balance of emotions, regulation of hunger & thirst and check over the thermostat of the body.", "The endocrine system uses hormones to control and coordinate your body's internal metabolism (or homeostasis) energy level, reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury, stress, and environmental factors. Consider the following hormones and their role in the workings of the endocrine system:", "The endocrine system consists of many different organs. Because of this, it is also responsible for performing many functions of the body such as regulating sleep cycles, growth, and blood sugar levels. But mainly, it uses hormones secreted into the bloodstream to communicate with the cells in the body.", "The endocrine function of the pancreas is the production of several hormones, including insulin and glucagon, which enter the bloodstream directly. The pancreas’ functions are regulated by neurohormonal mechanisms. The gland is affected by hormones of the digestive tract—secretin, pancreozymin, and gastrin—and by hormones of the thyroid and parathyroid glands, the hypophysis, and the adrenal glands. There is a close functional relationship between the pancreas and the other organs of the digestive pancreatitis. Diabetes mellitus results from disturbance of the insulin-manufacturing mechanism.", "The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea. It weighs less than an ounce and is one of the most important organs in the body. It is located at the base of the brain and is closely connected to the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes nine hormones that regulate homeostasis by stimulating other endocrine glands to produce and secrete their own hormones. The pituitary gland has two components: the anterior (front) pituitary (or adenohypophysis) and the posterior (back) pituitary (neurohypophysis).  The anterior lobe makes up most of the gland and releases the majority of the hormones. The smaller posterior lobe stores hormones but does not make them. It links the endocrine system with the nervous system by way of the hypothalamus.The pituitary gland is known as the ‘master’ endocrine gland. The hypothalamus controls the production of hormones in both lobes. The pituitary gland produces many important hormones, some of which act on other glands to make them produce hormones. The pituitary gland releases at least 9 hormones that have important effects on the body—these include the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone  stimulates the adrenal glands.", "Thyroid Gland - produces thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These control the metabolism and controls of the growth of many other systems in the body.", "Hormones are very potent substances, which means that very small amounts of a hormone may have profound effects on metabolic processes. Because of their potency, hormone secretion must be regulated within very narrow limits in order to maintain homeostasis in the body. Many hormones are controlled by some form of a negative feedback mechanism. In this type of system, a gland is sensitive to the concentration of a substance that it regulates. A negative feedback system causes a reversal of increases and decreases in body conditions in order to maintain a state of stability or homeostasis. Some endocrine glands secrete hormones in response to other hormones. The hormones that cause secretion of other hormones are called tropic hormones. A hormone from gland A causes gland B to secrete its hormone. A third method of regulating hormone secretion is by direct nervous stimulation. A nerve stimulus causes gland A to secrete its hormone.", "Glands in the human body produce, control and regulate the flow of hormones, breast milk, saliva, and other useful fluids. Mental stress influences the flow of hormones and other fluids as well. This article explains the significance of glands in metabolism, growth, and reproduction.", "Organic substances produced by glands and tissues, coordinating the chemical processes occurring in cells. The most important glands are the thyroid, pituitary, hypothalamus, abrasion or female genitals. Excessive secretion or hormone deficiency leads to many diseases. The best known hormones are adrenaline (stress fighting hormone) and serotonin (a hormone that affects the nervous system).", "The endocrine system is made up of the various hormones, which performed different function as part of the human body over a given period of time. These include the following:", "Delta cells (D cells) secrete the hormone somatostatin , which is also produced by a number of other endocrine cells in the body.", "The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones. These are peptides containing iodine. The two most important hormones are tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine or T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones are essential for life and have many effects on body metabolism, growth, and development.", "Several important peptide hormones are secreted from the pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary secretes three: prolactin, which acts on the mammary gland; adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which acts on the adrenal cortex to regulate the secretion of glucocorticoids; and growth hormone, which acts on bone, muscle, and the liver. The posterior pituitary gland secretes antidiuretic hormone, also called vasopressin, and oxytocin. Peptide hormones are produced by many different organs and tissues, however, including the heart (atrial-natriuretic peptide (ANP) or atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)) and pancreas (glucagon, insulin and somatostatin), the gastrointestinal tract (cholecystokinin, gastrin), and adipose tissue stores (leptin).", "There is chemical variation in the hormones secreted by different glands in the body. However, they all can be grouped under three general categories:", "Just above the thymus, in the neck, is the thyroid gland. The thyroid secretes two different hormones: thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine (mentioned above). Together, these two hormones regulate metabolism, growth and development. Calcitonin, another thyroid hormone, regulates blood levels of calcium, preventing excessive amounts from being released into the blood.", "This presentation examines the types of glands and hormones, the pituitary gland and its regulation; other glands and hormones: adrenal, thyroid and parathyroid, pancreas and others; mechanism of steroids and thyroxine hormones; mechanism of catecholamines and polypeptides.", "Secretin is a hormone that both controls the environment in the duodenum by regulating secretions of the stomach and pancreas, and regulates water homeostasis throughout the body. It is produced in the S cells of the duodenum, which are located in the crypts of Lieberkühn. In humans, the secretin peptide is encoded by the SCT gene. Secretin was also the first hormone to be identified.", "The front part of the pituitary makes several kinds of hormones. These hormones control other glands all over the body:", "Some insulinomas also produce other hormones such as gastrin. Gastrin is a protein that makes the stomach produce acid to digest food.", "Although they may reach all the cells of the body via the bloodstream, each of the 50+ hormones in the human body affects only a tiny handful of very specific cells. This selectivity is key to the functioning of the endocrine system. How is it accomplished?" ]

