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[ "Wrong! It only takes 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.0916 seconds for the Earth to turn once its axis. Unless that’s what you said. In which case, congratulations!", "This is different from the amount of time it takes for the Earth to turn once on its axis – the 23 hours, 56 minutes. Also known as a sidereal day.", "It takes the Earth 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds, to rotate on its axis. That means a day is not exactly 24 hours.", "As Earth rotates on its axis , it moves about 15 degrees every 60 minutes. After 24 hours, it has completed a full circle rotation of 360 degrees.", "Earth spins on an imaginary pole called its axis . Every 24 hours, the Earth makes a complete rotation — or one full turn — on its axis . We call each full turn a day .", "A day is the length of time that it takes a planet to rotate on its axis (360°). A day on Earth takes almost 24 hours.", "The Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the sun and once every 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds with respect to the stars (see below). Earth's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation. Atomic clocks show that a modern-day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds.", "Conservation of angular momentum is why the Earth always rotates once every 24 hours, and why its rotation axis remains (relatively) fixed in space as it orbits the Sun.", "      To calculate how long it takes for the Earth to rotate through an angle of one degree, we divide the length of a day, 24 hours or 1440 minutes, by the 360 degrees it turns through during that rotation, obtaining a rotational speed of 4 minutes per degree. Since the Sun's motion differs from the stars' motion by one degree, and it takes 4 minutes for the Earth to turn through one degree, it takes the Sun 4 minutes longer to go around the sky than it takes for the stars to do so, and the rotation period of the Earth is 4 minutes less than the length of its day. Since we define a day as having exactly 24 hours, the rotation period of the Earth is 23 hours 56 minutes, as shown in the table.", "Some books describe that Earth s rotation time is 23 hours, 56minutes 4 seconds.So why our day is of 24 hours and where these remaining 3 min and 56 seconds go?", "According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earth gravitationally interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its own axis 366.26 times, creating 365.26 solar days or one sidereal year. Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface within a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). The Moon, Earth's only permanent natural satellite, by its gravitational relationship with Earth, causes ocean tides, stabilizes the orientation of Earth's rotational axis, and gradually slows Earth's rotational rate.", "The earth rotates from west to east about a line (its axis) that is perpendicular to the plane of the equator and passes through the center of the earth, terminating at the north and south geographical poles. The period of one complete rotation is a day; the rotation of the earth is responsible for the alternate periods of light and darkness (day and night). The earth revolves about the sun once in a period of a little more than 365 1-4 days (a year). The path of this revolution, the earth's orbit, is an ellipse rather than a circle, and the earth is consequently nearer to the sun in January than it is in July; the difference between its maximum and minimum distances from the sun is c.3 million mi (4.8 million km). This difference is not great enough to affect climate on the earth.", "The Earth's rotation axis is not fixed in space, its direction executes a slow precession with a period of 26,000 years. See this page for more information.", "Well, not exactly… The earth actual rotates 360 degrees in 4 minutes less than 24 hours. The reason for this effect is that the Earth is moving one degree each day in its orbit around the Sun. The Earth has to rotate 361 degrees between noon on one day to noon on the next day. The 360-degree rotation is called the sidereal day.", "The duration of one rotation of the earth on its axis, with respect to the mean sun.", "Uranus spins a bit slower than Earth, it takes 18 hours to do a complete rotation. (And of course Earth takes 24 hours!)", "If the earth’s axis always pointed to exactly the same point in space, the vernal equinox would occur at the same point in the earth’s orbit every year, and the earth would move through a full circle of 360° between successive equinoxes. However the earth’s axis gyrates very slowly clockwise (viewed from above the north pole), describing a conical movement round the vertical, rather like the axis of a spinning top, and traces a complete circle among the stars about once every 26,000 years. According to modern science, this is caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun and, to a lesser extent, the planets on the earth’s slight equatorial bulge. The result is that the vernal equinox occurs a fraction of a degree before the earth reaches the point in its orbit where the equinox occurred the year before. This phenomenon is known as the precession of the equinoxes (though it might just as well be called the precession of the solstices). The vernal equinox precesses at an average rate of about 50 arc-seconds (1/72°) per year, and it therefore occurs about twenty minutes earlier every year. This means that the earth does not revolve through 360° between two successive vernal equinoxes but only 359 71/72 degrees (or 359 degrees, 59 minutes and 10 seconds). The actual rate of precession fluctuates around the average figure of 50\". The annual rate of precession for the year 2000 (epoch J2000.0) is 50.288\".", "Earth’s axis is just under 25° from the vertical, which means that as it travels anticlockwise around the sun, more intense light is received by one hemisphere than the other. While it spins, its rotational axis remains in the same position and with the North Pole always pointing to the north star, Polaris. The time it takes for Earth to complete one orbit of the sun is known as a ’year‘.", "“Before entering upon the details of the investigations spoken of in the preceding number, it is convenient to say that the general result of a preliminary discussion is to show a revolution of the earth’s pole in a period of 427 days, from west to east, with a radius of thirty feet, measured at the earth’s surface. Assuming provisionally, for the purpose of statement, that this is a motion of the north pole of the principal axis of inertia about that of the axis of rotation, the direction of the former from the latter lay towards the Greenwich meridian about the beginning of the year 1890. This, with the period of 427 days, will serve to fix approximately the relative positions of these axes at any other time, for any given meridian. It is not possible at this stage of the investigation to be more precise, as there are facts which appear to show that the rotation is not a perfectly uniform one, but is subject to secular change, and perhaps irregularities within brief spaces of time.”", "According to theosophy, 3 on the other hand, the axis gradually inverts through a full 360 degrees, at an average rate of 4 degrees per precessional cycle (0.56 arc-seconds per year), and therefore traces not a circle but a spiral around the poles of the ecliptic. In addition, sudden axial disturbances occur from time to time, resulting in major cataclysms. 4 Scientists would dismiss the idea of a gradual inversion of the poles as impossible because they do not know of any force that could produce such an effect. Then again, they cannot explain what causes the earth to rotate on its axis – but it keeps on turning just the same!", "The orientation of Earth's axis and equator are not fixed in space, but rotate about the poles of the ecliptic with a period of about 26,000 years, a process known as lunisolar precession, as it is due mostly to the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun on Earth's equatorial bulge. Likewise, the ecliptic itself is not fixed. The gravitational perturbations of the other bodies of the Solar System cause a much smaller motion of the plane of Earth's orbit, and hence of the ecliptic, known as planetary precession. The combined action of these two motions is called general precession, and changes the position of the equinoxes by about 50 arc seconds (about 0°.014) per year. ", "Axial precession is the movement of the rotational axis of an astronomical body, whereby the axis slowly traces out a cone. In the case of the Earth, this type of precession is also known as the precession of the equinoxes . Currently, this annual motion is about 50.3 seconds of arc per year or 1 degree every 71.6 years. The process is slow, but cumulative. A complete precession cycle covers a period of approximately 25,920 years, the so called great Platonic year, during which time the equinox regresses over a full 360�. Precessional movement also is the determining factor in the length of an Astrological Age.", "Also, the Earth's tropical period (or simply its \"year\") is the time that elapses between two alignments of its axis of rotation with the Sun, also viewed as two passages of the object at right ascension zero. One Earth year has a slightly shorter interval than the solar orbit (sidereal period) because the inclined axis and equatorial plane slowly precesses (rotates in sidereal terms), realigning before orbit completes with an interval equal to the inverse of the precession cycle (about 25,770 years).", "day Time taken for the Earth to complete one rotation on its axis. It can be measured in a number of different ways.", "Each day that goes by, the Earth needs to turn a little further for the Sun to return to the same place in the sky.… And that extra time is about 4 minutes.", "One day            = the length of time it takes the earth to make one complete revolution on its own", "Remember in my previous chapter explaining a spin-axis hypothesis the original Aztec spin axes before 2288 BC the earth was hit by an asteroid at the second equinox in the first cycle of the X-axis. In the first equinox cycle the sun goes up in the east and down in the west half a Aztec year 26-day cycle, then it reverses and the second Aztec year cycle then the sun will go up in the west and settles in the east reversing the spin. When the asteroid hit the earth on 5 February 2287 BC, which is 17 September equivalent measured against an Aztec seven times spin cycle, and that is a fall equinox 2 nd cycle so the direction of spin was carried forward, like an internal gyro’s residual spin exhibits a diminishing velocity, coming to rest at 518 BC.", "Scientists have now concluded that Earth’s “magnet” poles do flip 180 degrees in what’s commonly called a “pole shift”. There are many theories as to the frequency of the shifts in magnetic poles which range anywhere from 10,000 years to almost 800,000 years.", "The precession of the Earth is like the movement of a top. If you spin a top with the axis tilted, the axis will slowly rotate as the top spins. Likewise, the Earth's axis remains tilted at 23½°, but the orientation of this tilt changes over the course of thousands of years.", "The Earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid, with an equatorial diameter about 43 kilometers larger than its polar diameter. Because of the Earth's axial tilt, during most of the year the half of this bulge that is closest to the Sun is off-center, either to the north or to the south, and the far half is off-center on the opposite side. The gravitational pull on the closer half is stronger, since gravity decreases with distance, so this creates a small torque on the Earth as the Sun pulls harder on one side of the Earth than the other. The axis of this torque is roughly perpendicular to the axis of the Earth's rotation so the axis of rotation precesses. If the Earth were a perfect sphere, there would be no precession.", "The Earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid, with an equatorial diameter about 43 kilometers larger than its polar diameter. Because of the Earth's axial tilt, during most of the year the half of this bulge that is closest to the Sun is off-center, either to the north or to the south, and the far half is off-center on the opposite side. The gravitational pull on the closer half is stronger, since gravity decreases with distance, so this creates a small torque on the Earth as the Sun pulls harder on one side of the Earth than the other. The axis of this torque is roughly perpendicular to the axis of the Earth's rotation so the axis of rotation precesses. If the Earth were a perfect sphere, there would be no precession.", "The answer is that the forces do not work on the rotation axis. Instead they work on the equatorial bulge; due to its own rotation, the Earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid, the equatorial diameter about 43 km larger than the polar. If the Earth were a perfect sphere, there would be no precession." ]

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[ "Earlier we noted that  \"nearly every color in the rainbow can be found in sapphire.\"  One color we have not mentioned is red.  This is because the gemstones we might call \"red sapphires\" are better known as \"rubies.\"  Both sapphire and ruby are varieties of the mineral Corundum.  Gem quality specimens of Corundum are called sapphires unless they are red.  If they are red,  they are called rubies.  The name \"ruby\" derives from the Latin word rubeus meaning red.", "Corundum is the naturally occurring mineral form of aluminium oxide. Rubies and sapphires are gem-quality forms of corundum with their characteristic colors due to trace impurities in the corundum structure.", "After the diamond, the sapphire is the second-hardest mineral on earth. The sapphire is a gem-quality variety of corundum, a mineral. Although corundum is not a rare mineral, the gem variety of this mineral is very rare. Most mined corundum is opaque in color and only suitable for industrial use. When a gem-quality corundum is deep red, it is classified as a ruby, rather than a red sapphire.", "Ruby and Sapphire are color varieties of the mineral Corundum (crystalline aluminum oxide), which derives its name from the Sanskrit word for Rubies and Sapphires, ‘kuruvinda.' Corundum produces ‘allochromatic’ gemstones, meaning that trace amounts of elements such as chromium, iron and titanium as well as color centers are responsible for producing its rainbow of colors. Ruby owes its red colors to chrome, while a brown hue is imparted by the presence of iron. Sapphires also present orange and red hues (such as the Sunset Sapphire), but these hues do not match the color spectrum assigned to Ruby red. Therefore, if Corundum reds are labeled ‘Ruby’, other colors are termed ‘Sapphire,' Even pure Ruby is only 80% red, however, also displays shades of orange, bright pink, purple and violet.", "Corundum is best known for its gem varieties, Ruby and Sapphire. Ruby and Sapphire are scientifically the same mineral, but just differ in color. Ruby is the red variety, and Sapphire is the variety that encompasses all other colors, although the most popular and valued color of Sapphire is blue. Sapphire is also only used to describe the gem variety; otherwise it is simply called Corundum.", "An extremely hard mineral composed mainly of aluminum oxide. It occurs in gem varieties such as ruby and sapphire and in a dark-colored variety that is used for polishing and scraping. Corundum is the mineral used to represent a hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale.", "Sapphire is one of the two gem varieties of corundum, the other being the red ruby. Although blue is the most well known hue, sapphire may be any color of corundum except red.", "Ruby is distinguished for its bright red color, being the most famed and fabled red gemstone. Beside for its bright color, it is a most desirable gem due to its hardness , durability, luster, and rarity. Transparent rubies of large sizes are even rarer than Diamond s. Ruby is the red variety of the mineral Corundum . Sapphire , the other gem variety of Corundum, encompasses all colors of Corundum aside from red. In essence, Ruby is a red Sapphire, since Ruby and Sapphire are identical in all properties except for color. However, because of the special allure and historical significance, Ruby has always been classified as an individual gemstone, and is never identified as a form of Sapphire (though some purplish-red colors may straddle the line of being classified as either Ruby or Sapphire).", "Ruby is the red variety of the mineral corundum, one of the hardest minerals on Earth, of which the sapphire is also a variety. Corundum is the mineral form of alumina which crystallizes in the hexagonal system. The red color of ruby results from a small admixture of chromic oxide. Only red corundum is entitled to be called ruby, all other colors being classified as sapphires. The most prized tint is blood red or crimson known in the trade as 'pigeon's blood' red.", "Sapphire is a variety of the mineral corundum.� Corundum is found in every color of the rainbow, with red being designated as ruby and all other hues Sapphire.� But the most prized color of Sapphire is a rich, deep blue. These gemstones were mined as early as the 7th Century BC from India and what is now Sri Lanka.� They are found today in Sri Lanka, Kashmir, Myanmar, Thailand, Australia, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, China, Madagascar, and the United States.� Large specimens of Corundum crystals are rare, although the 563-carat Star of India can be seen in the American Museum of Natural History.� This is the largest and most famous of star Sapphires, which are cut to reflect light from inclusions within the stone, revealing a bright six-legged star pattern.�", "Ruby is known as the \"Lord of the Gems\" because of its rarity and beauty. Derived from the Latin word \"ruber\", it simply means red. Ruby, like sapphire, is a variety of corundum and only exists as a true red in color. The finest color is a vivid, almost pure spectral red with a very faint undertone of blue, as seen in Burmese rubies which are considered the finest.", "corundum is a very hard mineral ( hardness 9). Only diamond is harder. Corundum is called ruby or sapphire, depending ...", "n. An extremely hard mineral, a form of aluminum oxide with the chemical formula Al2O3, that occurs in the form of the gemstones sapphire and ruby; it is used as an abrasive.", "Sapphires are naturally available in a variety of colors, although blue is the color typically associated most with the stone. A variant of the mineral corundum, sapphires and rubies are actually the same compound. While rubies appear red due to the presence of chromium, blue sapphires get their hue from the addition of titanium and iron.", "Sapphire is a variety of the mineral corundum, also known as aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Corundum crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system and is normally described using hexagonal axes (figure 2). It can assume a rainbow array of colors given the correct trace impurities and growth conditions (figure 3). In addition to blue sapphire and red ruby, corundum also includes “fancy” sapphires of every other color (including colorless). Sapphire and ruby are found all over the world, with notable sources in Africa, Asia, Australia, North America, and Europe.", "To be defined as a “gem”, a mineral (all gems are minerals with a few exceptions) must possess a combination of beauty, durability and rarity. Ruby and sapphire have almost the highest rating in all three categories. This cannot be said for any other gem. For example, a top quality, larger size emerald gets top ratings for beauty and rarity but is one of the least durable gems. A top quality, larger size diamond gets a top rating for beauty but is not as rare as a comparable size and quality ruby or emerald. Diamond is fairly durable but can be broken when struck sharply in a certain direction.", "Ruby is the red variety of the mineral called Corundum which is composed of aluminium oxide (any other colour of corundrum is a sapphire, see below). The red colour is caused mainly by chromium and titanium. It is natural for rubies to have imperfections in them, including colour impurities and inclusions of rutile needles known as \"silk. Origin of name comes from ruber, Latin for red. Some rubies show a 3-point or 6-point star or asterism. These rubies are cut into cabochons to display this effect. Natural occurring rubies are very rare and extremely rare in large sizes over 3 carats. They can be found in many regions around the world from India, to East Africa, to South America, the Hindu Kush and a few deposits in the United States.", "The reddish color sapphires are known as ruby. Ruby is the second hardest gemstone after the diamond. The color can vary from a faint pink to deep red, more commonly known as pigeon's blood.", "Sapphire, a variety of corundum, comes in all colors except red (the red variety being known as ruby), but is especially popular in deep blue. Fancy colored sapphires-including pink, green, orange, and golden yellow-are magnificent when combined in a necklace or bracelet.", "corundum, naturally occurring aluminum oxide mineral (Al 2 O 3) that is, after diamond, the hardest known natural substance. Its finer varieties are the gemstones ...", "Ruby and sapphire are extremely popular gemstones. Virtually every jewelry store that features colored gemstones in jewelry will have a generous portion of their display dedicated to ruby and sapphire items. Ruby is the most popular red gemstone, and sapphire is the most popular blue gemstone.", "Sapphire is one of the hardest gemstones to be found, second only to the diamond on Mohs Hardness Scale . The value of a sapphire is determined by its colour , purity , reflection (or optical properties ), and size .", "Ruby is a gemstone in the corundum family. It exhibits a range of red colors, and the most desired color is \"pigeon's blood\" red (pure red with just a hint of blue). On Mohs' scale of hardness, ruby ranks a hard 9. It has a strong, adamantine (\"diamond-like\") luster, and ruby sources include Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Afghanistan, Cambodia, Kenya, Madagascar, and Vietnam. Read more about ruby by clicking here.", "At 9.0 on the Mohs scale, sapphire is a gemstone that is almost as hard as diamonds (10). This makes them a wonderful choice for jewelry that will last through the generations, relatively resistant to wear and tear.", "co·run·dum (k-r n d m) n. An extremely hard mineral, aluminum oxide, Al 2 O 3, sometimes containing iron, magnesia, or silica, that occurs in gem varieties such as ...", "A few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other form in which they are found. Most however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry. The picture to the right is of a rural, commercial cutting operation in Thailand. This small factory cuts thousands of carats of sapphire annually. The two main classifications are stones cut as smooth, dome shaped stones called cabochons, and stones which are cut with a faceting machine by polishing small flat windows called facets at regular intervals at exact angles.", "Spinel is a commonly brilliant red gem that is found in some of the same locales as ruby. Spinel has often been mistaken for ruby, and indeed some of the famous “rubies” are actually spinels, including the 170-carat Black Prince’s Ruby set into the British Imperial State Crown and the Timur Ruby, a 352-carat spinel engraved with the names of mogul emperors who owned it.", "Chrysoberyl and Corundum are also some of the most significant gemstones available in the market. Corundum is the 2nd hardest gemstone in the globe. Lalrhi, Gomed , Romni, Ludhya, Neeli, Tursava, Ahwa, Sindooria, Tursava, Alaimani, Suleimani, Godanta etc are some of the other well known gemstones.", "Sapphires are mined from alluvial deposits or from primary underground workings. Commercial mining locations for sapphire and ruby include (but are not limited to) the following countries: Afghanistan, Australia, Myanmar/Burma, Cambodia, China, Colombia, India, Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Malawi, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, United States, and Vietnam. Sapphires from different geographic locations may have different appearances or chemical-impurity concentrations, and tend to contain different types of microscopic inclusions. Because of this, sapphires can be divided into three broad categories: classic metamorphic, non-classic metamorphic or magmatic, and classic magmatic.", "synthetic ruby – A synthetic reproduction of the natural material. It can be distinguished from the latter, from the presence of curved growth lines and. often, round bubbles, but has almost identical composition and properties. This term cannot be applied to any other type of imitation of the natural ruby. Flux fusion and hydrothermal techniques have added another dimension to ruby synthesis, and we now find a new class of stones, sold most often as crystals, either singly or, after 1966, in clusters, that command far higher prices than the older Verneuil synthetics. Clusters of ruby crystals do not occur in nature, so there is no problem about distinguishing the synthetics of this type. Cut stones will usually show the veil-like flux inclusions noted in alexandrite and emerald flux-grown crystals and, hence, be distinguishable. Flux-grown “Chatham-Created” ruby crystals, as large as 20 carats, were announced by Carroll F, Chatham in 1970. See VERNEUIL, A.; CHATHAM, CARROLL F.; BROWN, H. TRUEHART.", "C ORUNDUM Corundum is crystalline aluminum oxide, Al 2 O 3, second hardest on Mohs Scale, and one of the most popular (and expensive) of gem minerals.", "When someone lists the most famous gemstones such as diamond, topaz, aquamarine, emerald and garnet, corundum does not usually get mentioned. However, its two ..." ]

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[ "             Corundum is a mineral consisting of aluminum oxide with a chemical formula Al2O3. Aluminum is the most abundant metallic material in the crust of the earth; only the oxygen and silicon are found in greater abbundance. Aluminum is never found as a free metal. It is commonly found as aluminum silicate or as a silicate of aluminum mixed with other metals such as sodium, potassium, iron, calcium, and magnesium. These silicates are not useful ores and it is chemically difficult, and therefore an expensive process, to get aluminum from them. Bauxite, an impure hydrated aluminum oxide, is the commercial source of aluminum and its compounds. Oxygen makes up 21 percent by volume or 23.15 percent by weight of the atmosphere; 85.8 percent by weight of the oceans (88.8 percent of pure water is oxygen); and, as a material of most rocks and minerals, 46.7 percent by weight of the solid crust of the earth. Oxygen accounts for 60 percent of the human body. It is a important for all living tissues; almost all plants and animals, including all humans, require oxygen, in the free or combined state, to maintain life. Alumina or Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 , is an oxide found in nature as the mineral corundum, Al2O3; diaspore, Al2O3·H 2O; gibbsite, Al2O3·3H2O; and most commonly, bauxite, an impure form of gibbsite. It is the only oxide formed by the metal aluminum. The precious stones ruby and sapphire are composed of corundum colored by small amounts of impurities. .", "Corundum (from Tamil \"kurundam\") is a crystalline form of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and one of the rock-forming minerals. It is naturally clear, but can have different colors when impurities are present. Transparent specimens are used as gems, called ruby if red, while all other colors are called sapphire. A pinkish-orange sapphire is called padparadscha.", "Corundum is a rock-forming mineral that is found in igneous , metamorphic , and sedimentary rocks. It is an aluminum oxide with a chemical composition of Al2O3 and a hexagonal crystal structure.", "Corundum: Corundum is a crystalline form of aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) withtraces of iron, titanium and chromium. Itisa rockforming mineral. Itisoneof the naturally cleartransparent materials, but can have different colors when impurities are ...", "Corundum is a prosaic mineral, an aluminum oxide with a simple chemical formula and widespread distribution, distinguished solely by its hardness: nine on the Mohs scale, second only to the diamond. Colorless in its pure form, corundum ...", "Ruby and sapphire are the identical mineral species. Both are the mineral species corundum, which is aluminum oxide in a specific trigonal crystal form. It is this combination of the aluminum oxide and the specific crystal form that imparts the durability and outstanding optical properties of corundum.", "Sapphire Mineral Facts: Chemical Formula: Al 2 O 3 Corundum is nearly always a practically pure oxide of aluminum of the composition Al 2 O 3, in which there are 52.9 ...", "corundum (absolute hardness = 400): a hard mineral form of alumina that crystallizes into a range of colors and is used as gems and abrasives.", "Ruby is the red variety of the mineral corundum, one of the hardest minerals on Earth, of which the sapphire is also a variety. Corundum is the mineral form of alumina which crystallizes in the hexagonal system. The red color of ruby results from a small admixture of chromic oxide. Only red corundum is entitled to be called ruby, all other colors being classified as sapphires. The most prized tint is blood red or crimson known in the trade as 'pigeon's blood' red.", "Aluminium oxide is an electrical insulator but has a relatively high thermal conductivity (40 W/m K). In its most commonly occurring crystalline form, called corundum or α-aluminium oxide, its hardness makes it suitable for use as an abrasive and as a component in cutting tools.[3]", "The most common form of crystalline aluminium oxide is known as corundum, which is the thermodynamically stable form. The oxygen ions nearly form a hexagonal close-packed structure with aluminium ions filling two-thirds of the octahedral interstices. Each Al3+ center is octahedral. In terms of its crystallography, corundum adopts a trigonal Bravais lattice with a space group of R-3c (number 167 in the International Tables). The primitive cell contains two formula units of aluminium oxide.", "Aluminum Oxide is a chemical compound consisting of two aluminum ions and three oxygen ions demonstrated by the formula Al2O3 Another commons name for aluminum oxide is aluminium oxide which is its proper name. It may also be referred to as aloxide, aloxite, or alundum. It is most frequently found in a crystalline polymorphic phase which s comprised of the mineral corundum which helps form several precious stones such as rubies and sapphires. Aluminum oxide is very commonly used in industry to produce aluminum metal because of its hardness, and high melting point.", "Corundum, from the oxides class of mineral, can have numerous uses. Extremely hard, corundum, in the form of an unconsolidated rock commonly called emery, has been used as an abrasive since ancient times. Owing to its very high melting point—even higher than that of iron—corundum also is employed in making alumina, a fireproof product used in furnaces and fireplaces. Though pure corundum is colorless, when combined with trace amounts of certain elements, it can yield brilliant colors: hence, corundum with traces of chromium becomes a red ruby, while traces of iron, titanium, and other elements yield varieties of sapphire in yellow, green, and violet as well as the familiar blue.", "Figure 2. Left: In this model of corundum’s crystal structure, the purple and gold balls represent aluminum and oxygen, respectively. The pink shadowing shows the octahedral coordination of aluminum. Right: A hexagonal representation showing the c and a planes.", "Corundum is a common mineral found around the world in several forms such as red ruby and blue sapphire. Corundum mineral is popular in rock and mineral …", "Aluminum oxide, when it occurs in crystals rather than on pans, makes up the abrasive called corundum, and is also the principal material of rubies and sapphires the gem colors come from chromium and titanium impurities.", "Corundum and perovskite are thus said to be refractory oxides. Their properties of early condensation is why they are so important, and why we stressed them in our classification of minerals in Lecture 14.", "Corundum for abrasives is mined in Zimbabwe, Russia, Sri Lanka and India. Historically it was mined from deposits associated with dunites in North Carolina, US and from a nepheline syenite in Craigmont, Ontario. Emery grade corundum is found on the Greek island of Naxos and near Peekskill, New York, US. Abrasive corundum is synthetically manufactured from bauxite. Four corundum axes dating back to 2500 BCE from the Liangzhou culture have been discovered in China. The surfaces of the axes are remarkably smoothly polished. ", "Corundum is used more as an alloy to make advanced versions of other armors, such as banded-iron armor and plate armor. Corundum ore is smelted wit...", "Corundum is a very hard, tough, and stable mineral. For all practical purposes, it is the hardest mineral after Diamond , making it the second hardest mineral. It is also unaffected by acid s and most environments. Translucent brown Corundum and Emery are the most common forms of Corundum. These are fairly common forms, and due to their great hardness and prevalence are the most favorable abrasive s. The industrial term \"emery\" describing Corundum abrasives is derived from the variety Emery which is mined specifically for its use as an abrasive. Erosion may cause Emery to crumble and form sand, which are sometimes called \"black sands.\"", "Corundum is also found in metamorphic rocks in locations where aluminous shales or bauxites have been exposed to contact metamorphism. Schist , gneiss , and marble produced by regional metamorphism will sometimes contain corundum. Some of the sapphires and rubies of highest quality, color, and clarity are formed in marble along the edges of subsurface magma bodies.", "Corundum occurs as a mineral in mica schist, gneiss, and some marbles in metamorphic terranes. It also occurs in low silica igneous syenite and nepheline syenite intrusives. Other occurrences are as masses adjacent to ultramafic intrusives, associated with lamprophyre dikes and as large crystals in pegmatites. Because of its hardness and resistance to weathering, it commonly occurs as a detrital mineral in stream and beach sands.", "Because of corundum's hardness (pure corundum is defined to have 9.0 Mohs), it can scratch almost every other mineral. It is commonly used as an abrasive on everything from sandpaper to large machines used in machining metals, plastics, and wood. Some emery is a mix of corundum and other substances, and the mix is less abrasive, with an average Mohs hardness of 8.0.", "Because of corundum’s hardness (pure corundum is defined to have 9.0 Mohs), it can scratch almost every other mineral. It is commonly used as an abrasive, on everything from sandpaper to large machines used in machining metals, plastics, and wood. Some emery is a mix of corundum and other substances, and the mix is less abrasive, with an average hardness near .", "Corundum occurs as a mineral in mica schist, gneiss, and some marbles in Metamorphic terranes. It also occurs in low silica igneous syenite and nepheline syenite intrusives. Other occurrences are as masses adjacent to ultramafic intrusives, associated with lamprophyre dikes and as large crystals in pegmatites. Because of its hardness and resistance to weathering, it commonly occurs as a detrital mineral in stream and beach sands. The largest documented single crystal of corundum measured about 65×40×40 cm.", "Historical information. Cobalt oxide was used in ancient Egypt, Babylonia, and China as a blue coloring for glass and enamel. Zaffer, a gray earthy mass produced by roasting certain ores called cobold ores, began to be used for this purpose in western Europe in the 16th century. These ores released copious toxic fumes when roasted, and it was impossible to smelt out the metal from the roasting products. Medieval miners and metallurgists believed this to be the pranks of mythical beings called cobolds (German Kobold, “sprite” or “gnome”). In 1735 the Swedish chemist G. Brant produced a metal that he named cobold regulus by heating a mixture of zaffer with carbon and flux in a blast furnace. The name was soon changed to “cobolt” and then “cobalt.”", "Corundum: Two corundum crystal segments from India showing the mineral's hexagonal crystal habit and basal parting. These specimens are red in color and might be called \"ruby corundum.\" Image © iStockphoto / Lissart.", "Natural and synthetic corundum are used in a wide variety of industrial applications because of their toughness, hardness, and chemical stability. They are used to make industrial bearings, scratch-resistant windows for electronic instruments, wafers for circuit boards, and many other products.", "The mineral is widely known for its extreme hardness and for the fact that it is sometimes found as beautiful transparent crystals in many different colors. The extreme hardness makes corundum an excellent abrasive, and when that hardness is found in beautiful crystals, you have the perfect material for cutting gemstones .", "Synthetic corundum can be identified only by magnification. Synthetic corundum has the same chemical and physical properties as natural corundum.", "This page contains a description of Corundum, what it is used for, where it is mined and other general information.", "Get the answer to \"What are some uses of corundum?\" ... Minerals, Mining, and Metallurgy; Planet Earth; Storms ; View all subjects at Answers Encyclopedia." ]

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[ "Gravity is the primary force that controls the orbit of the planets around the sun. While each planet has its own gravity based on the size of the planet and the speed at which it travels, orbit is based on the gravity of the sun. The sun's gravity is just strong enough to keep the planets pulled toward it to create an orbit pattern but not strong enough to pull the planets into the sun. This is similar to the effect of the Earth on the orbit of the moon and satellites. The lesser gravity of the planets also helps to keep the planets from falling toward the sun.", "The centripetal force is a force that points towards the center of the curve that you're taking. If no forces act on you, then you'll keep going straight at the same speed. If you want to make a curve then some force must pull you in the right direction. That's a centripetal force. The centripetal force that keeps planets in their orbits around the Sun is the force of gravity . The opposite force is the centripetal force.", "Gravitational forces between the Sun and planets keep the planets in orbit around the Sun. Without these forces, the planets would fly off into deep space.", "1. What physically retains the planets in orbits around the Sun and their satellites in orbit around them? Newton's answer — inverse-square gravity, one in kind with everyday terrestrial gravity — turned on a largely suppressed failure to account for more than half of the precession of the lunar orbit, it tacitly assumed interaction between the Sun and Jupiter and the other individual planets, and it raised unanswered questions about whether the perihelia of the planetary orbits do or do not precess.", "Brahe's observations also provided the handle to connect Kepler's laws with Newton's Law of Gravitation. The Sun is the source of the gravitation that pulls radially on the planets in our solar system and keeps them in orbit. It also slows them down on their way out to the furthest part of their orbits, and speeds them up on their way back in. If, in fact, there were another equal source of gravitation located in the other focus of the ellipse, there would be no reason for a planet to move faster near the one focus and slower near the other focus, as was observed.", "The planets orbit (revolve) around the Sun at different speeds because at their different distances from the Sun, the Sun's gravitational pull is different: the farther from the Sun, the weaker its gravitational tug on the planets and other objects. The stronger the Sun's gravitational pull on a planet, the faster that planet has to move to avoid falling into the Sun.", "The sun's gravity holds all the planets in orbit. Their orbits are a balance between gravity and the motion of the planet (if the planet wasn't moving, it would fall into the sun!).", "The planets are kept in their orbits because they and the Sun attract each other through gravity . The Sun attracts a planet just as hard as the planet attracts the Sun, but the Sun is very much more massive than the planets so it is much harder to move, and that's why the planets have wide orbits while the Sun hardly moves at all.", "By reason of this deviation of the Sun from the center of gravity the centripetal force does not always tend to that immobile center, and hence the planets neither move exactly in ellipses nor revolve twice in the same orbit. Each time a planet revolves it traces a fresh orbit, as happens also with the motion of the Moon, and each orbit depends upon the combined motions of all the planets, not to mention their actions upon each other. Unless I am much mistaken, it would exceed the force of human wit to consider so many causes of motion at the same time, and to define the motions by exact laws which would allow of an easy calculation.", "Many people know that the planets in Earth's solar system move around the sun in orbits. This orbit creates the days, years and seasons on the Earth. However, not everyone is aware of why the planets orbit around the sun and how they remain in their orbits. There are two forces that keep the planets in their orbits.", "The application of Newton's law of gravity has enabled the acquisition of much of the detailed information we have about the planets in the Solar System, the mass of the Sun, and details of quasars; even the existence of dark matter is inferred using Newton's law of gravity. Although we have not traveled to all the planets nor to the Sun, we know their masses. These masses are obtained by applying the laws of gravity to the measured characteristics of the orbit. In space an object maintains its orbit because of the force of gravity acting upon it. Planets orbit stars, stars orbit galactic centers, galaxies orbit a center of mass in clusters, and clusters orbit in superclusters. The force of gravity exerted on one object by another is directly proportional to the product of those objects' masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.", "In the Hyperdimensional Model, the Sun’s primary energy source — like the planets’ — must be driven by its total angular momentum — its own “spin momentum,” plus the total angular momentum of the planetary masses orbiting around it. Any standard astronomical text reveals that, though the Sun contains more than 98% of the mass of the solar system, it contains less than 2% of its total angular momentum. The rest is in the planets. Thus, in adding up their total contribution to the Sun’s angular momentum budget — if the HD model is correct — we should see the Sun following the same line on the graph that the planets, from Earth to Neptune, do.", "I found now that whatsoever was the law of the forces which kept the Planets in their Orbs, the areas described by a Radius drawn from them to the Sun would be proportional to the times in which they were described. And … that their Orbs would be such Ellipses as Kepler had described [when] the forces which kept them in their Orbs about the Sun were as the squares of their … distances from the Suit reciprocally. 