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[ "An alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin alveolus, \"little cavity\") is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity. Found in the lung parenchyma, the pulmonary alveoli are the terminal ends of the respiratory tree, which outcrop from either alveolar sacs or alveolar ducts, which are both sites of gas exchange with the blood as well. Alveoli are particular to mammalian lungs. Different structures are involved in gas exchange in other vertebrates. The alveolar membrane is the gas-exchange surface. Carbon dioxide rich blood is pumped from the rest of the body into the alveolar blood vessels where, through diffusion, it releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. ", "Alveoli are the functional units of the lungs that permit gas exchange between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries of the lungs. Alveoli are found in small clusters called alveolar sacs at the end of the terminal bronchiole. Each alveolus is a hollow, cup-shaped cavity surrounded by many tiny capillaries.", "The interior of the lungs is made up of spongy tissues containing many capillaries and around 30 million tiny sacs known as alveoli . The alveoli are cup-shaped structures found at the end of the terminal bronchioles and surrounded by capillaries. The alveoli are lined with thin simple squamous epithelium that allows air entering the alveoli to exchange its gases with the blood passing through the capillaries.", "        The lungs contain the bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.  It's protected by the ribcage along with many other organs.  The bronchi in each lung continue to divide until they are small enough to turn into bronchioles.  The smallest bronchioles end in microscopic airbags called alveoli.  Alveoli are the organs that exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood.  Alveoli are very efficent because they have a network of capillaries that cover them and the fact that there's 300 million alveoli in the lungs.  This provides a massive area for efficently transferring oxygen and carbon dioxide through the alveolus walls as quickly as possible.", "The lungs are two organs located inside the thorax on the left and right sides. They are surrounded by a membrane that provides them with enough space to expand when they fill up with air. Because the left lung is located lateral to the heart, the organs are not identical: the left lung is smaller and has only 2 lobes while the right lung has 3. Inside, the lungs resemble a sponge made of millions and millions of small sacs that are named alveoli. These alveoli are found at the ends of terminal bronchioles and are surrounded by capillaries through which blood passes. Thanks to an epithelium layer covering the alveoli, the air that goes inside them is free to exchange gasses with the blood that goes through the capillaries.", "Alveoli:  Tiny air sacs located at the very ends of the bronchioles within the lungs. A single sac is called an alveolus. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli.", "Understanding the alveoli, and the airways in the lungs that lead to them, is key to understanding emphysema. These tiny sacs or pockets are grouped in grapelike clusters and are so small that each lung contains 300 to 400 million of them. Because there are so many alveoli, their total surface area is about 50 times greater than the entire surface area of the skin on the body. This huge surface area is important because it allows oxygen from the air we inhale to be transferred to the bloodstream, and it allows carbon dioxide in the bloodstream to be transferred out.", "The lungs are located in the chest cavity and are responsible for breathing. The alveoli are small sacs where oxygen is exchanged in the lungs.", "As the bronchial tubes pass through the lungs, they divide into smaller air passages called bronchioles. The bronchioles end in tiny balloon-like air sacs called alveoli. Your body has over 300 million alveoli.", "describe in detail the structure of the terminal respiratory units, including the anatomical matching of airway and pulmonary arterial branching as well as the venous admixture of pulmonary venous and bronchial venous blood:  The upper sections of the alveoli in the apex of the lung in an upright human are somewhat dilated and have less blood flow than the bases where the alveoli are more compact and can then expand more with air since they aren�t as full as the alveoli at the apex. There is more blood flow in the bases due to the hydrostatic pressure gradient. The alveoli are surrounded by a thin layer of liquid lining them. The alveoli epithelial cells are flat and thin with a tiny area of interstitial space and a basement membrane separating the alveoli epithelium from the vascular endothelium. The gases easily pass through these membranes. There is a great deal of blood flow around each alveoli to maximize ventilation/perfusion ratios. There is some blood flow that comes from the upper apices that have very little blood flow and therefore have poor perfusion. This blood mixes in with the blood that came from areas that were well perfused and the combination of well perfused and poorly perfused blood has a slight overall decrease in the PaO2.", "At its bottom end, the trachea divides into left and right air tubes called bronchi, which connect to the lungs. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch into smaller bronchi and even smaller tubes called bronchioles. Bronchioles end in tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide actually takes place. Each lung houses about 300-400 million alveoli.", "The lungs contain the respiratory tract and its lining, which terminate in alveoli, the tissue in between (called interstitium or parenchyma), and veins, arteries, nerves and lymphatic vessels. ", "In each adult lung there are millions of these tiny alveoli. The thin membrane of the alveoli allows oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass to and from capillaries.", "In humans, the trachea divides into the two main bronchi that enter the roots of the lungs. The bronchi continue to divide within the lung, and after multiple divisions, give rise to bronchioles. The bronchial tree continues branching until it reaches the level of terminal bronchioles, which lead to respiratory bronchioles and alveolar sacs. Alveolar sacs, are made up of clusters of alveoli, like individual grapes within a bunch. The individual alveoli are tightly wrapped in capillaries and it is here that gas exchange actually occurs. Deoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the hemoglobin of the erythrocytes. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins to be pumped back into systemic circulation.", "Macrophages form the first line of defense in the smaller branches of the airways. These cells, located within the alveoli of the lungs, ingest and destroy bacteria and viruses and remove small particles. They also secrete chemicals that attract other immune cells such as white blood cells to the site, and hence they can initiate an inflammatory response in the lung. Particles picked up by macrophages are carried into the lymphatic system of the lung and stored in adjacent lymph nodes in the lung and mediastinum (the region between the lungs). Soluble particles are removed into the bloodstream and are eventually excreted by the kidneys .", "Our bodies need oxygen in order to live. We get our oxygen from the air we breathe. However, in order for our bodies to use this oxygen, it must get from our lungs into our bloodstream. This will eventually happen in the alveoli; but we will discuss that a little later. To understand alveoli, we first need to examine the major parts of the respiratory system.", "Eventually the air reaches the lungs and the clusters of alveoli. The blood is low in oxygen and the inhaled air is rich with it, while the blood contains a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than air does. These two gases passively diffuse across the thin surface of the alveoli, following the concentration gradients. After gas exchange takes place, the oxygen-poor air is expelled from the lungs. Most of the surfaces of the respiratory system, including the surfaces of the bronchioles, bronchi, trachea, and pharynx, are coated with epithelial cells that are capable of producing mucus. This mucus traps particles of dust, bacteria, and viruses that may be entering the respiratory system; cilia on these cells help to sweep this mucus up away from the lungs and eventually out of the body.", "Inhaled air reaches the alveoli through bronchial tubes and repeatedly branching smaller bronchioles in the lungs that resemble an upside-down tree. The walls of the alveoli contain tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which lead to larger vessels that return blood to the heart to be pumped throughout the body. It is in the delicate capillaries of the alveoli that the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.", "[Continued from above] . . . respiratory bronchioles that have alveoli, which are small, balloon-like sacs at the end of the small air passages in the lungs (the bronchiole). Oxygen is inhaled and absorbed into the bloodstream through the thin walls of each alveolus, by way of the pulmonary veins. Carbon dioxide from the pulmonary artery is exhaled as a waste product of the lungs.", "The alveoli consist of an epithelial layer and extracellular matrix surrounded by capillaries. In some alveolar walls there are pores between alveoli called Pores of Kohn. The alveoli contain some collagen and elastic fibres. The elastic fibers allow the alveoli to stretch as they are filled with air during inhalation. They then spring back during exhalation in order to expel the carbon dioxide-rich air.", "The human respiratory system consists of the nasal cavity, mouth, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, and lungs. Air is normally taken in through the mouth and nose. The nose is lined with a membrane (mucosa) that contain tiny hair-like projections called cilia. To keep dust and foreign particles from reaching the lungs, the cilia trap them and sweep them out of the nose. Airstreams which enter through the nose and mouth meet in the back of the throat (the pharynx). Continuing downward, there are two passages, one for food and liquids (the esophagus) and the other for air (the trachea).", "The human rib cage is a component of the human respiratory system. It encloses the thoracic cavity, which contains the lungs. An inhalation is accomplished when the muscular diaphragm, at the floor of the thoracic cavity, contracts and flattens, while contraction of intercostal muscles lift the rib cage up and out.", "The lungs are enclosed in the thoracic cavity by the rib cage on the front, back, and sides with the diaphragm forming the floor of the cavity. When we inhale, the diaphragm contracts and is drawn inferiorly into the abdominal cavity until it is flat. At the same time, the external intercostal muscles between the ribs elevate the anterior rib cage like the handle of a bucket. The thoracic cavity becomes deeper and larger, drawing in air from the atmosphere. During exhalation, the rib cage drops to its resting position while the diaphragm relaxes and elevates to its dome-shaped position in the thorax. Air within the lungs is forced out of the body as the size of the thoracic cavity decreases.", "The lungs are composed of two �rows� (��arugot�), right and left, divided vertically, by a septum (�ṭarpesh ha-leb�) which rises from the pericardium (�kis ha-leb�) and is attached to the spinal column. The large bronchi (�bet ha-simponot�) enter respectively the inner side of each row (ib. 50a). Alongside of the bronchi enter also the large blood-vessels (�mizraḳim�; ib. 93b). The number of lobes in each lung is given correctly (ib. 47a). The pleura is composed of two layers, an outer, rough one (�ḳerama �illaya�) and an inner, rose-colored one (�ḳerama tatta�a,� �kittuna de-warda�; ib. 46a). The heart is composed of two ventricles (�ḥalal�), the right being larger than the left (ib. 45b). It is situated to the left of the median line (Men. 37b). Rab expressed a radical view for his time , namely, that the aorta (�ḳaneh shel-leb�) contains blood, not air (Ḥul. 45b). The large veins are called �weridim�; the small ones, �ḥuṭe dam.