121", "He argued that the Sun had a driving force which propelled the planets in their orbits.", "By proposition 5, Newton was able to conclude (in corollary 1) that there “is … a power of gravity tending to all the planets” and that the planets “gravitate” toward their satellites, and the sun “towards all the primary planets.” This “force of gravity” varies (corollary 2) as the inverse square of the distance; corollary 3 states that “all the planets do mutually gravitate towards one another.” Hence, “near their conjunction,” Jupiter and Saturn, since their masses are so great, “sensibly disturb each other’s motions,” while the sun “disturbs” the motion of the moon and together both sun and moon “disturb our sea, as we shall hereafter explain.”", "* Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the motion of the planets around the sun. First articulated by Johannes Kepler.", "The planets, most of the satellites of the planets, and the asteroids revolve around the sun in the same direction, in nearly circular orbits. The sun and planets rotate on their axes. The planets orbit the sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic. Pluto is a special case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined (17 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of all the planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto is closer to the sun than is Neptune.", "All of the planets (and most other objects) also orbit with the Sun's rotation; in a counter-clockwise direction as viewed from a point above the Sun's north pole. There is a direct relationship between how far away a planet is from the Sun and how quickly it orbits. Mercury, the closest to the sun, travels the fastest, while Neptune, being much farther from the Sun, travels more slowly. Objects orbit in an ellipse around the Sun, so an orbiting object's distance from the Sun varies in the course of its year. Its closest approach to the Sun is known as its perihelion while its farthest point from the Sun is called its aphelion. Although the orbits of the planets are nearly circular (with perihelions roughly equal to their aphelions), many comets, asteroids and objects of the Kuiper belt follow highly elliptical orbits with large differences between perihelion and aphelion. The paths of objects around the Sun travel according to a law of planetary motion discovered by German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 1600's. The sun is slightly off to the side of the center of each ellipse at a point called a focus. The focus is actually a point just outside the centre of the Sun called the barycenter of the solar system.", " Kepler’s first law: The orbits of planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus. Therefore, each planet moves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun.", "A \"planet\" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.", "# The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of that ellipse. [This focal point is actually the barycenter of the Sun-planet system; for simplicity this explanation assumes the Sun's mass is infinitely larger than that planet's.] The planet's orbit lies in a plane, called the orbital plane. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits about particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or periselene and aposelene respectively). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron.", "The average Earth-Sun distance, which originally defined the astronomical unit (AU), provides a convenient measure for distances within the solar system. The astronomical unit is now defined dynamically (using Kepler’s third law; see Kepler’s laws of planetary motion ) and has the value 1.49597870691 × 1013 cm (about 93 million miles), with an uncertainty of about 2,000 cm. The mean radius of Earth’s orbit is 1 + (3.1 × 10−8) AU. Mercury , at 0.4 AU, is the closest planet to the Sun, while Neptune, at 30.1 AU, is the farthest. Pluto’s orbit, with a mean radius of 39.5, is sufficiently eccentric that at times it is closer to the Sun than is Neptune. The planes of the planetary orbits are all within a few degrees of the ecliptic , the plane that contains Earth’s orbit around the Sun. As viewed from far above Earth’s North Pole , all planets move in the same (counterclockwise) direction in their orbits.", "The elliptical orbits of the planets have such small eccentricities that, to a very good approximation, we can think of them as circles. (Only very precise measurements, like those available to Kepler, are able to detect the difference.) This means that we can use the idea of uniform circular motion to analyze planetary motion. In that section, we revealed that a body in uniform circular motion was constantly accelerating towards the center of its circular track. Thus, according to Newton's first law of motion, there must be a force acting on the planet that is always directed toward the center of the orbit -- that is toward the Sun!", "The theorems of motion just cited are expressed by seven integrals, or equations expressing a law that certain functions of the variables and of the time remain constant. It is remarkable that although the seven integrals were found almost from the beginning of the investigation, no others have since been added; and indeed it has recently been shown that no others exist that can be expressed in an algebraic form. In the case of three bodies these do not suffice completely to define the motion. In this case, the problem can be attacked only by methods of approximation, devised so as to meet the special conditions of each case. The special conditions which obtain in the solar system are such as to make the necessary approximation theoretically possible however complex the process may be. These conditions are:—(1) The smallness of the masses of the planets in comparison with that of the sun, in consequence of which the orbit of each planet deviates but slightly from an ellipse during any one revolution; (2) the fact that the orbits of the planets are nearly circular, and the planes of their orbits but slightly inclined to each other. The result of these conditions is that all the quantities required admit of development in series proceeding according to the powers of the eccentricities and inclinations of the orbits, and the ratio of the masses of the several planets to the mass of the sun.", "planetary motion. Kepler's first law states that the planets orbit the Sun following an elliptical path with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. This revolutionary break with the tradition of circular motion allowed a simple geometrical model to explain the motions of the planets. No longer requiring awkward epicycles and eccentrics, elliptical orbits presented an elegant mathematical solution to a sticky problem. Kepler's other two laws are mathematical theories relating to the heliocentric model. His second law states that the orbits of planets sweep out equal areas in equal times, and his third law concludes that the square of the period of each orbit is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of the elliptical orbit—that is, one half the distance across the ellipsis at its widest point. The regularity that these three laws implied made the heliocentric model compelling to scientists who looked for order in the universe.", "according to kepler's third law (p^2=a^3) how does a planet's mass affect its orbit around the sun?", "Newton defined the force acting on a planet to be the product of its mass and the acceleration (see Newton's laws of motion). So:", "The terrestrial planets in our solar system orbit relatively close to the Sun, this gives them their other name; the “Inner Planets”", "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. As such, it circles the sun faster than all the other planets, which is why Romans named it after their swift-footed messenger god.", "A fixed circle in the earth-centered universe along which a smaller circle moves carrying a planet, the sun, or the moon", "Earlier this year two teams reported different kinds of calculations indicating that Earth will be swallowed up by the sun. In a calculation that would thrill any college junior studying classical mechanics, Lorenzo Iorio of Italy’s National Institute of Nuclear Physics used perturbation theory. It simplifies analyses by dropping relatively small factors, thereby making complex equations of motions that describe the interactions between the sun and Earth mathematically manageable. Assuming that the sun’s yearly mass loss (currently about one part in 100 trillion) remains small for the duration of its evolution to the red giant phase, Iorio calculates that Earth will move outward at about three millimeters a year, or only 0.0002 AU by the sun’s red giant phase. But at that point the sun will balloon up, in only a million years, to 1.2 AU in radius, thus vaporizing Earth.", "We've considered the motion of Neptune and its moons relative to their barycentre, and the motion of the centre of that system relative to the barycentre of the Solar System. What about the motion of the barycentre of the Solar System relative to the rest of the Universe?" ]

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[ "The planet Mars was named after the Roman god of war, but was the god was known to the Greeks as Ares . Mars was the son of Jupiter (Zeus) and Juno ( Hera ). (See Roman Deities, Mars .)", "Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is also referred to as the \"Red Planet\" because of its reddish appearance as seen from Earth.", "Mars Mars was named after the roman god of war, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s also called the red planet.", "Mars (Ares) is the Roman god of war. The planet probably got its name because of its red color.", "Mars is the warrior planet, named after the god of war (though its lack of a strong magnetic field means this planet can’t really fight solar radiation like Earth can).", "The other planets of our solar system are all named for mythological beings.  Venus is the Roman goddess of love and beauty; Mars, the Roman god of war; Jupiter the king of the Roman gods.  But the Earth�what is it named for?  Dirt?", "In Roman mythology: Mercury was the messenger-god of Jupiter, and was the god of games, of business, and of story telling. Venus was the goddess of love and beauty. To her perfect figure and pure features she added an innocent manner. Mars was identified with the Roman god of wars. He always acted like a strong warrior and a strong desire for violence. Jupiter was the king of heaven and Earth and of all the Olympian gods. He was also known as the god of justice. In Greek mythology, Cronus was the son of Uranus and Gaea. The Romans adopted Cronus as the god Saturn. Uranus stands for the starry sky in the evening. In the creation myth of the Greeks, Uranus suddenly came out of the Earth (shown as the goddess Gaea). Gaea herself suddenly came into being out of Chaos, which came before all things. Neptune was the name that ancient Romans gave to the Greek god of the sea and earthquakes, Poseidon.", "Mars was the Roman God of War, the son of Juno and Jupiter . As the word Mars has no Indo-European derivation, it is most likely the Latinized form of the agricultural Etruscan god Maris . Initially, the Roman god of fertility and vegetation and a protector of cattle, fields and boundaries, Mars later became associated with battle and identified with the Greek god Ares . He was also a tutelary god of Rome, and as the legendary father of its founder, Romulus , it was believed that all Romans were descended of Mars.", "The Roman god of war, Mars, was identified with the Greek god Ares. His name is the basis of the words; martial (as in martial arts or martial law), March (the third month of the year), the names Marcus, Mark, Martin. Roman Mars/Greek Aries represents the masculine archetype; Isidore sees a relationship between the words Mars and male, from Latin masculus, diminutive of mas, male. Isidore thinks the word marriage is also a relative:", "In ancient Roman religion and myth, Mars (,) was the god of war and also an agricultural guardian, a combination characteristic of early Rome. He was second in importance only to Jupiter and he was the most prominent of the military gods in the religion of the Roman army. Most of his festivals were held in March, the month named for him (Latin Martius), and in October, which began the season for military campaigning and ended the season for farming.", "Mars was the Roman god of war and agriculture. It may not seem like these two things go together, but they do. Mars protected those who fought for their communities and stayed home to raise crops for food.", "Mars, the Roman god of war, featured in the stories, myths and legends in Roman Mythology. One of the symbols of Mars was the Ancile which was buckler shield which, according to Roman mythology fell from heaven and landed upon Numa Pompilius the legendary second king of Rome who succeeded Romulus. According to legend when the buckler shield fell to earth a voice was heard which declared that Rome should be mistress of the world while the magical shield was preserved.", "Saunders, Chas, and Peter J. Allen, eds. \"MARS - the Roman God of War (Roman mythology).\" <em>Godchecker</em>. Godchecker.com / CID, 28 Jan. 2014. Web. 20 January 2017.", "Mars in Roman mythology, the god of war and the most important Roman god after Jupiter. He was probably originally an agricultural god, and the month of March is named after him. His Greek equivalent is Ares . Legends of Mars include the story of his love for Venus, and the trap made for them by her husband Vulcan, and from early times this became a favourite subject for artists. The wolf and the woodpecker were regarded as sacred to Mars, and the field of Mars is another name for the Campus Martius of ancient Rome . The hill of Mars is the Areopagus (‘hill of Ares’) of ancient Athens .", "Due to Jupiter’s popularity, the Romans named the largest planet in the solar system after him.", "Named for the Roman God Mars, who was the god of war and guardian of the state. Mars was the father of Romulus and Remus.", "The Romans named the five planets closest to the Sun after their most important gods. These were the only planets that were bright enough for them to see. Later, when telescopes were used, other planets were discovered. Astronomers decided to continue naming the planets after Roman Gods with one exception - Uranus. Uranus was named after the Greek god of the sky. According to myth, he was the father of Saturn and the grandfather of Jupiter.", "Ares ((Greek mythology) Greek god of war; son of Zeus and Hera; identified with Roman Mars)", "Herschel decided to name this new planet Geordium Sidus (Georges’s Star) to honor King George III. The choice was popular in England. Unsurprisingly, the international astronomical community rejected this name. Some favored naming the planet after Herschel, but tradition ultimately prevailed. The other five known planets (excluding Earth) were all named after Roman gods.1 That trend would continue, somewhat modified, with the new planet being named after the Greek god of the sky—Uranus (YOOR-un-us).2 Since Uranus is skyblue in color, the choice seemed fitting.3", "The Romans named it after Jupiter () (also called Jove), the principal god of Roman mythology, whose name comes from the Proto-Indo-European vocative compound *Dyēu-pəter (nominative: *Dyēus-pətēr, meaning \"Father Sky-God\", or \"Father Day-God\"). In turn, Jupiter was the counterpart to the mythical Greek Zeus (Ζεύς), also referred to as Dias (Δίας), the planetary name of which is retained in modern Greek. ", "Named by the Romans for their god of war because of its red, bloodlike color. Other civilizations also named this planet from this attribute; for example, the Egyptians named it “Her Desher,” meaning “the red one.”", "Jupiter (Zeus) was the king of the gods in Roman mythology, making the name a good choice for what is by far the largest planet in our solar system.", "Jupiter is the supreme god of the Roman pantheon, called dies pater, \"shining father\". He is a god of light and sky, and protector of the state and its laws. He is a son of Saturn and brother of Neptune and Juno (who is also his wife). The Romans worshipped him especially as Jupiter Optimus Maximus (all-good, all-powerful). This name refers not only to his rulership over the universe, but also to his function as the god of the state who distributes laws, controls the realm and makes his will known through oracles. His English name is Jove. He had a temple on the Capitol, together with Juno and Minerva, but he was the most prominent of this Capitoline triad. His temple was not only the most important sanctuary in Rome; it was also the center of political life. Here official offerings were made, treaties were signed and wars were declared, and the triumphant generals of the Roman army came here to give their thanks. Other titles of Jupiter include: Caelestis (heavenly), Lucetius (of the light), Totans (thunderer), Fulgurator (of the lightning). As Jupiter Victor he led the Roman army to victory. Jupiter is also the protector of the ancient league of Latin cities. His attribute is the lightning bolt and the eagle is both his symbol and his messenger. Jupiter is completely identical with the Greek Zeus.", "Jupiter, the old, personalized deity of the Etruscan kings, found a new home in the Republic. He was a god of light, a protector during defeat, and the giver of victory. He was Jupiter Imperator, the supreme general; Jupiter Invictus, the unconquered; and lastly, Jupiter Triumphator. He protected Rome in time of war and maintained the welfare of the people during peace. He was most often portrayed with a long, white beard, and his symbol was the eagle atop a scepter which he carried as he sat upon his majestic throne. As with Zeus , his reputation for violence often caused men to tremble in fear for he could easily punish them with one of his thunderbolts. Of course, he would give them a fair warning before the final, destructive bolt, and punishment was usually carried out only with the consent of the other gods.", "Neptune (Poseidon), was the Roman god of the Sea. Given the beautiful blue color of this planet, the name is an excellent choice!", "Mars is portrayed as a warrior in full battle armor, wearing a crested helmet and bearing a shield. His sacred animals are the wolf and the woodpecker, and he is accompanied by Fuga and Timor, the personifications of flight and fear. The month March (Martius) is named after him (wars were often started or renewed in spring). His Greek equivalent is the god Ares.", "Roman name for the goddess of love. This planet was considered to be the brightest and most beautiful planet or star in the heavens. Other civilizations have named it for their god or goddess of love/war.", "Jupiter, also called Jove, Latin Iuppiter, Iovis, orDiespiter, the chief ancient Roman and Italian god. Like Zeus , the Greek god with whom he is etymologically identical (root diu, “bright”), Jupiter was a sky god. One of his most ancient epithets is Lucetius (“Light-Bringer”); and later literature has preserved the same idea in such phrases as sub Iove, “under the open sky.” As Jupiter Elicius he was propitiated with a peculiar ritual to send rain in time of drought; as Jupiter Fulgur he had an altar in the Campus Martius , and all places struck by lightning were made his property and were guarded from the profane by a circular wall.", "The name comes from the Old English Þūnresdæg meaning the day of Þunor, commonly known in Modern English as Thor, the god of thunder in Norse Mythology and Germanic Paganism. It is based on the Latin Dies Iovis, \"Day of Jupiter\"; French Jeudi, Spanish Jueves, Romanian Joi, Italian Giovedì, etc . In the Roman pantheon, Jupiter was the chief god, who seized and maintained his power on the basis of his thunderbolt .", "Jupiter (Greek: Zeus) was the supreme god of the Roman pantheon; a god of light and sky, and protector of the state and its laws.", "Jupiter, also Jove ( or Iuppiter, gen. Iovis), is the god of sky and thunder and king of the gods in Ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras, until Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as sacrifice.", "Jupiter , also Jove, is the god of sky and thunder and king of the gods in Ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras, until Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as sacrifice." ]