�", "Each lung is divided into upper and lower lobes, although the upper lobe of the right lung contains another triangular subdivision known as the middle lobe. The right lung is larger and heavier than the left lung, which is somewhat smaller in size because of the position of the heart. At birth, the lungs are pinkish-white in color; however, with age, the lungs darken to gray or mottled black because of deposits of carbon and other particles that are inhaled over the years.", "These structures are enclosed by pleura. There is a hilium for each of the lungs found in the mediastinum (backside) of the lungs. The hilium is thinner in the left lung compared to the right lung because it lies between the cardiac notch and the groove for the aorta .", "The lungs are shaped rather like an upside-down butterfly. The top, or apex, of each lung extends into the lowest part of the neck, just above the level of the first rib. The bottom, or base, of each lung extends down to the diaphragm, which is the major breathing-associated muscle that separates the chest from the abdominal cavity.", "The right lung has both more lobes and segments than the left. It is divided into three lobes, an upper, middle, and a lower, by two fissures, one oblique and one horizontal. The upper, horizontal fissure, separates the upper from the middle lobe. It begins in the lower oblique fissure near the posterior border of the lung, and, running horizontally forward, cuts the anterior border on a level with the sternal end of the fourth costal cartilage; on the mediastinal surface it may be traced backward to the hilum.", "Above and behind the cardiac impression is a triangular depression named the hilum. The hilum is the root of the lung where that contains structures that supply the lungs with blood , lymph fluid, and innervation , such as the pulmonary vein , pulmonary artery , pulmonary nerves, and lymphatic vessels . ", "Our respiratory system includes structures involved in our breathing. When you take a breath, air is drawn into your mouth and nose and into a tube called the trachea, or windpipe. Let's follow the path of the air as it travels through the trachea and into your lungs.", "Both lungs have a central recession called the hilum at the root of the lung, where the blood vessels and airways pass into the lungs. There are also bronchopulmonary lymph nodes on the hilum.", "Human Lungs | Parts of Respiratory system | Human anatomy | 3D animation videos - YouTube" ]

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[ "Genotype is the genetic make-up of an individual organism . Your genotype functions as a set of instructions for the growth and development of your body. The word ‘genotype’ is usually used when talking about the genetics of a particular trait (like eye colour).", "The genetic makeup of a cell, organism or individual with reference to a specific characteristic. These characteristics can be dominant, recessive or mutated and refer to inherited instructions carried within the genetic code that generally imply a measurement of how an individual differs or is specialized within a group of individuals or species.", "Phenotype is the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an individual organism, determined by both genetic make-up and environmental influences, for example, height, weight and skin colour.", "The term phenotype refers to the physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism as determined by its genetic makeup.", "An allele (pronounced /ˈæliːl/ (UK), /əˈliːl/ (US)) (from the Greek αλληλος allelos, meaning each other) is one member of a pair or series of different forms of a gene. Usually alleles are coding sequences, but sometimes the term is used to refer to a non-coding sequence. An individual’s genotype for that gene is the set of alleles it happens to possess. In a diploid organism, one that has two copies of each chromosome, two alleles make up the individual’s genotype. (this section is a Wikipedia® verbatim copy of a part of a larger article)", "\"They have the same genetic make-up and apparently the whole genetic message is the same in both of them. Nevertheless, they are obviously different human beings.\"2", "Simplifying once more (this time by ignoring sex), individuals pass on an exact copy of their DNA chain to their offspring: if my body is made up of a particular set of plastics, because my offspring has an exact copy of my DNA, my offspring�s body will be make up of exactly the same set of plastics, and so it will be exactly like me. Occasionally, however, one of the molecules in the DNA chain (i.e., one of the A, C, G, or T nucleotides), can become mutated (altered) by cosmic radiation, environmental toxins, etc.; these mutagens turn one type of nucleotide into another type of nucleotide (e.g., an A turns into G). If I pass on this mutated DNA, where only one of the 3 billion nucleotides is different from my own, then my offspring will be made of proteins that are almost exactly like mine, except for the protein which was made by the mutated section of DNA (the mutated gene), which will be a different protein with different properties. My offspring will not be exactly like me�he will be said to have a different phenotype (body type).", "In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of law enforcement officers seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States FBI employs the term \"race\" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend. From the perspective of law enforcement officers, it is generally more important to arrive at a description that will readily suggest the general appearance of an individual than to make a scientifically valid categorization by DNA or other such means. Thus, in addition to assigning a wanted individual to a racial category, such a description will include: height, weight, eye color, scars and other distinguishing characteristics.", "the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.", "The physical and functional unit of heredity made up of DNA. Every individual has two copies of each gene, one inherited from the mother and the other from the father.", "While miscegenation has been one factor leading to a Brazilian population with features ranging from the stereotypically African to the stereotypically European, a second has been \"assortative mating\". The genome of the first generation offspring of European fathers and African mothers was 50% European and 50% African, but the distribution of the genes that affect visible features (skin colour, hair type, lip shape, nose shape) was random. Those of the second generation with features considered closer to a \"White\" stereotype would have tended to procreate with others like themselves, while those considered closer to \"Black\" would also have tended to procreate among themselves; in the long term producing \"White\" and \"Black\" groups with surprisingly similar proportions of European and African ancestry. ", "Darwin, therefore, was forced to accept the common notion of the time, that traits in offspring were an average or a blend of the traits of the parents. Males and females certainly had different sexual characteristics, but those were the exception. Non-sexual characteristics, it was assumed, operated according to what Darwin called pangenesis [2] where the genes (�pangenes� as he called them) of each parent (say the gene for tallness) blended evenly with those of the other parent (say the gene for shortness), to produce a person of average stature. But had that idea been correct, variation would have ended since everything would soon average out and every unique characteristic would disappear like a drop of red paint in a bucket of white.", "On rare occasions mutations (changes) are made in nucleotides by chemicals, radiation, or errors in copying DNA. In a nucleotide chain, one nucleotide may be substituted for another, or one or more nucleotides might be inserted or