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[ "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. The next closest planet is Venus, followed by Earth.", "So, Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun. And then Venus is the second closest planet to the Sun, and Earth is the third closest planet to the Sun.", "Mercury is the planet that is closest to the Sun . It is also the smallest planet in the Solar System , now that Pluto has been", "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun and is the smallest planet in the solar system ever since Pluto got categorized as a dwarf planet. It orbits the sun once every 88 days and has an apparent magnitude of -2.o to 5.5. In spite of the respectable apparent magnitude, the planet is not easily seen from earth due to its lesser quotient of greatest angular separation form the sun. The physical framework of the planet is similar to the Earth�s moon, heavily cratered and has no atmosphere. Mercury has an astoundingly dense due to its large iron core. The surface temperature on the planet ranges from -180 to 430 degree centigrade.", "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. It is very  hot. It is only 57,900,000 Km (36,000,000 miles) away from the sun. It hurtles around the sun at a speed of 170,000km/h (105,600 mph). If it were any closer, the planet would burn up into the suns blasting heat. Its nearest distance to earth is 45,000,000 Km (28,000,000 miles).  ", "Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and is also the smallest of the eight planets in our solar system . For every 2 orbits of the Sun, which takes around 88 Earth days, Mercury completes three rotations of its axis. It is gravitationally locked and this rotation is unique to the solar system.", "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. It gets very hot and very cold. It has a very slow spin. The side facing the sun is heated to 800 (F) while the side away from the sun is cooled to –298 degrees (F).", "The order of planets from closest to farthest from the Sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The largest planet is Jupiter, followed by Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars and, the smallest planet, Mercury.", "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. At its closest, it is 28,600,000 miles from the sun. At its farthest, it is 43.4 million miles away. When Mercury and Earth are on the same side of the sun, the two planets may come within 57,000,000 miles of each other. When they are on opposite sides of the sun, they may be as far as 129,000,000 miles apart.", "Mercury is the closest planet to our Sun, at just 58 million km (36 million miles) or 0.39 Astronomical Unit (AU) out. But despite its reputation for being sun-baked and molten, it is not the hottest planet in our Solar System (scroll down to find out who that dubious honor goes go!)", "Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, making it the first planet in the Solar System. It is named after the Roman messenger god. In mythology, the god was known for being quick - Mercury is the fastest of all the planets to orbit the Sun, because it has the smallest route it has to take!", "The average Earth-Sun distance, which originally defined the astronomical unit (AU), provides a convenient measure for distances within the solar system. The astronomical unit is now defined dynamically (using Kepler’s third law; see Kepler’s laws of planetary motion ) and has the value 1.49597870691 × 1013 cm (about 93 million miles), with an uncertainty of about 2,000 cm. The mean radius of Earth’s orbit is 1 + (3.1 × 10−8) AU. Mercury , at 0.4 AU, is the closest planet to the Sun, while Neptune, at 30.1 AU, is the farthest. Pluto’s orbit, with a mean radius of 39.5, is sufficiently eccentric that at times it is closer to the Sun than is Neptune. The planes of the planetary orbits are all within a few degrees of the ecliptic , the plane that contains Earth’s orbit around the Sun. As viewed from far above Earth’s North Pole , all planets move in the same (counterclockwise) direction in their orbits.", "As you travel outward from the Sun, Mercury is the closest planet. It orbits the Sun at an average distance of 58 million km (36 million mi). Mercury is airless, and so without any significant atmosphere to hold in the heat, it has dramatic temperature differences. The side that faces the Sun experiences temperatures as high as 420 °C (788 °F), and then the side in shadow goes down to -173 °C (-279.4 °F).", "The Earth’s closest neighbour in its journey around the Sun is Venus, just 41 million km away. The Earth is 150 million km from the Sun and Venus’s almost circular orbit is 109 million km from the Sun. There are many similarities between the two planets, so much so that Venus was called our twin planet in space and it was hypothesised that beneath the cloud cover was a tropical paradise awaiting the first visitor from Earth. We now know the truth to be vastly different with the horrendous heat, overwhelming pressure and highly acidic atmosphere. Despite Mercury being closer to the Sun, Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system. Rather than being a paradise, it is more like hell and colonization is a very remote possibility perhaps centuries away, if at all.", "Venus is the closest planet to Earth. When Venus is in line with Earth and the Sun, it is the closest planet to us, at an average distance of 41 million kilometers (25.5 million miles) away.", "There are relatively few stars within ten light-years of the Sun. The closest is the triple star system Alpha Centauri , which is about 4.4 light-years away. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the small red dwarf , Proxima Centauri , orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-year. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was confirmed to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun.", "The point in the orbit of the Earth (or other planet, etc.) nearest to the Sun.", "Our own Sun is the closest star to our planet. At 8.3 light minutes (or 149.6 million kilometres) away.", "We get lots of emails asking this, but it's actually a difficult question to answer because the planets are moving in their orbits all the time, and so the distance from each planet to Earth is constantly changing. When both planets are on the same side of the Sun, and form a line with the Sun, then they are closest to each other. When two planets are on opposite sides of the Sun, and form a line with the Sun, then they are farthest away.", "The closest solitary Sun-like star to the Solar System is Tau Ceti at 11.9 light-years. It has roughly 80% of the Sun's mass but only 60% of its luminosity.", "Hubble Space Telescope image of Proxima Centauri, the closest known star to the sun. Read more about this image.", "The smallest of the three planets, called KOI-961.03, is actually located the farthest from the star, and is pictured in the foreground. This planet is about the same size as Mars, with a radius only 0.57 times that of Earth. The next planet to the upper right is KOI-961.01, which is 0.78 times the radius of Earth. The planet closest to the star is KOI-961.02, with a radius 0.73 times the Earth's.", "the second smallest planet and the nearest to the sun. Mean distance from sun: 57.9 million km; period of revolution around sun: 88 days; period of axial rotation: 59 days; diameter and mass: 38 and 5.4 per cent that of earth respectively", "Order of the Planets From The Sun – Planet Closest Distance to the Sun – PlanetFacts.org", "What is the Closest Planet to Earth – Mars, Venus, or Mercury? | Outer Space Universe", "The ninth planet of the Solar System, the smallest (5700 km radius) and most distant from the sun. The suggestion has been made that it more closely resembles a large close comet than a planet. Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.248, larger than that of any other planet; it varies from 4.44 to 7.37 billion km distance from the sun.", "Speed of a planet is highest when the planet is closest to the sun and smallest when the planet is at its furthest distance", "Farthest known planet from the Sun, only planet that rotates in sync with its moon, Charon", "When an object which revolves around the Sun is at the closest point it gets to the Sun.", "The planet is just the right size, might have water in liquid form, and in galactic terms is relatively nearby at 120 trillion miles away. But the star it closely orbits, known as a \"red dwarf,\" is much smaller, dimmer and cooler than our sun.", "the following is a list of orbital perios for five planets orbiting the same star. which one is closest to the star on average", "a small planet and the farthest known planet from the sun; it has the most elliptical orbit of all the planets" ]

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[ "The planets closer to the Sun, Mercury and Venus, have shorter years than the Earth.  The planets further away from the Sun have longer years; Pluto takes 249 of our years to make one orbit of the Sun.", "In our solar system, the time it takes each planet to complete an orbit around the Sun varies greatly. Inner planets have much shorter orbits - in distance and in time -- than outer planets. For example, Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, completes an orbit around the Sun in 88 days, while Earth takes one year to make a complete orbit. Pluto, whose average distance from the Sun is about 40 times greater than Earth's, takes 248 years to complete its orbit.", "In terms of the four closest planets to the sun, excluding Earth, it can be seen how distance from the planet effects the time it takes for each planet to orbit the sun. Mercury, the first planet in our solar system can completely orbit around the sun in a mere 88 Earth Days, but nearly takes 60 days to complete a turn of its axis. Venus, which is the closet planet to Earth, takes 224 days to orbit around the sun. Oddly enough Venus takes longer to complete a rotation of its axis, 243 days, than it does to completely orbit the sun. Mars, one of the closest planets to Earth in size takes around 686.97 days to orbit around the earth and has a nearly identical day of 24.3 hours.", "For example, Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, takes just 88 Earth days to complete an orbit. But Neptune, the furthest out, takes 164 Earth years to complete an orbit.", "• Earth takes 365 days to go around the Sun. Mars takes 687 earth days to go around the Sun. In other words, the period Mars takes to go round the Sun is greater than the period Earth takes to go round the Sun.", "– It takes Pluto and Charon about 248 Earth years to complete one orbit around the Sun, and about 6.5 Earth days to revolve around one another.", "Venus is the second planet near the Sun, between Mercury and Earth. It is similar in size to Earth, being only slightly smaller. Venus takes about 255 days to circle the Sun. Unlike Earth, Venus has no satellite.", "Each planet in the solar system has its own unique rotation rate. Tiny Mercury, sizzling closest to the Sun, takes 59 Earth days to turn around just once. Venus, the second planet, rotates once every 243 Earth days. What's more, Venus rotates backwards from the direction of its orbit around the Sun, as do Uranus and tiny dwarf planet Pluto. Uranus even lies down on the job, rolling around with its axis of rotation pointed nearly toward the Sun.", "The planet's red dwarf star is only about half as big as the sun, making it cooler and dimmer. But Kepler-186f is on a tighter orbit than Earth is, taking only 130 days to circle its star. Though it receives less warmth from its sun than Earth does from its own, the discovery team says, it would still be warm enough to prevent seas from freezing—provided it has an atmosphere that provides a substantial greenhouse effect.", "• A day on Saturn (time to rotate once on its axis) only takes about 10 Earth hours, while a year (time to orbit the sun) takes almost 30 Earth years.", "Life and the Cosmos:� Cosmologists go back before Darwin's �simple beginning� and aim to set our solar system in a grand evolutionary scheme stretching back to the emergence of the Milky Way galaxy�right back, even, to the big bang that set our entire observable universe expanding.� The sun's light takes eight minutes to reach the Earth, and only a few hours to pass beyond Neptune and Pluto, the outermost planets.� The solar system is a minuscule foreground feature in a vista of stars and galaxies stretching for billions of light years.� But even if we knew nothing of the vast spatial scales revealed by modern telescopes, the solar system itself stretches our conception of time scales to an extent that is hard to relate to human (or even historical) perspectives.� Moreover, our own star, the sun, is less than halfway through its life.� We are still near the �simple beginning� of the evolutionary story.", "Combined with its eccentric orbit, this means that it takes 176 Earth days for the Sun to return to the same place in the sky (i.e. a solar day) on Mercury, which is twice as long as a single Hermian year. Mercury also has the lowest axial tilt of any planet in the Solar System – approximately 0.027 degrees – compared to Jupiter’s 3.1 degrees, which is the second smallest.", "Earth has shorter orbital periods than Mars and passes in between Mars and the Sun on a regular basis every", "*Inferior planets are the planets whose orbits lie within Earth's orbit around the Sun: Mercury and Venus.", "Uranus has a radius of 25,500 km, and a mass of 14.5 Earth's. It has a density similar to Jupiter: 1.27 gm/cm3. It also spins rapidly, and has a \"day\" of 17 hours and 14 minutes. This is the internal rotation period, the cloud layers rotate in about 14 hours. It orbits the Sun at an average distance of 19.2 AU (2.8 billion km), and takes 84 years to complete one trip around the Sun. It was the first planet to be discovered since antiquity, when it was found by William Herschel in 1781. Its name was chosen as Uranus was the father of Cronus (Saturn), and thus grandfather of Zeus (Jupiter).", "Johannes Kepler also discovered that any given planet “sweeps equal areas in equal times.” In other words, planets speed up when they are closer to the sun and slow down when farther away. This is Kepler’s second law of planetary motion. Kepler further found a relationship between the size of a planet’s orbit and the time it takes the planet to go around the sun once. Specifically, the square of the period of the orbit (in years) is equal to the cube of the planet’s average distance from the sun in AU. In other words, planets that orbit close to the sun have short periods, whereas those that orbit far away from the sun have very long periods. For example, Mercury has a distance of 0.39 AU and orbits the sun in only 88 days (0.24 years). Neptune has a distance of 30 AU and a period of just under 165 years. In both cases, the square of the period is equal to the cube of the distance. Kepler didn’t know why this rule worked. It was a mystery until Newton came on the scene.", "“We also have good reasons to believe that two other planets are present,” said Lovis. One would be a Saturn -like planet (with a minimum mass of 65 Earth masses) orbiting in 2200 days. The other would be the least massive exoplanet ever discovered, with a mass of about 1.4 times that of the Earth. It is very close to its host star, at just 2 percent of the Earth–Sun distance. One “year” on this planet would last only 1.18 Earth-days.", "In addition to being the planet closest to the Sun, Mercury is also the smallest by mass. If you ignore the former planet Pluto, it is also the smallest by surface area, as well. The planet has the most eccentric orbit: at perihelion it is 46,001,200 km from the Sun and at aphelion it is 69,816,900 km. The planet’s short orbital period(87.969 Earth days) and slight axial tilt combine to make the day on Mercury(116 Earth days) longer than the year.", "Now the question what is the second smallest closest to the sun.  Obviously I need at least two planets to consider.   The closest two are Mercury and Venus.  Mercury is smaller than Venus, making Venus the second smallest of the two planets closest to the sun.", "the period of time that it takes for a planet (as, e.g., Earth or Mars) to make a complete revolution around the sun", "Our neighbor Mars is the fourth planet from the sun. Its orbit is not parallel to the orbit of the earth and this results in considerable fluctuation regarding the distance between the two planets.", "Explanation: Now shining in eastern skies at dawn , bright planets Venus and Jupiter join the Pleiades star cluster in this sea and sky scape, recorded earlier this week near Buenos Aires, Argentina. Venus dominates the scene that includes bright star Aldebaran just below and to the right. The planets are easy to spot for early morning risers, but this sky also holds two of our solar system's small worlds , Vesta and Ceres, not quite bright enough to be seen with the unaided eye. The digital camera's time exposure just captures them, though. Their positions are indicated when you put your cursor over the image. In orbit around Vesta , NASA's Dawn spacecraft arrived there last July, but is nearing the end of its visit to the main belt asteroid. In August, it will set off on its planned journey to Ceres , arriving at the dwarf planet in 2015.", "The time it takes a planet to revolve around the sun. The length of the earth's year is about 365.25 days.", "A planet's revolution is its motion around the sun in a path called an orbit. The shape of the earth's orbit is a closed curve called an ellipse. The force of gravitation between the sun and a planet is always pulling the planet toward the sun. The planet does not fall into the sun because of the centrifugal effect of its orbital motion. It is kept steady in its orbit, like any other planet or satellite, by two balancing forces, the gravitational pull of the sun, and the centrifugal force due to its own speed. The speed of the earth varies depending upon its location in relation to the sun. However, this value is almost always the same approximate number. In the earth's orbit around the sun, it travels at an average speed of 29.658 km/s (I took the average of all of the values that I obtained for the velocity). The earth is closest to the sun, which is called the perihelion and has its greatest orbital speed around January 3. It is farthest from the sun, which is called the aphelion and has its least orbital speed around July 4. Since equal areas must be covered in equal intervals of time, the planet's orbit speed has to be the fastest at perihelion and slowest at aphelion.", "      Astronomers announce that they have detected two planets, about the size of Saturn, orbiting distant stars.", "So why 3 days? A few reasons. If the planet is closer to the star, the gravitational pull will be faster, and it's radial velocity must be higher. In addition, it's physical path is shorter at this point. As you mention, this may decrease the time (perhaps 88 days, as you mention), but not 3 days. The other (bigger) factor is the mass of the star. Our sun is relatively small. A star with higher mass will have a much larger gravitational pull, therefore requiring the planets to orbit at a much faster rate to stay in orbit.", "The planets orbit (revolve) around the Sun at different speeds because at their different distances from the Sun, the Sun's gravitational pull is different: the farther from the Sun, the weaker its gravitational tug on the planets and other objects. The stronger the Sun's gravitational pull on a planet, the faster that planet has to move to avoid falling into the Sun.", "These planets are very close to their stars and so have short orbits. They whirl around their parent stars with periods of 3.02 days and 75 days respectively. This allowed for their relatively rapid discovery.", "Usually when people ask this question, what they mean is \"What is the distance between the orbit of Earth and the orbit of each planet?\" or \"What is the closest that each planet comes to Earth?\" (These are essentially the same question, because the planets can't get any closer than their orbital spacing allows.) You can compute this in a rough way by assuming that the orbits are circular and coplanar, and looking at the planet-to-Sun distance for each planet. Since the distances are so large, we usually express them in Astronomical Units (AU). (An AU is the average distance from Earth to the Sun, about 150 million kilometers or 93 million miles.) The table below lists the distance of each planet from the Sun in AU. (Numbers were taken from this page .)", "# As the planet moves in its orbit, the line from the Sun to planet sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane for a given period of time, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as \"equal areas in equal time.\"", "A planet moves fastest when it is closest to the sun and slowest when it is at its furthest. If an imaginary line were drawn from the center of the planet to the center of the sun, then that line would sweep out the same area in equal periods of time.", "During its orbital period, as a planet moves closer to the sun, the orbital velocity of the planet " ]

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[ "Neptune is the outermost planet of the gas giants. It has an equatorial diameter of 49,500 kilometers (30,760 miles). If Neptune were hollow, it could contain nearly 60 Earths. Neptune orbits the Sun every 165 years. It has eight moons, six of which were found by Voyager . A day on Neptune is 16 hours and 6.7 minutes. Neptune was discovered on September 23, 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle , of the Berlin Observatory, and Louis d'Arrest, an astronomy student, through mathematical predictions made by Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier.", "Venus has the most circular orbit of any planet in the solar system. Its axial tilt is only three degrees, so there are no seasons on Venus. Since it orbits closer to the sun than Earth does, Venus orbits faster and completes a circuit every 7.4 months. But its day is much longer than Earth’s. Venus rotates once every eight months, so its day is actually longer than its year. This is the sidereal day—the rotation of Venus relative to the stars.7 What is even more intriguing is that Venus rotates backward. All eight planets orbit the sun counterclockwise, as viewed from the solar system’s North Pole. Most of the planets also rotate counterclockwise,8 but Venus is the exception.9 On Venus, the sun would rise in the west and set in the east—although it would be difficult to see the sun in such overcast skies.", "The planet with the longest day is Venus ; a day on Venus takes 243 Earth days. (A day on Venus is longer than its year; a year on Venus takes only 224.7 Earth days).", "4. Mars : Planet Mars goes around the sun once every 686.98 earth days. Hence, a 15 years old from Earth would actually be almost 8 years old in Mars years.", "At this point in life, we should all know the basics of our solar system, namely that there are nine planets that rotate around themselves on an axis at a particular angle, in addition to revolving around the sun in an orbit. However, did you know that within our solar system, there are a few outlying planets that do not spin in the same direction as Earth and most other planets? The two anomalies in question are Venus and Uranus. A single day on Venus is much longer than one on the Earth. It takes 243 Earth days to complete its rotation, but it only takes 224.7 days to complete each orbit. Yes, that means that a day on Venus is longer than a year!", "Venus takes longer to rotate, than it does to orbit the Sun. So a day on Venus, is actually longer than the year!", "or 35 sols if the Mars year has 668 or 669 sols. The calendar begins on the date of the landing of Viking 1, which is 1 Poseidon, year 0. Days of the week are named for the Sun and first six planets (Solday, Mercuryday, Venusday, etc.). Although the Martian year begins on the first day of", "Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun in our Solar System. This small, rocky planet has almost no atmosphere. Mercury has a very elliptical orbit and a huge range in temperature. During the long daytime (which lasts 58.65 Earth days or almost an entire Mercurian year, which is 88 days long), the temperature is hotter than an oven; during the long night (the same length), the temperature is colder than a freezer.", "Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and is also the smallest of the eight planets in our solar system . For every 2 orbits of the Sun, which takes around 88 Earth days, Mercury completes three rotations of its axis. It is gravitationally locked and this rotation is unique to the solar system.", "If one was asked the questions, οΏ½How long is a day?οΏ½ and οΏ½How long is a year?οΏ½ they would probably be very offended by such a simple question. A day is 24 hours, while a year is 365 days long, 366 during a leap year. In the basic sense, this answer would be correct, but the answer really only applies to Earth. On different planets, there are very different times of what constitutes a οΏ½day,οΏ½ which is the time it takes for a planet to complete one turn of its axis and a οΏ½year,οΏ½ which equivocates to the time it takes a planet to completely orbit around the sun. Planets that are closer to the sun do not take as long to complete their orbit and subsequently have shorter years than our planet. Alternatively, planets that are far away, such as Neptune or Saturn, take a very long time to completely orbit around the sun. Interestingly enough however, it seems to be the farther a planet is away from the sun, the faster they can complete a turn of their access. This means that although far reaching planets have longer years, their days are actually shorter than EarthοΏ½s.", "Pluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.39 Earth days. Like Uranus, Pluto rotates on its \"side\" on its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120°, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, while another fourth is in continuous darkness. Pluto's orbital period is 248 Earth years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the other planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is highly inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17°) and highly eccentric (elliptical). In the long term Pluto's orbit is in fact chaotic. While computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), after longer intervals calculations become speculative: Pluto's tiny size makes it sensitive to measurement of small details of the Solar System.", "Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. It has the longest rotation period (243 days) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets. It has no natural satellite. It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6, bright enough to cast shadows. Because Venus is an inferior planet from Earth, it never appears to venture far from the Sun; its elongation reaches a maximum of 47.8°.", "Being closest to the sun, Mercury has the shortest orbit of approximately 88 days long. Unlike some other planets, Mercury has no moons or rings. Due to having a near non-existent atmosphere, the surface temperature of Mercury varies widely. The surface can reach up to a temperature of 800 degrees Fahrenheit during the day, and as low as -280 degrees at night. Every two full orbits around the sun, Mercury revolves exactly three times. This means that the days on Mercury are extremely long compared to days on Earth.", "Uranus is also the coldest planet in our Solar System, making the term “ice” seem very appropriate! What’s more, its system of moons experience a very odd seasonal cycle, owing to the fact that they orbit Neptune’s equator, and Neptune orbits with its north pole facing directly towards the Sun. This causes all of its moons to experience 42 year periods of day and night.", "One day on Uranus is about 17 Earth hours long. Uranus spins on its side, maybe because of a big impact early in the history of the Solar System. [12]", "Mars takes nearly twice as long to orbit the sun, so the daily change in its angle to the sun is only about half that of Earth. This makes the difference between the sidereal day and the solar day about two minutes. For both planets, this angular discrepancy between the sidereal day and the solar day accumulates in the course of one revolution around the sun, so that there is exactly one more sidereal day in a year than there are solar days. The math is easy, but the underlying logic needs to be understood:", "mythological Named after the planet \" Uranus \", which had been discovered eight years earlier. The planet was named after \" Uranus \", the god of sky and heaven on Greek mythology [18]", "To put it simply, Mercury has an orbital period of 88 days (87.969 to be exact), which means a single year is 88 Earth days – or the equivalent of about 0.241 Earth years. But here’s the thing. Because of Mercury’s slow rotation (once every 58.646 days) and its rapid orbital speed (47.362 km/s), one day on Mercury actually works out to 175.96 Earth days.", "Mercury takes 88 days to do a complete orbit around the Sun, so a year on Mercury is only 88 Earth days.", "Earth has one of the most circular orbits of all the eight planets. Its axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane, which produces the seasons we experience.", "Since (like all of Uranus’ moons) Oberon orbits the planet around its equatorial plane, and Uranus orbits the Sun almost on its side, the moon experiences a rather extreme seasonal cycle. Essentially, both the northern and southern poles spend a period of 42 years in complete darkness or complete sunlight – with the sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice.", "The planet in our solar system that has the longest period of revolution is Neptune. A Neptunian year is around 164.8 Earth years.", "Uranus orbits the Sun from east to west once every 84 years. The planet is unusual, as its poles lie where the equators of most planets lie. It can therefore be calculated that each pole has 42 years of continuous sunlight immediately followed by a further 42 years in complete darkness. This unusual tilt has been attributed to a collision early on during the formation of the Solar System.", "One day is the time it takes a planet to spin around and make one full rotation. Here on Earth that takes 24 hours. How long are days on other planets in our solar system? And what is the best way to show the answer to this question?", "The reason for the difference between a solar day and a sidereal day is sketched in Figure 1.9. Each time Earth rotates once on its axis, it also moves a small distance along its orbit about the Sun. Earth therefore has to rotate through slightly more than 360° for the Sun to return to the same apparent location in the sky. Thus, the interval of time between noon one day and noon the next (a solar day) is slightly greater than one true rotation period (one sidereal day). Our planet takes 365 days to orbit the Sun, so the additional angle is 360°/365 = 0.986°. Because Earth takes about 3.9 minutes to rotate through this angle, the solar day is 3.9 minutes longer than the sidereal day (that is, one sidereal day is roughly 23h56m long.) From the point of view of the ancients, the \"fact\" that the Sun moved relative to the stars made it necessary to envisage not just one celestial sphere, but two: one for the stars and one for the Sun, each spinning about the Earth but at slightly different rates and with different orientations.", "As you can see from this little rundown of the different planets in our Solar System, what constitutes a day depends entirely on your frame of reference. In addition to it varying depending on the planet in question, you also have to take into account seasonal cycles and where on the planet the measurements are being taken from.", "There are two days each year when Earth is tilted either directly at or away from the sun, causing it to reach its most northern and southern extremes. These are the summer and winter solstices, and give the longest (most hours of daylight) and the shortest (least hours of daylight) days of the year. Halfway between each solstice, there is a day when the Earth’s axis is tilted exactly midway between the two extremes and the day has the same hours of daylight and darkness in both hemispheres. This occurs twice a year and these days are called the vernal (spring) and autumnal equinoxes (depending on the hemisphere). ’Equinox‘ is Latin for ‘equal night’.", "A planet's year is how long it takes to go around the Sun on its path.", "Astronomers have devised many calendars for calculating a year but the most popular one is the solar calendar comprising of solar or tropical year, which is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from the Earth. A solar year has 365.2422 solar days. However a sidereal year is twenty minutes more than a solar year i.e. 365.25636 days.", "The thing that you've missed is that a \"day\" is not the length of time that the Earth takes to rotate through 360 degrees. Instead, the day is defined as the time it takes for the Sun to move from zenith to zenith. Because the Earth has travelled almost a degree through its orbit, it actually has rotated almost 361 degrees in 24 hours. Those extra degrees add up over a half year to keep the day synchonized. But the constellations do shift, so that what you see during the summer is overhead during the day in the winter and vice versa. The astronomical term for the time it takes the Earth to rotate 360 degrees is \"sidereal day\", which is 23 hours 56 minutes 4.09 seconds long.", "What you have come to understand as a “day” is classified by astronomers as a solar day. It’s the amount of time it takes for the Sun to move through the sky and return to roughly the same spot.", "A solar calendar is a calendar whose dates indicate the position of the earth on its revolution around the sun or equivalently the apparent position of the sun moving on the celestial sphere. If the position of the earth in its orbit around the sun is reckoned with respect to the equinox, the point at which the orbit crosses the celestial equator, then its dates accurately indicate the seasons, that is, they are synchronized with the declination of the sun. Such a calendar is called a tropical solar calendar." ]

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[ "A natural satellite is a celestial body that orbits another celestial body of greater mass (e.g., a planet, star, or dwarf planet), which is called its primary. For example, the Moon is a natural satellite of Earth, and Earth is a natural satellite of the Sun.", "A natural satellite or moon is a celestial body that orbits another celestial body of greater mass (e.g. a planet, star, or dwarf planet), called its primary. For example, the Moon is a natural satellite of Earth, and Earth is a natural satellite of the Sun.", "A natural satellite, or moon, is a celestial body that orbits another body, e.g. a planet, which is called its primary. There are 173 known natural satellites orbiting planets in the Solar System, as well as at least eight orbiting IAU-listed dwarf planets. As of January 2012, over 200 minor-planet moons have been discovered. There are 76 known objects in the asteroid belt with satellites, four Jupiter trojans, 39 near-Earth objects, and 14 Mars-crossers. There are also 84 known natural satellites of trans-Neptunian objects. Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within rings of Saturn, but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, though numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet been confirmed. Of the inner planets, Mercury and Venus have no natural satellites; Earth has one large natural satellite, known as the Moon; and Mars has two tiny natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos. The large gas giants have extensive systems of natural satellites, including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth's Moon: the four Galilean moons, Saturn's Titan, and Neptune's Triton. Saturn has an additional six mid-sized natural satellites massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium, and Uranus has five. It has been suggested that some satellites may potentially harbour life, though there is currently no direct evidence of life.", "A satellite is any object that is orbiting the earth, sun or other massive body. Satellites can be categorized as natural satellites or man-made satellites. The moon, the planets and comets are examples of natural satellites. Accompanying the orbit of natural satellites are a host of satellites launched from earth for purposes of communication, scientific research, weather forecasting, intelligence, etc. Whether a moon, a planet, or some man-made satellite, every satellite's motion is governed by the same physics principles and described by the same mathematical equations.", "One of the first uses of rockets in space was to launch satellites. A satellite is an object that orbits a larger object. An orbit is a circular or elliptical path around an object. Natural objects in orbit are called natural satellites. The Moon is a natural satellite. Human-made objects in orbit are called artificial satellites. There are more and more artificial satellites orbiting Earth all the time. They all get into space using some sort of rocket.", "Earth's natural satellite is simply known as the Moon, or the equivalent in the language being spoken (for instance, two astronomers speaking French would call it la Lune). It is sometimes called Luna (which is simply Latin for \"moon\"), in science fiction. Natural satellites of other planets are generally named after mythological figures. Satellites of Uranus are named after characters from works by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope.", "Although scientists use the term celestial body quite broadly, when they refer to a celestial body orbiting another body they are generally talking about natural satellites, or moons, orbiting a larger body such as a planet or dwarf planet. Within the solar system, astronomers have identified over two hundred natural satellites.", "Any heavenly body that moves around a planet is called a satellite. The Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth that orbits the Earth (Fig.12.1). Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune have their own satellites too.", "In astronomy, the natural satellites or \"moons\" of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet’s name. For example, Titan's designation is Saturn .", "A satellite doesn't necessarily have to be a tin can spinning through space. The word \"satellite\" is more general than that: it means a smaller, space-based object moving in a loop (an orbit) around a larger object. The Moon is a natural satellite of Earth, for example, because gravity locks it in orbit around our planet. The tin cans we think of as satellites are actually artificial (human-built) satellites that move in precisely calculated paths, circular or elliptical (oval), at various distances from Earth, usually well outside its atmosphere.", "1. (Astronomy) (sometimes capital) the natural satellite of the earth. Diameter: 3476 km; mass: 7.35 × 1022 kg; mean distance from earth: 384 400 km; periods of rotation and revolution: 27.32 days.", "The same is true of an artificial satellite's orbit around Earth: even as the satellite falls toward Earth, Earth falls away from it. This same relationship exists between Earth and its great natural satellite, the Moon. Likewise, with the Sun and its many satellites, including Earth: Earth plunges toward the Sun with every instant of its movement, but at every instant, the Sun falls away.", "Most regular moons (natural satellites following relatively close and prograde orbits with small orbital inclination and eccentricity) in the Solar System are tidally locked to their respective primaries, meaning that the same side of the natural satellite always faces its planet. The only known exception is Saturn's natural satellite Hyperion, which rotates chaotically because of the gravitational influence of Titan.", "object that orbits around something else. Satellites can be natural, like moons, or made by people.", "Saturn has 61 confirmed natural satellites, 52 of which are named. Because the increasing number of satellites makes it difficult to continue to name them after Greek Titans, a scheme was adopted for the outer satellites. These are now named after the giants of other cultures: Inuit, Norse, and Gallic. The satellites may be divided into nine groups for convenience. In the order of their distance from Saturn, the groups are shepherd (satellites whose orbit is within or just beyond Saturn's ring system), co-orbital (two satellites that share the same orbit and trade positions within it on a regular basis), inner large (large satellites within the E ring), Alkyonide (small satellites within the inner large group), Trojan (satellites that are co-orbital at Lagrangian points), outer large (large satellites beyond the E ring), and Inuit, Norse, and Gallic (each a group of outer satellites that have similar orbits).", "Satellite (or moon ): an object in orbit around a planet. Until the discovery of Jupiter's four main moons by Galileo Galilei, celestial objects in orbit around a planet were called moons. However, upon Galilei's discovery, Johannes Kepler (in a letter to Galileo) suggested satellite (from the Latin satelles, which means “attendant”) as a general term for such objects. The word satellite is used interchangeably with moon, and astronomers speak and write about the moons of Neptune, Saturn, etc. The term satellite is also used to describe man-made devices of any size that are launched into orbit.", "Satellite (or moon ): an object in orbit around a planet. Until the discovery of Jupiter's four main moons by Galileo Galilei, celestial objects in orbit around a planet were called moons. However, upon Galilei's discovery, Johannes Kepler (in a letter to Galileo) suggested satellite (from the Latin satelles, which means “attendant”) as a general term for such objects. The word satellite is used interchangeably with moon, and astronomers speak and write about the moons of Neptune, Saturn, etc. The term satellite is also used to describe man-made devices of any size that are launched into orbit.", "Earth ’s sole natural satellite and nearest large celestial body. Known since prehistoric times, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun. It is designated by the symbol ☽. Its name in English, like that of Earth, is of Germanic and Old English derivation. The Moon’s desolate beauty has been a source of fascination and curiosity throughout...", "Satellite - A body that revolves around a larger body. For example, the moon is a satellite of the earth.", "Ganymede, the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury – although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core. ", "Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometres in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury - although only at about half of its mass. Europa, the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest at 3121.6 kilometres in diameter, which is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. Callisto is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second largest of the four, and at 4820.6 kilometres in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System.", "The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate from more than 40 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. About a thousand satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, Ceres, and the Sun.", "Satellite, artificial An object launched by a Rocket into orbit around the earth or,occasionally, another solar-system body ( Space Probe). A satellite in circular orbit at an", "Scientists believe that it is possible for the Earth to have other natural satellites, but only for a short time.", "If a geosynchronous satellite's orbit is not exactly aligned with the Earth's equator, the orbit is known as an inclined orbit. It will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) to oscillate daily around a fixed point. As the angle between the orbit and the equator decreases, the magnitude of this oscillation becomes smaller; when the orbit lies entirely over the equator in a circular orbit, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface – it is said to be geostationary.", "\"artificial satellite,\" 1957 (launched Oct. 4, 1957), from Russian sputnik \"satellite,\" literally \"traveling companion,\" from Old Church Slavonic supotiniku, from su- \"with, together\" + poti \"way, journey\" (from PIE root *pent- \"to go, pass;\" see find (v.)) + agent suffix -nik.", "Atlas is the closest satellite to the sharp outer edge of the A ring, and was long thought to be a shepherd satellite for this ring. However, now it is known that the outer edge of the ring is instead maintained by a 7:6 orbital resonance with the larger but more distant moons Janus and Epimetheus. In 2004 a faint, thin ring, temporarily designated , was discovered in the Atlantean orbit.", "** Geostationary orbit (GEO): A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky. ", "celestial body Any naturally formed objects of substantial size in space. Examples include comets, asteroids, planets, moons, stars and galaxies.", "celestial object  Any naturally formed objects of substantial size in space. Examples include comets, asteroids, planets, moons, stars and galaxies.", "What we have just described in the previous section is how a satellite orbits the Earth - it is just like the baseball that goes all the way around the Earth. Let's look at that in more detail.", "-->'''Tagon:''' I thought a thing orbiting a thing orbiting a star was called a moon, but in this case[,] that's no moon." ]