deleted. Sometimes the change in DNA structure has little or no effect on the function of the gene's product, but it frequently harms the function to some degree, or very rarely enhances it. Harmful mutations cause gene-based diseases, but enhancing mutations allow organisms to evolve new or more effective functions. Like normal phenotypes, disease phenotypes usually require the products of multiple genes, so most defective genes predispose an organism to disease rather than directly causing it. The accumulation of mutations within the human species accounts for such phenotypic differences as eye color, stature, or skin pigmentation. The number of mutations among human genes is so large that no two persons, except for identical twins, have exactly the same nucleotide sequence in the three billion bases of their DNA.", "The underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism is called", "[6] Most genes come in pairs (are �diploid�), one from each parent, but the body also makes the germ cell or gamete which contain only half the necessary information (are �haploid�) and acquire the other half from the sperm or egg of the other parent. When the two haploid genes differ, as for example in eye color, the result is an allele, an alternative form of the gene. Where there are alleles, the dominant prevails over the recessive. As it matures, a body cell becomes a new body cell following the instructions of the genetic code in each cell. The organism, therefore, is the result of these genes and alleles. If a coding mistake occurs, natural selection normally eliminates it.���", "One part of a biological profile is a person's racial/ancestral affinity. People with considerable European ancestry generally have relatively no prognathism; a relatively small face; a narrow, tear-shaped nasal cavity; a \"silled\" nasal aperture; tower-shaped nasal bones; a triangular-shaped palate; and an angular and sloping eye orbit shape. People with considerable African ancestry typically have a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; and a square or rectangular eye orbit shape. People with considerable East Asian ancestry are often characterized by a relatively small prognathism; no nasal sill or dam; an oval-shaped nasal cavity; tent-shaped nasal bones; a horseshoe-shaped palate; and a rounded and non-sloping eye orbit shape. Many of these characteristics are only a matter of frequency among particular races: their presence or absence of one or more does not automatically classify an individual into a racial group.", "Late in the twentieth century, the study of genetics was applied to human fossils, now that we knew how DNA works. First the DNA of mitochondria from several individuals was compared, and attempts were made to extrapolate how many generations would be required to find a common ancestor to all of those people. Mitochondrial DNA is different from the more familiar DNA in a cell's nucleus, being passed down to a child only from the mother, so all mitochondrial DNA supposedly comes from the mother of the human race, appropriately nicknamed \"Eve.\" The result they came up with was that \"Eve\" could have lived as recently as 90,000 years ago, and still be ancestor to everyone alive today. This was startling enough, but when enough of the human genome was mapped to make comparing the DNA from chromosomes feasible, an even more recent ancestor was revealed:", "The inheritance of each trait is determined by something (which we now call genes) passed from parent to offspring unchanged. In other words, genes from parents do not ‘blend’ in the offspring.", "Based on characteristics such as skin color, head shape, etc., that are considered inherited, permanent, and unalterable", "1. (Genetics) an organism composed of two or more genetically distinct tissues, as an organism that is partly male and partly female, or an artificially produced individual having tissues ofseveral species.", "As alluded to earlier, they claim that the ‘vestigial’ genes for these tails remain encoded in the DNA of all humans, and that the tails form when these normally dormant genes are accidentally reactivated. Further proof of this idea is said to be the fact that what is alleged to be a ‘tail’ can be seen forming in every human embryo (although this ‘tail’ disappears during normal development).", "it does not mean that any race has exclusive possession of any particular variant of any gene or genes. In human terms, the frequency of the allele for blood group O may be high in one population and low in another, but it is present in both. Races are genetically \"open\", meaning that gene flow takes place between them. Thus one can easily see the fallacy of any attempt to identify \"pure\" races: if gene flow cannot take place between two populations, either directly or indirectly through intermediate populations, then they are not races, but are separate species;", "The third law, in relation to the second, declares that, �If the two alleles differ, then one, the dominant allele, is fully expressed in the organism's appearance; the other, the recessive allele, has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance.�", "race - people who are believed to belong to the same genetic stock; \"some biologists doubt that there are important genetic differences between races of human beings\"", "Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information and determines the characteristics of a living organism.", "The Y-chromosome is passed on as a chunk of DNA from father to son, basically unchanged through generations except for random mutations.", "Hox genes are good example of one mechanism that enables drastic biological changes. Minor variations in the same small set of genes directs a zygote to grow into the shape of a worm, fly, mouse, or a human.", "All the categories of human variation in this section (age, sex, disease, race) have some basis in biology, but this last one is the most arbitrary out of all of them. The decision to group people based on superficial visual characteristics is not founded in absolute biological difference, but in a long history of cultural difference. Race is culture, not biology. We have a cultural tendency to cram human variation into racial categories.", "Social conceptions and groupings of races vary over time, involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits. Scientists consider biological essentialism obsolete, and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits. ", "Each cell's descendants contribute to the overall body of the organism. Because some cells have inactivated paternal Xs and others have inactivated maternal Xs, the embryo and the organism it becomes is a mixture of two types of cells - expressing different alleles.", "By recognizing the overlap between the two, we are presented with a better understanding of race. However, distinctions between racial groups are declining due to intermarriage and have been for years. For instance, self-described African Americans tend to have a mix of West African and European ancestry. Shriver et al. (2003) [39] found that on average African Americans have ~80% African ancestry. Likewise, many white Americans have mixed European and African ancestry; ~30% of whites have less than 90% European ancestry. If intermarrying of races and ethnicities continues, the biological and genetic distinctions will grow increasingly minute and undetectable. If a completely heterogeneous population ultimately develops, any racial classifications in that population would be nothing more than social constructs.", "Origin: Master criminal and leader of SPECTRE, known as “No.1”. It is assumed that he undergoes plastic surgery on a regular basis to modify his appearance for his own safety. " ]