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[ "Yuri Gagarin (March 9, 1934 – March 27, 1968) – Soviet cosmonaut who on April 12, 1961 became the first man in space and the first human to orbit Earth.", "On 12th April 1961, Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space. Gagarin's spacecraft, Vostok 1, completed one orbit of the earth, and landed about two hours after launch.", "On 12th April 1961 Major Yuri Alexeyevich Gagarin became the first human in space and the first person to orbit the Earth. The Vostok-1 spacecraft blasted off from the Baikonur launch site at 06:07 UTC* (09:07am Moscow time).", "All that changed on April 12, 1961. That day, Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human being in space. In the Russian Vostok 1 spacecraft, he made his historic 108-minute orbit around Earth — a place no man had gone before.", "On 16 August 1960 Air Force Captain Joe Kittinger stepped from an open balloon gondola at 31 151 metres (102,800 feet) above Tularose, New Mexico and set a world record that stood for many decades. It was the highest altitude parachute jump ever made from any aircraft. In affect, Joe Kittinger became the first man in space. He is considered one of the greatest heroes ever.", "Today in history: Yuri Gagarin became first man in space New Bern Sun Journal Today's Highlight in History: On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man to fly in space, orbiting the earth once before making a safe landing. On this date: In 1606, England's King James I decreed the design of the original … …", "Yuri Gagarin was the first man to fly into space. On April 12, 1961 the 27 year old Soviet fighter pilot orbited the world at an altitude of 203 miles with Vostok 1. The spacecraft was launched from the cosmodrome in Baikonur. The journey itself lasted 108 minutes. For the first time in history man had freed himself from the earth’s gravity .", "Yuri Gagarin become the first man in space on this date in 1961, when he made a one-hour, 48-minute voyage, orbiting Earth in a spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union.", "Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, wasn't particularly excited about Sputnik when the Soviet Union launched history's first satellite on October 4, 1957. But when the Luna 3 probe launched towards the Moon two years later (to the day), Gagarin took note. He was seized by the idea of flying in space, so much so that the 25-year-old third class military pilot wrote a report to his commanding officer expressing his desire to be part of the Soviet Union's move into space.", "Before humans went into space, several animal species were launched through the atmosphere to test the biological effects of space travel.  The first animals intentionally sent into space were fruit flies, accompanied by corn seeds aboard a U.S. launched V2 rocket in 1947, but the first primate would not make the journey until June of 1949.  The first ever monkey astronaut was Albert, a rhesus monkey that traveled over 39 miles on a U.S. built V2 rocket, but died from suffocation before officially entering outer space.  The following year Albert II was set to make his attempt and soon became the first primate to officially enter space when he traveled 83 miles, surpassing the Kármán line of 100 km, which is taken to designate the beginning of outer space.  Sadly, Albert II died from the impact of his return flight.  A few months later Albert III died when his V2 rocket exploded.  Space programs learned from these experiences and the first human to enter space was Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union on April 12, 1961.  Gagarin also became the first man to orbit the earth.", "BBC - Solar System - Yuri Gagarin - first man in space - facts, video, pictures & news", "science and space exploration, including Orville Wright (“He was quiet, unassuming I liked him immensely.”), Albert Einstein, Wernher von Braun and the Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space.", "Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin was the first human sent into orbit. He was launched on April 12, 1961 onboard the Vostok 1 and spent one hour and 48 minutes in space.", "Apr. 12: Yuri A. Gagarin becomes the first human to fly in space, completing one orbit of the Earth in his Vostok 1 spacecraft.", "First person to walk in space: On March 18 in 1965, Russian cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov left his spacecraft Voskhod 2 for 12 minutes to perform extra vehicular activity (EVA). Leonov thus became the first person to walk in space.", "Apr 12: Yuri Gagarin first man in space followed shortly afterwards by Alan Shepard on 5th May", "By 1959 American observers believed that the Soviet Union would be the first to get a human into space, because of the time needed to prepare for Project Mercury's first launch. On 12 April 1961, the USSR launched Yuri Gagarin into orbit around the Earth on Vostok 1. They dubbed Gagarin the first cosmonaut, roughly translated from Russian and Greek as \"sailor of the universe\". Although he had the ability to take over manual control of his spacecraft in an emergency by opening an envelope he had in the cabin that contained a code that could be typed into the computer, it was flown in an automatic mode as a precaution; medical science at that time did not know what would happen to a human in the weightlessness of space. Vostok 1 orbited the Earth for 108 minutes and made its reentry over the Soviet Union, with Gagarin ejecting from the spacecraft at 7,000 metres (23,000 ft), and landing by parachute. Under Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (International Federation of Aeronautics) FAI qualifying rules for aeronautical records, pilots must both take off and land with their craft, so the Soviet Union kept the landing procedures secret until 1978, when they finally admitted that Gagarin did not land with his spacecraft. When the flight was publicly announced, it was celebrated around the world as a great triumph, not just for the Soviet Union, but for the mankind itself. Yet it once again shocked and embarrassed the United States.", "March 18 - While tethered to his spacecraft, cosmonaut Alexi Leonov became the first man to walk in space.", "Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR), which developed the first intercontinental ballistic missile rockets to deliver nuclear weapons. These rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first artificial satellites into low Earth orbit. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958, the US worked on Project Mercury to launch men singly into orbit, while the USSR secretly pursued the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing. The USSR launched the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin into a single orbit in Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket, on April 12, 1961. The US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard on a suborbital flight aboard Freedom 7 on a Mercury-Redstone rocket, on May 5, 1961. The first American in orbit was John Glenn aboard Friendship 7, launched February 20, 1962 on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963. The US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four in orbit through 1963.", "Today I found out that the first man to walk in space almost got stuck out there. That lucky individual was Alexei Leonov, who was born in the Soviet Union on May 30, 1934. He was one of the twenty Soviet Air Force Pilots to be chosen for the first cosmonaut group.", "{Also on this date, Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man to travel into outer space in 1961}", "On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American human to enter space. His flight lasted 15 minutes, and thus, did not surpass the record set by Ham.", "For the majority of human history, space was explored by remote observation; initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Prior to the advent of reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through the use of balloon flights. In 1935, the U.S. Explorer II manned balloon flight had reached an altitude of . This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German A-4 rocket climbed to an altitude of about . In 1957, the unmanned satellite Sputnik 1 was launched by a Russian R-7 rocket, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of . This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when Yuri Gagarin was sent into orbit on Vostok 1. The first humans to escape Earth orbit were Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders in 1968 on board the U.S. Apollo 8, which achieved lunar orbit and reached a maximum distance of from the Earth.", "Alan Shepard became the first American in space on May 5, 1961. His suborbital flight took place just three weeks after the Soviet Union’s Yuri Gagarin orbited Earth once.", "When Russian Alexei Leonov exited the airlock of the Voskhod 2 spacecraft, he became the first human to ever walk in the vacuum of space. He was outside the spacecraft for 12 minutes and nine seconds on 18 March 1965, connected to the craft by a 5.35 meter tether.", "May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard becomes the first American astronaut to fly in space. His Project Mercury spacecraft \"Freedom 7\" is launched into sub-orbital trajectory by a Mercury-Redstone missile.", "Apollo 8 becomes the first spacecraft in circumlunar orbit and sends TV transmissions from this orbit. Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., and William A. Anders are the first astronauts to view the whole Earth.", "Gus Grissom was the pilot of Liberty Bell 7 atop Mercury-Redstone 4 on July 21, 1961. He returned to space in Gemini 3 on March 23, 1965. He was the prime choice of NASA program directors to be the first man on the moon before his death in the Apollo 1 accident.", "He is the first person to have set foot on the Moon. His first spaceflight was aboard Gemini 8 in 1966, for which he was the command pilot. On this mission, he performed the first manned docking of two spacecraft together with pilot David Scott.", "Russian rocket designer Boris Chertok, who played a key role in engineering Soviet-era space victories, died of pneumonia at age 99. He was involved in orbiting the world's first satellite in 1957 and preparing the first human spaceflight in 1961. He once was deputy to the father of the Soviet space program, Sergei Korolyov.", "He was the first American in space and the fifth man to walk on the moon.", "Test pilot, aerospace engineer, university professor, and United States Naval Aviator. He was the first person to set foot on the Moon." ]

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[ "In 1983, the U.S. space probe Pioneer 10, launched in 1972, became the first spacecraft to leave the solar system as it crossed the orbit of Neptune.", "1983 The unmanned U.S. space probe, Pioneer 10, became the first spacecraft to leave the solar system. It was launched in 1972.", "1983 : the unmanned U.S. space probe Pioneer Ten, launched in 1972, became the first spacecraft to leave the solar system as it crossed the orbit of Neptune.", "1977 – The U.S. Voyager I spacecraft was launched on its journey via Jupiter and Saturn to become the first artificial object to leave the solar system.", "Pioneer 10 was the first artifact to leave the solar system on June 13, 1983, when the spacecraft passed beyond the system's farthest known planet. The spacecraft is now approaching a point 7 billion miles from the Sun. Sunday, March 2, is the official 25th anniversary of the beginning of Pioneer 10's flight.", "But scientists now have strong evidence that NASA's Voyager 1 probe has crossed this important border, making history as the first human-made object to leave the heliosphere, the magnetic boundary separating the solar system's sun, planets and solar wind from the rest of the galaxy.", "Launched in 1972, the aptly named Pioneer was the first spacecraft to visit the outer solar system. After completing its study of Jupiter, Pioneer 10's trajectory carried it outside of the solar system and into interstellar space, the first craft to do so. Pioneer 10 continued transmitting data back to Earth until 23 January 2003 when its power source became too weak. At that time, the space probe was over 7.6 billion miles from Earth. In about 2 million years, Pioneer 10 should reach the closest star on its trajectory, the red giant Aldebaran, which lies some 71 light years away ( learn more ).", "* The US spacecraft Pioneer 10 crosses the orbit of Neptune and thus becomes the first man-made vehicle ever to travel beyond the solar system. The space probe was launched in 1972 at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and the following year Pioneer 10 completed a fly-by of the planet Jupiter, one of its principal missions.", "The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet Luna 1, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959. In 1961, Venera 1 became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of the planet Venus, although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the Mariner 2 fly-by of Venus in 1962. The first spacecraft to perform a fly-by of Mars was Mariner 4, which reached the planet in 1964. Since that time, unmanned spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many minor planets and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as observation of the Earth. In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space.", "NASA's Voyager 1 space probe makes history by advancing past the solar system - becoming the first man-made object to reach interstellar space.", "The Pioneer 10 spacecraft is launched from Cape Kennedy, to be the first man-made satellite to leave the solar system", "Since the start of the space age, a great deal of exploration has been performed by unmanned space missions that have been organized and executed by various space agencies. The first probe to land on another solar system body was the Soviet Union's Luna 2 probe, which impacted on the Moon in 1959. Since then, increasingly distant planets have been reached, with probes landing on Venus in 1965, Mars in 1976, the asteroid 433 Eros in 2001, and Saturn's moon Titan in 2005. Spacecraft have also made close approaches to other planets: Mariner 10 passed Mercury in 1973.", "• In 2013, Voyager 1 was the first man-made object to do what? Leave the Solar System", "More than 30 space probes have been launched since the former Soviet Union first fired Luna 1 toward the Moon in 1959. Probes have now visited every planet in the solar system except for Pluto. Two have even left the solar system and headed into the interstellar medium.", "NASA sent Pioneer probes to explore the outer planets. Pioneer 10 reached Jupiter in 1973 and took the first close-up photos of the giant planet. It then kept traveling, crossing the orbit of Pluto and leaving the solar system in 1983. Pioneer 11 traveled to Saturn, where it collected valuable information about the planet's rings.", "Before the historic Apollo 11 mission and Moon Landing took place, NASA conducted two manned missions to test the Apollo spacecraft and the Saturn V rockets that would be responsible for bringing astronauts to the lunar surface. The Apollo 8 mission – which took place on Dec. 21st, 1968 – would be the first time a spacecraft left Earth orbit, orbited the Moon, and then returned safely to Earth.", "Starting in the early 1960s both the United States and the Soviet Union launched a multitude of unmanned deep-space probes to learn more about the other planets and satellites of the solar system. Carrying television cameras, detectors, and an assortment of other instruments, these probes sent back impressive amounts of scientific data and close-up pictures. Among the most successful missions were those involving the Soviet Venera probes to Venus and the U.S. Viking 1 and 2 landings on Mars and Voyager 2 flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune . When the Voyager 2 probe flew past Neptune and its moons in August 1989, every known major planet had been explored by spacecraft. Many long-held views, particularly those about the outer planets, were altered by the findings of the Voyager probe. These findings included the discovery of several rings and six additional satellites around Neptune, all of which are undetectable to ground-based telescopes.", "As of 2008 , the Voyager spacecraft became the third and fourth human artifacts to escape entirely from the solar system. Pioneers 10 and 11 , which were launched in 1972 and 1973 and preceded Voyager in outstripping the gravitational attraction of the Sun , both carried small metal plaques identifying their time and place of origin for the benefit of any other spacefarers that might find them in the distant future.", "20 August 1975: The Viking 1 space probe was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida, aboard a Titan IIIE/Centaur rocket. For the next ten months it traveled to Mars, the fourth planet of the Solar System. Once there, it was placed in orbit and began sending telemetry data back to Earth. A Viking Lander descended to the planet’s surface, landing at Chryse Planitia.", "Jan. 2, 1959: The U.S.S.R. launches Luna 1, which misses the moon but becomes the first artificial object to leave Earth orbit.", "* In addition to human spaceflight, unmanned space probes became a practical and relatively inexpensive form of exploration. The first orbiting space probe, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Over time, a massive system of artificial satellites was placed into orbit around Earth. These satellites greatly advanced navigation, communications, military intelligence, geology, climate, and numerous other fields. Also, by the end of the 20th century, unmanned probes had visited the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and various asteroids and comets. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, greatly expanded our understanding of the Universe and brought brilliant images to TV and computer screens around the world.", "Pioneer 10 was the first probe to travel through the Asteroid Belt and the first craft to explore Jupiter. On June 13, 1983, it became the first space probe ever to travel further than the Sun's most distant planet.", "In the 1960s, American aerospace engineer Gary Flandro of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory conceived of a mission, known as the Planetary Grand Tour, that would exploit a rare alignment of the outer planets of the Solar System. This mission would ultimately be accomplished in the late 1970s by the two Voyager probes, but in order to prepare for it, NASA decided in 1964 to experiment with launching a pair of probes to the outer Solar System. An advocacy group named the Outer Space Panel and chaired by American space scientist James A. Van Allen, worked out the scientific rationale for exploring the outer planets. NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center put together a proposal for a pair of \"Galactic Jupiter Probes\" that would pass through the asteroid belt and visit Jupiter. These were to be launched in 1972 and 1973 during favorable windows that occurred only a few weeks every 13 months. Launch during other time intervals would have been more costly in terms of propellant requirements.", "The twin Voyager spacecraft, over the course of a dozen years, drew back the curtain on nearly half of the solar system . From launch in 1977 through the spectacular parting shots in 1989 of Neptune at the outer reaches of the solar system, this pair of gangly, instrument-laden spacecraft explored four planets -- Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus and Neptune -- as well as tens of moons, and the rings and magnetic environments of those planetary systems.", "2003 NASA reports that the space probe Pioneer 10 finally ceased its transmissions from deep space, after more than 30 years of a mission which was originally intended to last less than 2", "The Pioneer 11 spacecraft launched from Cape Canaveral forty years ago, on April 5, 1973. Pioneer 11's path through Saturn's outer rings took it within 21,000 km of the planet, where it discovered two new moons (almost smacking into one of them in September 1979) and a new \"F\" ring. The spacecraft also discovered and charted the magnetosphere, magnetic field and mapped the general structure of Saturn's interior. The spacecraft's instruments measured the heat radiation from Saturn's interior and found that its planet-sized moon, Titan, was too cold to support life. The Pioneer 11 Mission ended on September 30, 1995, when the last transmission from the spacecraft was received.", "The Voyagers’ paths out of the solar system via Wikimedia Commons. Click here to expand image", "In order to catch a better glimpse of these remote leftovers from the birth of the solar system, NASA launched the New Horizons mission . The spacecraft reached Pluto in 2015 and continued on with an aim to examine multiple KBOs.", "Apollo 7 was the first manned Earth. Also, First live television publicly broadcast from a manned mission .", "A space probe is a robotic spacecraft that leaves Earth orbit and explores space. It may approach the Moon; enter interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or approach interstellar space.", "Because their trajectory would send them out of the solar system into interstellar space, attached to each probe was a record disk. Designed to serve as time capsules, the disks contained information about Human civilization. An advanced civilization, finding the spacecraft in the distant future, could follow instruction etched into the records exterior, showing how to recover information from the disks.", "January 31, 1958 Explorer I is place into space by a modified Jupiter-C and becomes the first U.S. satellite. Its payload discovers the \"Van Allen\" radiation belt." ]