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[ "The point at which two or more bones are connected is called a joint. In all joints, the bones are kept from grinding against each other by a lining called cartilage. Bones are joined to bones by strong, elastic bands of tissue called ligaments. Muscles are connected to bones by tough cords of tissue called tendons. Muscles pull on tendons to move joints. Although muscles are not technically part of a joint, they’re important because strong muscles help support and protect joints.", "The point at which two or more bones are connected is called a joint . In all joints , the bones are kept from grinding against each other by a lining called cartilage . Bones are joined to bones by strong, elastic bands of tissue called ligaments. Muscles are connected to bones by tough cords of tissue called tendons . Muscles pull on tendons to move joints. Although muscles are not technically part of a joint, they're important because strong muscles help support and protect joints. NIH - National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases", "Muscles are connected to the bones by tough fibrous bands called tendons. Tendons begin on a muscle and end on a bone. A good example is the Achilles tendon, which connects the muscle of the lower rear limb (calf) to the bones forming the ankle.", "The muscles create motion in the body by moving the skeleton. The muscles are attached to bone by fibrous tendons.", "Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones through tendons. Tendons are tough bands of dense regular connective tissue whose strong collagen fibers firmly attach muscles to bones. Tendons are under extreme stress when muscles pull on them, so they are very strong and are woven into the coverings of both muscles and bones.", "An articulation (joint) is the point of contact between bones or cartilage and bones. Joints are classified as immovable, slightly movable, or freely movable. The amount of movement possible at a joint depends on the way in which the bones fit together, the tightness of the tissue that surrounds the joints and the position of ligaments, muscles, and tendons. Ligaments are dense, regular, connective tissue that attach bone to bone at movable joints and help to protect the joint from dislocation.", "The place where two bones meet is called a joint. Joints allow movement and flexibility of various parts of the body. The movement of the bones is cased by muscles which pull on tendons that are attached to bone.", "The massive ilium formed a deep vertical plate of bone to which the muscles of the pelvis, hind leg, and tail were attached. The pubis had a stout shaft, commonly terminating in a pronounced expansion or bootlike structure (presumably for muscle attachment), that joined its opposite mate in a solid symphysis. The ischium was slightly less robust than the pubis, but it too joined its mate in a midline symphysis. There were minor variations in this structure between different saurischian genera and families.", "  The tendons and aponeuroses are connected, on the one hand, with the muscles, and, on the other hand, with the movable structures, as the bones, cartilages ligaments, and fibrous membranes (for instance, the sclera). Where the muscular fibers are in a direct line with those of the tendon or aponeurosis, the two are directly continuous. But where the muscular fibers join the tendon or aponeurosis at an oblique angle, they end, according to Kölliker, in rounded extremities which are received into corresponding depressions on the surface of the latter, the connective tissue between the muscular fibers being continuous with that of the tendon. The latter mode of attachment occurs in all the penniform and bipenniform muscles, and in those muscles the tendons of which commence in a membranous form, as the Gastrocnemius and Soleus.", "Tendons are extensions of muscles that attach muscles to bone. Muscles move the bones by pulling on the tendons .", "With the help of muscles, different bones assist in movement of the body. They are attached to the muscles at joints and together they perform any work.", "14.  As a general rule, the attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone is called the:", "The surfaces of bones are commonly roughened and elevated where there are powerful fibrous attachments but smooth where muscle fibers are attached directly.", "Bones form the flexible body framework called skeleton of vertebrate animals. The skeleton of bones gives the body its shape, provides rigidity to limbs of body to enable them to carry weight and apply force, and protect vital organs. It forms a system of levers operated by muscles which enables body to move and apply force.", "In human body, a joint is where two bones get together. Joints, also called articulations, are where two bones come together. Apart from the hyoid bone, all the bones in the neck, form a joint. Joints are often classified by the amount of motion they permit. Some of the joints are fixed, like those in the skull, permit for no movement. Other joints, like those between the vertebrae of the spine, permit for some movement. Most of the joints are free moving synovial joints. Typically, the joints hold the bones together and permit for movement of the skeleton. A saddle joint is a joint (as the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb) with saddle -shaped articular surfaces that are convex in one direction and concave in another and that allow movements in all directions except axial rotation. Saddle joint is one of five types of synovial joints in the human skeletal system. Saddle joint is also known as a sellar joint as the adjacent surfaces at the ends of each bone are saddle -shaped, with the saddles meeting to form an X shape.", "the end of a muscle at the site of its attachment (origin) to a bone or other fixed structure.", "Skeletal muscles are attached (with some exceptions, such as the muscles of the tongue and pharynx) to the skeleton by means of tendons, usually in pairs that pull in opposite directions, e.g., the biceps biceps", "each of the series of small bones forming the backbone, having several projections