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[ "A G-type main-sequence star will fuse hydrogen for approximately 10 billion years, until it is exhausted at the center of the star. When this happens, the star expands to many times its previous size and becomes a red giant, such as Aldebaran (or Alpha Tauri). Eventually the red giant sheds its outer layers of gas, which become a planetary nebula, while the core rapidly cools and contracts into a compact, dense white dwarf.", "As such, when our Sun runs out of hydrogen fuel, it will expand to become a red giant, puff off its outer layers, and then settle down as a compact white dwarf star, then slowly cooling down for trillions of years. If, however, the Sun had about 10 times its current mass, the final phase of its lifespan would be significantly more (ahem) explosive.", "After the red giant phase, the sun will become fainter, and will shrink to the size of the Earth, becoming a white dwarf. The distant planets that basked in the light of the red giant will become frozen ice worlds once again.", "Planetary nebulae seem to mark the transition of a medium mass star from red giant to white dwarf. Stars that are comparable in mass to our Sun will become white dwarfs within 75,000 years of blowing off their envelopes. Eventually they, like our Sun, will cool down, radiating heat into space and fading into black lumps of carbon. It may take 10 billion years, but our Sun will someday reach the end of the line and quietly become a black dwarf .", "One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve off the main sequence , and it expands to form a red giant . [53] The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion . At this point it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen. [54] [55] Eventually the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass.", "A red dwarf with the mass of Proxima Centauri will remain on the main sequence for about four trillion years. As the proportion of helium increases because of hydrogen fusion, the star will become smaller and hotter, gradually transforming from red to blue. Near the end of this period it will become significantly more luminous, reaching 2.5% of the Sun's luminosity () and warming up any orbiting bodies for a period of several billion years. When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, Proxima Centauri will then evolve into a white dwarf (without passing through the red giant phase) and steadily lose any remaining heat energy.", "One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve off the main sequence, and it expands to form a red giant . The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion. At this point it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen. Eventually the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass.", "A white dwarf forms only after the star has evolved from the main sequence and then passed through a red-giant stage. This occurred when Sirius B was less than half its current age, around 120 million years ago. The original star had an estimated and was a B-type star (roughly B4–5) when it still was on the main sequence. While it passed through the red giant stage, Sirius B may have enriched the metallicity of its companion.", "As a star begins to exhaust the hydrogen fuel in its core, it evolves away from the main sequence toward the upper right and becomes a red giant or supergiant. Stars that began with more than eight times the Sun's mass then evolve left and right through complicated loops on the H-R diagram as if in a frenzy to keep up their energy production. Then they finally explode as supernovae. Less massive giants evolve to the left and then down to become white dwarfs; this is the track the Sun will trace through the H-R diagram 8 billion years from now.", "As the gas is siphoned off by the partner, the red giant is left with only its core, making it into a white dwarf. The partner — initially the less massive of the pair, but now the heavier one — becomes a blue straggler.", "The yellow-white star is 28 times brighter than the Sun and four times the size. It is currently in the process of cooling down and will eventually become a red giant.", "Smaller stars, such as red dwarfs, don't make it to the red giant state. They simply burn through all of the hydrogen within the star, leaving behind the shell that is a white dwarf. However, red dwarfs take trillions of years to consume their fuel, far longer than the 13.8-billion-year-old age of the universe, so no red dwarfs have yet become white dwarfs.", "Low mass star loses its envelope after becoming a red giant for the second time. The core is left behind as a white dwarf.", "A red giant or red giant star is a star that is much bigger and cooler and redder than the Sun is. Red giants have diameters up to a few hundred times as large as that of the Sun . In about 5 thousand million years , the Sun will turn into a red giant, when the hydrogen in the center of the Sun starts to run out. The diameter of the Sun will then grow to about 40 times the size it has today.", "As a star's core shrinks, the intensity of radiation from that surface increases, creating such radiation pressure on the outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away, forming a planetary nebula . If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than 1.4 solar masses, it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth, known as a white dwarf . It is not massive enough for further gravitational compression to take place. [38] The electron-degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma, even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma. Eventually, white dwarfs will fade into black dwarfs over a very long period of time.", "White dwarfs are the burned-out cores of collapsed stars that, like dying embers, slowly cool and fade away. They are the remnants of low mass stars, among the dimmest objects observable in the Universe. They are low to medium (less than ten solar mass) Main Sequence stars which have burned through their reservoirs of both hydrogen and helium, passed through the giant phase, were not hot enough to ignite their carbon, puffed off their outer layers to form colorful planetary nebula, and then collapsed and cooled into small glowing coals. This beautiful Hubble Space Telescope image shows a nearby white dwarf, and the outer layers of the former star's atmosphere which have been blown away. The resultant planetary nebula will shine for the next 20,000 to 50,000 years, expanding outwards and fading slowly with time.", "The ejected gas will begin to visibly glow in harlequin colors as it is ionized by invisible ultraviolet radiation still being released from the star's hot core. As the star's outer surface material departs the core will be progressively exposed. When the core of a star is revealed in this manner, the star is called a white dwarf . These stars are fantastically dense compared to anything on Earth, weighing over a ton per teaspoonful. Over billions of years, the core will slowly cool, cease to release any radiation and become a black dwarf - the corpse of a Sun that once was. If the star had a family of planets, those that weren't devoured or ejected from their solar system during its Red Giant phase will freeze.", "For about 10 billion years, the star shines. Eventually, all the hydrogen is fused into helium, so heavier elements begin to fuse. Pressure builds, and the star expands.", "At this point, the Sun’s outer layers will move away into space, leaving a white dwarf – an extraordinarily dense object that will have half the original mass of the Sun, but will be the size of Earth. The ejected outer layers will form what is known as a planetary nebula , returning some of the material that formed the Sun to the interstellar medium.", "The white dwarf comes slowly to the end of its life story. It has no nuclear hydrogen or helium left to burn and it will have no further major structural changes. Because of its small size, high density, and initially hot temperature, it takes billions of years for a white dwarf to radiate all of its residual heat into space. It will take many millions of years before it cools off enough that it becomes invisible (a black dwarf). As it cools, the carbon atoms will crystallize into diamond lattice, a single diamond with a mass equal to 300,000 times the entire Earth! But don't count on getting rich mining this black gold ... the gravitational force on the surface of a white dwarf star is 300,000 times that of Earth, and you would weigh 30 million pounds there. Just enjoy the thought that billions of such diamonds really exist!", "Ultimately, the star swells to a huge size, its radius twice the distance between the Earth to the sun . This stage is called the red giant phase.", "As it dies, the star blows most of its matter out into space, forming an expanding shell of gas. What remains of the star is a white dwarf.", "The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun's mass becoming ionised into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K. The final naked core, a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 K, and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present day mass. The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical black.", "What will happen to all the inner planets, dwarf planets, gas giants and asteroids in the Solar System when the Sun turns into a white dwarf? This question is currently being pondered by a NASA researcher who is building a model of how our Solar System might evolve as our Sun loses mass, violently turning into an electron-degenerate star. It turns out that Dr. John Debes work has some very interesting implications. As we use more precise techniques to observe existing white dwarf stars with the dusty remains of the rocky bodies that used to orbit them, the results of Debes’ model could be used as a comparison to see if any existing white dwarf stars resemble how our Sun might look in 4-5 billion years time…", "White dwarfs are thought to be the endpoint of evolution for stars between 0.07 to 8 solar masses, which equates to 97% of the stars in the Milky Way. However, there are exceptions to the rule; in a binary system it is possible for a white dwarf to accrete material from the companion star and gradually put on weight. Eventually the star can grow too full –when it exceeds 1.38 solar masses – and nuclear reactions will ignite, that produce enormous amounts of energy, and the star explodes as a type Ia supernova.", "Red dwarfs never initiate helium fusion and so cannot become red giants; the stars slowly contract and heat up until all the hydrogen is consumed. In any event, there has not been sufficient time since the Big Bang for red dwarfs to evolve off the main sequence.", "The largest possible white dwarf mass is 1.4 MSun . This is called the Chandrasekhar limit, and is the most mass that the electron degenerate core can support without collapsing under its own gravity. Once a white dwarf has collapsed, it cools off, but the degenerate pressure inside does not drop and the star does not shrink on cooling. As the star cools, its luminosity decreases, just as you would expect. This process slows over time, so that the dimmer the star gets, the slower it gets dimmer. Table 9-2 shows the age– luminosity relationship for a 0.6 MSun white dwarf.", "After a second red giant stage, an old solar-mass star will gently eject its outer layers, leaving behind a hot, small stellar", "After a star uses up all the hydrogen in its core, it leaves the main sequence and moves towards the red giant branch.", "An existing star which suddenly increases its brightness by more than 10 magnitudes and then slowly fades O", "The white dwarf fades into a _ and maintains it's size and density due to its _", "The star is currently in its final stages of life and will soon explode as a gigantic supernova or hypernova. This could happen within days or a million years from now, and it will likely result in the devastation of planets and starfields lying within a few thousand light years of the star." ]

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[ "Neptune is the 8th and final planet in the Solar System, orbiting the Sun at a distance of 29.81 AU (4.459 x 109 km) at perihelion and 30.33 AU (4.537 x 109 km) at aphelion. With a mean radius of 24,622 ± 19 km, Neptune is the fourth largest planet in the Solar System and four times as large as Earth. But with a mass of 1.0243×1026 kg – which is roughly 17 times that of Earth – it is the third most massive, outranking Uranus.", "Each planet in the solar system has its own unique rotation rate. Tiny Mercury, sizzling closest to the Sun, takes 59 Earth days to turn around just once. Venus, the second planet, rotates once every 243 Earth days. What's more, Venus rotates backwards from the direction of its orbit around the Sun, as do Uranus and tiny dwarf planet Pluto. Uranus even lies down on the job, rolling around with its axis of rotation pointed nearly toward the Sun.", "The last four planets of the sun, demonstrate the immense effect of distance on the time it takes for a planet to rotate around the sun. Jupiter, the solar systemοΏ½s largest planet, takes 4,331.572 days to orbit around the sun, but the fast turning planet only takes 9.8 hours to completely rotate on its axis. Saturn takes more than double the time of Jupiter to orbit the sun with a time of 10,832.33 days, but has nearly an identical time to rotate on its axis with 10.2 hours. Uranus and Neptune are the two farthest planets from the sun and the time it takes for them to orbit around the sun reflects this. Uranus takes 30,7999.09 days to orbit around the sun, which is impressive but cannot compare to the 60,190 days it takes Neptune to complete the same task. However, Uranus and Neptune have comparable rotation times of 17.14 and 16 hours respectively.", "The seventh planet from the Sun in the Solar System. Uranus orbits the Sun at an average distance of 19.2 A.U.. The planet has a mass 14.5 times the mass of the Earth and a radius 4.0 times the radius of the Earth. Uranus is a gas planet made of hydrogen, helium, and methane and has no solid surface. The planet's axial tilt is an extreme 98 degrees, causing one day on Uranus to equal 84 years, equal to the time it takes Uranus to orbit the Sun once. It has a small ring system and 17 moons, the largest of which are Titania and Oberon.", "When discussing Venus’ rotation, it is important to note certain distinctions. Rotation is the time it takes for a planet to spin once on its axis. This is different from a planet’s revolution, which is the time it takes for a planet to orbit around another object (i.e. the Sun).  So while it takes the Earth one day (24 hours) to rotate once on its axis, it takes one year (365.256 days) to revolve once around the Sun.", "At times Pluto is the 8th planet from the Sun, and other times it is the 9th planet from the Sun. (See this image for an illustration of why this happens) Because of Pluto's great distance from the Sun, it takes a very long time to orbit the Sun. (The further a planet is away from the Sun, the slower it orbits the Sun) Pluto takes 249 years to orbit the Sun!", "All eight planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in the direction that the Sun is rotating, which is counterclockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole. Six of the planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction. The exceptions—the planets with retrograde rotation—are Venus and Uranus. Venus's axial tilt is 177 degrees, which means it is spinning almost exactly in the opposite direction to its orbit. Uranus has an axial tilt of 97.77 degrees, so its axis of rotation is approximately parallel with the plane of the Solar System. The reason for Uranus's unusual axial tilt is not known with certainty, but the usual speculation is that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation. ", "Pluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.39 Earth days. Like Uranus, Pluto rotates on its \"side\" on its orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120°, and so its seasonal variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, while another fourth is in continuous darkness. Pluto's orbital period is 248 Earth years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially different from those of the other planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the Sun close to a flat reference plane called the ecliptic. In contrast, Pluto's orbit is highly inclined relative to the ecliptic (over 17°) and highly eccentric (elliptical). In the long term Pluto's orbit is in fact chaotic. While computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward in time), after longer intervals calculations become speculative: Pluto's tiny size makes it sensitive to measurement of small details of the Solar System.", "While Earth takes 365 days to complete a revolution round the sun, Neptune takes 60,190 days", "Pluto does not orbit the Sun like other planets in the solar system. Instead of taking a clear path around the sun Pluto goes in more of an oval and has a tilted orbit when compared with other planets. This means not only does Pluto get closer and further away from the Sun, it is also higher in the solar system on one side of the Sun than the other. Pluto actually spends 22 years of its orbit closer to the Sun than Neptune . This last happened between 1979 and 1999 and will happen again in 2227.", "Check your answers by highlighting the box at the right! 1. Mars 2. Mercury 3. Earth 4. Pluto", "At certain points on Mercury’s surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun rise about halfway, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day. This is because approximately four days before perihelion, Mercury’s angular orbital velocity exactly equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun’s apparent motion ceases; at perihelion, Mercury’s angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity. Thus, the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four days after perihelion, the Sun’s normal apparent motion resumes at these points.[16]", "Earth is one of the planets in the solar system and takes exactly 365.25 days to revolve around the sun. Earth also rotates around its own axis in 24 hours or 1 day. Just like Earth every planet rotates on its own axis and revolves around the Sun.", "By reason of this deviation of the Sun from the center of gravity the centripetal force does not always tend to that immobile center, and hence the planets neither move exactly in ellipses nor revolve twice in the same orbit. Each time a planet revolves it traces a fresh orbit, as happens also with the motion of the Moon, and each orbit depends upon the combined motions of all the planets, not to mention their actions upon each other. Unless I am much mistaken, it would exceed the force of human wit to consider so many causes of motion at the same time, and to define the motions by exact laws which would allow of an easy calculation.", "Why almost every four years? The exact amount of time for the earth to rotate around the sun is actually 365.2422 days aka 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds.", "2. often Earth The third planet from the sun, having a sidereal period of revolution about the sun of 365.26 days at a mean distance of approximately 149.6 million kilometers (92.96 million miles), a sidereal rotation period of 23 hours 56.07 minutes, an average radius of 6,378.1 kilometers (3,963 miles), and a mass of approximately 5.9736 × 1024 kilograms (1.3169 × 1025 pounds).", "Earth also has a very low eccentricity of .017. On average, the planet is about 150 million kilometers from the Sun, but it can range from 147 million kilometers to 152 million kilometers. It takes our planet roughly 365.256 days to orbit the Sun, which is the reason for leap years.", "Earth is the third planet from the Sun. Its diameter is 12, 800 km. 71% of the earth is covered in water and its atmosphere is mainly comprised of nitrogen.  The earth spins on its axis once a day relative to the sun, which is equal to 24 hours 3 min 57 seconds. This is called the solar day or synodic day of Earth.  The sidereal day relative to the stars is 23 hours 56 min 4 seconds.  The earth takes 365.25 days to revolve around the Sun.  The earth has another motion related to its axis known as precession of the axis. This motion  is of great importance to Vedic Astrologers who measure it to  construct the horoscope accurately.", "71% of Earth's surface is covered in water and the oceans help to keep the temperature cool enough for life to survive. It takes 24 hours for the Earth to rotate once – a day – and it takes 365 days for the Earth to orbit the Sun – a year.", "A second commonly know charecteristic is that the Earth takes approximately twenty-four hours to complete one rotation. This is fastest among the terrestrial planets, but easily slower than that of all the gas planets .", "A planet's year is how long it takes to go around the Sun on its path.", "Each day that goes by, the Earth needs to turn a little further for the Sun to return to the same place in the sky.… And that extra time is about 4 minutes.", "A day is the length of time that it takes a planet to rotate on its axis (360°). A day on Earth takes almost 24 hours.", "the second smallest planet and the nearest to the sun. Mean distance from sun: 57.9 million km; period of revolution around sun: 88 days; period of axial rotation: 59 days; diameter and mass: 38 and 5.4 per cent that of earth respectively", "an interior planet of the Solar system, whose orbit is nearest the sun, the greatest distance being nearly 43,000,000 m. and the least over 28,000,000, is one-seventeenth the size of the earth, but is of greater density, and accomplishes its revolution in about 84 days; it is visible just before the sun rises and after it sets, but that very seldom owing to the sun's neighbourhood.", "As the Earth moves around the orbit, we say that the Earth revolves around the Sun (to distinguish this motion from rotation).", "Earth has one of the most circular orbits of all the eight planets. Its axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane, which produces the seasons we experience.", "Earths orbit varies from nearly a circle to an ellipse and back to a circle again once every 100,000 years. this is called:", "the period of revolution of a planet around the Sun or a satellite around its primary.", "me tell you why the earth orbits the sun and not the other way around. Think of", "Even before the radar mapping of orbiters in the late 1970's and 1990's Earth-based radar had revealed that the planet rotated in a direction opposite that of its orbital revolution. Astronomers say the rotation is retrograde, with a sidereal period of 243 days. This is slightly longer than its orbital period, 225 days.", "Restating the question: The period for the circular \"skimming\" orbit (of radius equal to the Earth's radius, R) is" ]