for articulation and muscle attachment, and a hole through which the spinal cord passes", "The sternum is a long, flat bone, forming the middle portion of the front of the chest. The top of the sternum supports the clavicles (collarbones) and its edges join with the costal cartilages of the first seven pairs of ribs. The inner surface of the sternum is also the attachment of the sternopericardial ligaments. Its top is also connected to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The sternum consists of three main parts, listed from the top:", "The human clavicle or collarbone is a short bone that lies on the front of the chest (thoracic) wall. It plays an important role in connecting the upper limb to the trunk of the body. The clavicle is also the most frequently fractured bone of the upper body especially since it lies superficially.. Although it is a small bone, this clavicle is able to bear significant force mainly by the action of the numerous muscles and ligaments that attach to it, as well as the weight of the upper limb. In thinner people, the clavicle is clearly visible through the skin and its characteristic S-shaped can even be seen. It is part of the appendicular skeleton although which connects it to the axial skeleton.", "Elbow (elbow joint):  The juncture of the long bones in the middle portion of the arm. The bone of the upper arm (humerus) meets both the ulna (the inner bone of the forearm) and radius (the outer bone of the forearm) to form a hinge joint at the elbow. The radius and ulna also meet one another in the elbow to permit a small amount of rotation of the forearm. The elbow therefore functions to move the arm like a hinge (forward and backward) and in rotation (outward and inward). The biceps muscle is the major muscle that flexes the elbow hinge, and the triceps muscle is the major muscle that extends it. The primary stability of the elbow is provided by the ulnar collateral ligament, located on the medial (inner) side of the elbow. The outer bony prominence of the elbow is the lateral epicondyle, a part of the humerus bone. Tendons attached to this area can be injured, causing inflammation or tendonitis (lateral epicondylitis, or tennis elbow). The inner portion of the elbow is a bony prominence called the medial epicondyle of the humerus. Additional tendons from muscles attach here and can be injured, likewise causing inflammation or tendonitis (medial epicondylitis, or golfer's elbow).", "The clavicle is present in mammals with prehensile forelimbs and in bats, and it is absent in sea mammals and those adapted for running. The wishbone, or furcula, of birds is composed of the two fused clavicles; a crescent-shaped clavicle is present under the pectoral fin of some fish. In man the two clavicles, on either side of the anterior base of the neck, are horizontal, S-curved rods that articulate laterally with the outer end of the shoulder blade (the acromion) to help form the shoulder joint; they articulate medially with the breastbone (sternum). Strong ligaments hold the clavicle in place at either end; the shaft gives attachment to muscles of the shoulder girdle and neck. The clavicle may be congenitally reduced or absent; its robustness varies with degree of muscle development.", "striated muscles that are attached to bones and typically cross at least one joint. Called also voluntary or striated muscles.", "skeletal m's striated muscles that are attached to bones and typically cross at least one joint.", "1. one of a series of curved bones that are articulated with the vertebrae and occur in pairs, 12 in humans, on each side of the vertebrate body, certain pairs being connected with the sternum and forming the thoracic wall.", "/ster·num/ (ster´num) [L.] a longitudinal unpaired plate of bone forming the middle of the anterior wall of the thorax, articulating above with the clavicles and along its sides with the cartilages of the first seven ribs. Its three parts are the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process.", "The clavicle or collar bone is a long, curved bone on the upper portion of the shoulder that connects with the scapula and the sternum.", "The only bone in the human body not connected to another is the hyoid, a V-shaped bone located at the base of the tongue.", "The bone is the axial skeleton that does not articulate with any other bone is the", "Clavicle, also called Collarbone, curved anterior bone of the shoulder (pectoral) girdle in vertebrates; it functions as a strut to support the shoulder.", "Term used to describe two or more bones found joined or linked in their correct anatomical positions.", "1. In the human body, which joint is formed at the junction of the tibia and femur?" ]

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[ "The largest bone in the body is the femur, or thigh bone; it is 20 inches long in a 6-foot-tall person.", "The biggest bone in the body is the femur in the upper leg, and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 14% of the total body weight, and half of this weight is water.", "The largest and longest bone in the human body is the femur bone, which is located in the upper leg. The femur is also known as the “thigh bone” and is so long that one end forms part of the hip and the other a part of the knee. On average the femur is about 48 cm (18.9 inches) long and makes up about a quarter of a persons height. It is considered to be the strongest bone in the human body and would be able to support about 30 times the weight of an average adult.", "There are 206 bones in the adult human body and 270 in an infant. The largest bone in the human body is the femur.", "The femur, or thigh bone, is the largest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the human body....", "The femur is the longest bone in the human body. It is articulated at the knee and the hip.", "1. the thigh bone, extending from the pelvis to the knee; the longest and strongest bone in the body. Its proximal end articulates with the acetabulum, a cup-like cavity in the pelvic girdle. The greater and lesser trochanters are the two processes (prominences) at the proximal end of the femur. See anatomic Table of Bones in the Appendices.", "1. the bone that extends from the pelvis to the knee, being the longest and largest bone in the body; its head articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone, and distally, the femur, along with the patella and tibia, forms the knee joint.", "The long bones, longer than they are wide, include the femur (the longest bone in the body) as well as relatively small bones in the fingers. Long bones function to support the weight of the body and facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges).", "The femur is the only bone in the thigh and serves for an attachment site for all muscles in the thigh. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint, while the distal part of the femur articulates with the tibia and kneecap forming the knee joint. By most measures the femur is the strongest bone in the body. The femur is also the longest bone in the body.", "The tibia is the shin bone, the larger of the two bones right below the knee. The tibia is the strongest weight-bearing bone in the human body. \"Tibia\" is the Roman name for a Greek flute and it is thought that the shin bone was given the same name because flutes were often fashioned out of the shin bones of animals.", "In human anatomy the tibia is the second largest bone next to the femur. As in other vertebrates the tibia is one of two bones in the lower leg, the other being the fibula, and is a component of the knee and ankle joints. The leg bones (femur, tibia and fibula) are the strongest long bones as they have to support the rest of the body.", "There is a common misconception that femur (thigh bone) is the strongest bone in human body. But, the fact is tibia is the strongest bone ...... after all, i dont think ne1 of us have measured the young's modulus of any of the bones....", "the thigh bone, which extends from the pelvis to the knee. It is largely cylindric and is the longest and strongest bone in the body. It has a large round head that fits the acetabulum of the hip, and it displays a large neck and several prominences and ridges for muscle attachments. In an erect posture it inclines medially, drawing the knee joint near the line of gravity of the body.", "The calcaneus is the largest bone in the hindfoot. It articulates with the talus superiorly and the cuboid anteriorly, and shares a joint space with the talonavicular joint, appropriately called the talocalcaneonavicular joint. The calcaneus transfers most of the body weight from the lower limb to the ground.", "The tibia, or the shin bone, is a long bone articulating superiorly with the inferior articulating surfaces of the femur , and with the talus inferiorly. The tibia hangs down the medial surface of the talus and forms the medial malleolus. It is the second largest bone in the body after the femur and its size results from the heavy weight distribution that is required of it. The tibia is a long bone, which means it has a hard outer surface known as compact bone, with a mesh-like interior called cancellous bone, designed to take pressure from multiple angles. It is also useful to note that the cancellous bone contains bone marrow that produces red blood cells.", "The humerus bone is the largest and longest bone in the arm. It consists of two extremities, the head of humerus at the top and a lower extremity on either side of which are the internal (medial) and external (lateral) condyles. The two extremities of the humerus bone are separated by the shaft of the humerus bone", "The calcaneus bone, also known as the heel bone, is the largest bone of the tarsal or ankle region.", "The fibula (/ˈfɪbjələ/[1][2]) or calf bone is a leg bone located on the lateral side of the tibia, with which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones, and, in proportion to its length, the slenderest of all the long bones", "The femur, also known as the thigh bone, is the longest bone of the human skeleton located in between the hip bone", "The major (long) bones of the human leg are the femur (thigh bone), tibia (shin bone), and fibula (the smaller, rear calf bone). The patella (kneecap) is the bone in front of the knee. Most of the leg skeleton has bony prominences and margins that can be palpated, notable exceptions being the hip joint, and the neck and shaft of femur. Many of these anatomical landmarks are used to define the extent of the leg: most notably the anterior superior iliac spine, the greater trochanter, the superior margin of the medial condyle of tibia, and the medial malleolus. ", "Innominate bone is also called hipbone or half pelvis. It is the 9th largest bone in human body. Its average length is 18.50 Cm. Innominate bone is either of the two bones that form the sides of the pelvis, consisting of three fused components, the ilium, ischium, and pubis Nontechnical name hipbone.", "It is the second largest bone in the body, this is due to its function as a weight bearing structure.", "Bones are very important to give shape to the body, which raises the question which is being the largest bone in the human body. The size and the diameter of the bone depend on the health, height and sex of a person. The size of the biggest bone in human body of a tall man would be different from a man of an average size. Similarly the size and the thickness of different bones in men and women, whether of same height, would also be different. Keeping a single global size as standard, the details of the biggest and the longest bones are:", "The hip bone is a large, flattened, irregularly shaped bone, constricted in the center and expanded above and below. It meets its fellow on the opposite side in the middle line in front, and together they form the sides and anterior wall of the pelvic cavity. It consists of three parts, the ilium, ischium, and pubis, which are distinct from each other in the young subject, but are fused in the adult; the union of the three parts takes place in and around a large cup-shaped articular cavity, the acetabulum, which is situated near the middle of the outer surface of the bone. The ilium, so-called because it supports the flank, is the superior broad and expanded portion which extends upward from the acetabulum. The ischium is the lowest and strongest portion of the bone; it proceeds downward from the acetabulum, expands into a large tuberosity, and then, curving forward, forms, with the pubis, a large aperture, the obturator foramen. The pubis extends medialward and downward from the acetabulum and articulates in the middle line with the bone of the opposite side: it forms the front of the pelvis and supports the external organs of generation.", "The body is the main weight-bearing region of a vertebra, making up the bulk of the bone’s mass.", "The ulna ( Figs. 212, 213 ) is a long bone, prismatic in form, placed at the medial side of the forearm, parallel with the radius. It is divisible into a body and two extremities. Its upper extremity, of great thickness and strength, forms a large part of the elbow-joint; the bone diminishes in size from above downward, its lower extremity being very small, and excluded from the wrist-joint by the interposition of an articular disk.", "76. What is the only bone in the human body that is not attached to any other bone?", "At birth the human body has about 350 bones, but by the time adulthood rolls around, some of our bones have fused together to give us a total of 206 bones in our body!", "the ventral bone of the PELVIC GIRDLE in vertebrates, bearing the weight of a sitting human.", "long bone , os longum - in limbs of vertebrate animals: a long cylindrical bone that contains marrow", "83. Where in the human body is the only bone that doesn’t articulate with another bone?" ]

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