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[ "Ganymede is the largest moon in the entire Solar System.  It is larger than the planet Mercury.", "Next up is Ganymede . At 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. While it is larger than the planet Mercury, the fact that it is an icy world means that it has only half of Mercury’s mass. It is also the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core.", "With a mean radius of 2634.1 ± 0.3 kilometers (the equivalent of 0.413 Earths), Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System and is even larger than the planet Mercury. However, with a mass of 1.4819 x 10²³ kg (the equivalent of 0.025 Earths), it is only half as massive. This is due to Ganymede’s composition, which consists of water ice and silicate rock (see below).", "Ganymede is the largest moon in our solar system, larger even than Mercury and Pluto. It is also the only moon known to have its own magnetic field. The moon has at least one thick ocean between layers of ice, although it may contain several layers of both materials.", "The Galilean moons are the most massive and the largest moons in the Solar System, making Ganymede, the largest moon in the Solar System, fit in perfectly. Ganymede, however, contains craters and mountainous areas, differing from the other Galilean moons. Callisto contains larger craters that appear to have crosscuts inside of them. Europa just has plain crosscuts on the surface, and last but not least, Io, has volcanic activity, differing from any moon belonging to Jupiter.", "Ganymede is the largest moon around the planet Jupiter. Ganymede is also the biggest moon in the solar system. Ganymede is roughly three thousand miles across, making it bigger than the planet Mercury. If Ganymede was orbiting the Sun, it would be considered a planet. Ganymede is large enough to be pulled into a sphere by its gravity.", "(a) Titan is the largest moon in the solar system and bigger than the planet Venus.", "Its biggest moon is called Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system – which is", "Ganymede is the seventh moon of Jupiter and the third of the Galilean moons. It is the largest moon in the solar system and is larger than the planet Mercury and dwarf planet Pluto . Ganymede is only slightly smaller than Mars and if it were orbiting the Sun rather than Jupiter , it would be classified as a planet itself.", "Explanation: In this sharp snapshot, the Solar System's largest moon Ganymede poses next to Jupiter, the largest planet. Captured on March 10 with a small telescope from our fair planet Earth, the scene also includes Jupiter's Great Red Spot, the Solar System's largest storm. In fact, Ganymede is about 5,260 kilometers in diameter. That beats out all three of its other fellow Galilean satellites, along with Saturn's Moon Titan at 5,150 kilometers and Earth's own Moon at 3,480 kilometers. Though its been shrinking lately , the Great Red Spot's diameter is still around 16,500 kilometers. Jupiter, the Solar System's ruling gas giant, is about 143,000 kilometers in diameter at its equator . That's nearly 10 percent the diameter of the Sun.", "Explanation: Ganymede , one of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter, is the largest moon in the Solar System. With a diameter of 5,260 kilometers it is even larger than planets Mercury and Pluto and just over three quarters the size of Mars. Ganymede is locked in synchronous rotation with Jupiter. This detailed mosaic of images from the Galileo spacecraft shows the trailing hemisphere of this planet-sized moon. Speckled with bright young craters, Ganymede's surface shows a mixture of old, dark, cratered terrain and lighter regions laced with grooves and ridges . Ganymede's true colors tend toward subtle browns and grays, but this mosaic's colors have been enhanced to increase surface contrasts. The violet shades extending from the top and bottom are likely due to frost particles in Ganymede's polar regions.", "The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as \"moons\", after Earth's.", "NASA says new observations from the Hubble Space Telescope confirm the existence of a salty subsurface ocean on Ganymede , the largest moon in the solar system, which orbits our largest neighbor planet, Jupiter.", "Triton.  Neptune’s largest moon, Triton, is the only large  moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit, which is  an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet’s rotation.  Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto’s, Triton is thought to have been captured from the Kuiper belt.  Triton orbits at an elliptical semi-major axis distance of 355.000 km (220,000 miles) around Neptune and its mean diameter is 1350 km (840 miles).", "30. Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system, around which planet does it orbit?", "The size of the Moon to the primary, Earth, is the largest in the solar system, all the other satellites larger then our Moon: Ganymede, Callisto and Io around Jupiter, Titan around Saturn and Triton around Neptune are small in comparison with the large gas giants they revolve around.  The mass of these moons will hardly be noticable to such large massive gas giants.", "The planets of the outer Solar System are known for being strange, as are their many moons. This is especially true of Triton, Neptune’s largest moon. In addition to being the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System, it is also the only major moon that has a retrograde orbit – i.e. it revolves in the direction opposite to the planet’s rotation. This suggests that Triton did not form in orbit around Neptune, but is a cosmic visitor that passed by one day and decided to stay.", "Unfortunately, especially after the ice cliffs, Neptune's moons don't have much to offer the now-seasoned solar system mountaineer. Whatever we'll find, it'll almost certainly be on Triton, the planet's largest moon that accounts for 99.5% of all mass orbiting the planet. Bigger than Pluto, Triton was likely part of the Kuiper asteroid belt before it was captured by Neptune in the early days of the Solar System.", "Triton is, with a diameter of 2,700 km, the largest of Neptune’s 13 moons. It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit (an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet’s rotation), which cannot have formed out of the same region as Neptune, so it must have been captured from elsewhere. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto’s, Triton is thought to have been captured from the Kuiper belt.", "Triton is the largest moon of Neptune; it is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit (in the opposite direction to its planet’s rotation). At 2,700 km in diameter, it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to that of Pluto , Triton is thought to have been captured from the Kuiper belt . Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen, a mostly water-ice crust, an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm3 and is composed of approximately 15 to 35% water ice.", "With a diameter of 1,578 kilometers, a surface area of 7,820,000 km² and a mass of 3.527±0.09 × 1021 kg, Titania is the largest of Uranus' moons and the eighth largest moon in the Solar System. At a distance of about 436,000 km (271,000 mi), Titania is also the second farthest from the planet of the five major moons.", "Ganymede, the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury – although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core. ", "Triton is the largest of Neptune’s moons and the 7th largest moon in the Solar System. Neptune has 13 known moons. 6 are regular satellites with orbits in the same direction as the spin of the planet and there are 7 that orbit in the opposite direction to the planet’s spin.", "At 1066 km in diameter, Tethys is the 16th-largest moon in the Solar System, and is more massive than all known moons smaller than itself combined. The density of Tethys is 0.98 g/cm³, indicating that it is composed almost entirely of water-ice.", "The earth's huge moon also protects us from many of rocks that cross our planet's path. The craters across the moon's surface demonstrate the frequency something has collided with the moon instead of earth. The moon's South Pole—Aitken basin—is the largest known crater in our solar system. It is eight miles deep and 1500 miles across. The earth's moon is unusually large.", "Solar System’s Largest Moon Has a Saltwater Ocean Greater Than All the Water on Earth - IGN", "A collection of the largest moons in the Solar System are in orbit around the largest planet.", "Uranus’ five largest moons shown in increasing distance from the planet. Note there is incomplete coverage of Miranda and Ariel. Image credit: NASA/JPL", "With a diameter of 3,642 kilometers, it is the fourth-largest moon in the Solar System. With over 400 active volcanoes , it is also the most geologically active object in the Solar System. Its surface is dotted with over 100 mountains, some of which are taller than Earth’s Mount Everest.", "Here’s a list of all the largest moons in the Solar System, and a listing of the largest moons and smallest planets at Solar Views.", "A moon of 286 km diameter at about 1,500,880 km from the planet Saturn . The gravity at its surface is about 0.0018 times as strong as on Earth . The moon goes once around its planet in about 21.7 days. The moon was discovered in 1848. Also called SVII ( Saturn seven).", "This moon is a relatively large moon with a diameter of 1436 km. It has an eccentricity of 0.028 and an orbit inclindation of 7.52 degrees." ]

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[ "What is the name of the space-time point at which matter is compressed to an infinite density?", "However, at a deeper level we really don't know what happens. �The problem is that according to our current theories, the matter would go to the center of the black hole, where at the singularity it would reach infinite density. �Now, infinities in one's theory usually mean that something has gone wrong. �Maybe it turns into some kind of super dense quantum nugget, but we'll need extensions to our current theories to have a better idea.", "A point in the universe where the density of matter and the gravitational field are infinite, such as at the center of a black hole.", "However, there are some theoretical circumstances where the end result is infinity. One example is the singularity in the description of black holes. Some solutions of the equations of the general theory of relativity allow for finite mass distributions of zero size, and thus infinite density. This is an example of what is called a mathematical singularity, or a point where a physical theory breaks down. This does not necessarily mean that physical infinities exist; it may mean simply that the theory is incapable of describing the situation properly. Two other examples occur in inverse-square force laws of the gravitational force equation of Newtonian gravity and Coulomb's law of electrostatics. At r=0 these equations evaluate to infinities.", "A black hole’s center, where the matter is thought to be infinitely dense, the volume is infinitely small, and the force of gravity is infinitely large.", "Over the course of the 20th century, it became clear that there is much more to the universe than meets the eye. On the basis of early estimates of the mass density of the Milky Way, English physicist and mathematician James Jeans suggested in 1922 that the galaxy might contain three times as many dark stars as visible ones. In 1933 Fritz Zwick y, by studying the dynamics of clusters of galaxies , concluded that there is not enough visible matter in the galaxies to hold the clusters together gravitationally. He also pointed out that the measured quantity of luminous matter was far below the value that would be necessary for critical density—i.e., to produce a universe with an expansion that would gradually slow to a halt at infinity—but he speculated that the dark matter could conceivably be enough to make up the difference.", ":� For several reasons.� First, if the universe was finite, then all of the matter on the outside would be attracted toward the middle by the force of gravity and the result would be one great spherical mass at the center, which we do not currently observe. [2]", "According to the Big Bang theory, the universe may keep expanding forever, if its inward gravity is not sufficiently strong to counterbalance the outward motion of galaxies, or it may reach a maximum point of expansion and then start collapsing, growing denser and denser, gradually disrupting galaxies, stars, planets, people, and eventually even individual atoms. Which of these two fates awaits our universe can be determined by measuring the density of matter versus the rate of expansion. Much of modern cosmology, including the construction of giant new telescopes such as the new Keck telescope in Hawaii, has been an attempt to measure these two numbers with better and better accuracy. With the present accuracy of measurement, the numbers suggest that our universe will keep expanding forever, growing colder and colder, thinner and thinner.", "Density at center can be several times the density of an atomic nucleus, so we can't explore this regime in laboratories. The properties of this matter are unknown, and may include such exotic things as enormous conglomerations of quarks.", "Outer space, or just space, is the void that exists between celestial bodies, including the Earth. It is not completely empty, but consists of a hard vacuum containing a low density of particles, predominantly a plasma of hydrogen and helium as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields, neutrinos, dust and cosmic rays. The baseline temperature, as set by the background radiation from the Big Bang, is 2.7 kelvins (K) (−270.45 °C; −454.81 °F). Plasma with a number density of less than one hydrogen atom per cubic metre and a temperature of millions of kelvins in the space between galaxies accounts for most of the baryonic (ordinary) matter in outer space; local concentrations have condensed into stars and galaxies. In most galaxies, observations provide evidence that 90% of the mass is in an unknown form, called dark matter, which interacts with other matter through gravitational but not electromagnetic forces. Data indicates that the majority of the mass-energy in the observable universe is a poorly understood vacuum energy of space which astronomers label dark energy. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the Universe, but even galaxies and star systems consist almost entirely of empty space.", "According to the Higgs theory, an invisible energy field fills the vacuum of space throughout the universe. When some particles move through the field they feel drag and gain weight as a result. Others, such as particles of light, or photons, feel no drag at all and remain massless.", "Theoretical classes of particles, their existence intimated by supersymmetry, theory, that participate in few if any of the four known fundamental forces. Planets, stars, and galaxies made of shadow matter could conceivably exist in the same space and time we occupy without our sensing their presence. [F88] Shane-Wirtanen Catalogue", "Space is not really empty. A perfect vacuum does not exist in nature. Space is filled by a thin gas\"interstellar gas\" first detected in 1904 by Hartmann. The concentrations of gas and dust become much greater and denser in the neighbourhood of galaxies, which are surrounded by \"fog,\" mostly composed of atoms of hydrogen, ionised by radiation from the stars. Even this matter is not inert and lifeless, but is broken up into electrically-charged subatomic particles, subject to all kinds of movement, processes and change. These atoms occasionally collide and can change their energy state. Though an individual atom might only collide once every 11 million years, given the vast numbers involved, it is enough to give rise to a continuous and detectable emission, the \"song of hydrogen,\" first detected in 1951.", "There is, therefore, no reason to think that there was once a world when symmetry ruled, and that the universe had a beginning, and will expand until it will meet its end. Science would do well to consider that the universe is infinite, without beginning or end; and that is the reason not only why no two particle-physicists agree on an energy prediction for the Higgs boson, but why no such boson has been, or will ever be, found. The Standard Model has endured for four decades, amended by ever wilder logicalistic theories of strings and superstrings, etc. But it has been unable to come up with the exact geometry and structure of the ordinary lepton. Our work has proposed one, and one which is in complete agreement with the experimental facts; moreover, it explains both the classical and probabilistic treatments of so-called orbital electrons, while escaping the stranglehold of the Uncertainty Principle. It is time to consider alternatives to the Standard Model - in particular, alternatives that do not generate infinities in constant need of normalization and 'hand-correction', nor violate the Conservation of Energy. All such attempts to date have failed because the reality of phase-energy interactions with Dark Massfree Energy has consistently been ignored. If the universe had no beginning, then what matters is to explain the low-energy interactions, for they are the interactions of an infinitely-present universe, and what makes possible a real understanding of both the strong force and the high-energy interactions.", "There are infinite worlds both like and unlike this world of ours. For the atoms being infinite in number... are borne on far out into space.", "Well, that most basic of Sciences that is Physics has already provided the answer, hasn't it? Virtual particles (in the form of quarks/anti-quarks and gluons), stimulated by the quantum fluctuations of the nearly perfect but not quite perfect surface that is the expanding sphere defined by R4.", "In 1998 it was first discovered (from observations of supernovae in distant galaxies) that the expansion of the universe was not slowing down due to the effects of gravity, but in fact speeding up. Whilst less obviously exciting-sounding than extrasolar planets, it had profound implications for understanding the ultimate fate of the universe: previously it had been thought that what mattered was not that the rate of expansion was slowing down or not, but by how much, so either the universe was \"open\" (and expansion would continue forever), \"closed\" (meaning that the universe would collapse and end in a \"Big Crunch\", the inverse of the \"Big Bang\") or \"flat\" (at the critical point between the two, which would still mean it would expand forever). note Open/flat/closed refers to the geometry of spacetime. Now we knew that expansion would have to continuenote well, some esoteric theories might still dispute that. Also, speculation into the causes of this prompted the invocation of \"dark energy\", a mysterious substance adding to \"dark matter\" to explain the missing mass in the universe.", "By exploring the world of infinitely small particles, physicists hope to provide answers to the origin and fate of our universe.", "A space of finite volume but without any boundary (in the cosmological context). [Silk90] Closed String", "There's still a hitch. Thorne found in his 1987 work that any type of wormhole that is consistent with general relativity will collapse unless it is propped open by what he calls \"exotic matter\" with negative energy. He argues that we have evidence of exotic matter thanks to experiments showing how quantum fluctuations in a vacuum seem to create negative pressure between two mirrors placed very close together. And Loeb thinks our observations of dark energy are further hints that exotic matter may exist.", "where T is the gas temperature and the inequality is due to the fact that not all γ-rays originate from annihilations. In [ 18 ], the upper bounds on the γ-flux imposed by the EGRET space telescope [ 24 ] were used to constrain f for a sample of 55 galaxy clusters from the limited flux survey published in [ 25 ]. The obtained values scatter between f < 5 × 10−9 and f < 10−6, indicating that these clusters consist either entirely of matter or antimatter in good approximation. Furthermore, if there are any antimatter-dominated regions, they must be separated from the matter domains at least by distances comparable to the size ~ Mpc of galaxy clusters. Observations of colliding galaxy clusters allow us to extend the analysis to even larger scales. For the bullet cluster [ 26 ], an upper bound of f < 3 × 10−6 was obtained in [ 18 ]. If representative, this allows us to extend the constraints on f to scales of tens of Mpc. In combination with the considerations in section  2.1 , this indicates that the present-day observable universe most likely does not contain significant amounts of antimatter.", "The violent microstructure of the vacuum has been used in attempts to explain the origin of the universe as a long-lived vacuum fluctuation. But some authors have connected with this legitimate speculations [sic] far-reaching metaphysical claims, or at most they couched their mathematics in a highly misleading language, when they maintained ‘the creation of the universe out of nothing’ ...", "In this equation, a is the scale factor, c is the speed of light, and t0 is the age of the Universe. If d_p \\rightarrow \\infty (i.e., points arbitrarily as far away as can be observed), then no event horizon exists. If d_p \\neq \\infty, a horizon is present.", "Thus, the range of possible universes for well-defined (in Wald's sense) black holes seems to closely coincide with the universes in which the total mass-energy of a system can be rigorously defined. They both evidently require an asymptotically flat universe. Of course, as Wald says,", "That’s what many reports in the media said earlier this week, quoting a preface Hawking wrote to a book called Starmus. According to The Australian, the preface reads in part: “The Higgs potential has the worrisome feature that it might become metastable at energies above 100 [billion] gigaelectronvolts (GeV). This could mean that the universe could undergo catastrophic vacuum decay, with a bubble of the true vacuum expanding at the speed of light. This could happen at any time and we wouldn’t see it coming.”", "Fig. 5: Vacuum Fluctuation Models. Within the vacuum of the wider Universe, fluctuations occur which grow into mini-universes. Ours is but one of these, and its relative beginning does not imply a beginning for the Universe-as-a-whole.", "Isham has called this problem ‘fairly lethal’ to Vacuum Fluctuation Models and says that therefore they ‘have not found wide acceptance’ (Isham 1990). About the only way to avert the problem would be to postulate an expansion of the primordial vacuum itself; but then we are right back to the absolute origin implied by the Standard Model. According to Isham these models were therefore ‘jettisoned twenty years ago’ and ‘nothing much’ has been done with them since (Isham 1994).", "Alexander Vilenkin suggests a cosmological model in which the universe is spontaneously created from literally nothing. In Vilenkin’s model, the universe does not have a singularity at the big bang and does not require any initial or auxiliary conditions that must be satisfied.", "Problem is, the observational evidence won't let us make this assumption. The value of Omega still appears to be very close to 1, on the border of open and closed. In the moments of my wooliest thinking (pp 32 -- 35 & esp. fig. S2.2 I expect that the external closure of correlated quanta of S^2 point properties on the S^3 manifold map perfectly to an open, continuous and perfectly flat internal plane on S^7. This continuous mapping would therefore compel the propagation of point particle dynamics on S^3 X S^7, as you allow. What I found is that the middle value -- the central point from where observation originates -- adds one point to *every* axis of rotation. For years, I had no idea what this means -- Joy Christian's work made me realize that the answer was already built into principles of topology that I understood mathematically though not physically; these are orientability and complete measurement functions. Once initial condition was introduced and followed through 4pi rotation, I grokked how Hopf fibration and torsion applies to the physical model.", " The volume will be equal to (10^100)*(10^-18m)^3 since we have a googol subatomic particles. Let's see what we can obtain for the radius:", "Fine: But then your obligation is to produce a comprehensive and consistent theory based on such a nonlinear feedback force which satisfies the strong equivalence principle for self-gravitating bodies on the one hand and accounts for all the experimental evidence that is accounted for by GR on the other hand. I claim that to date there does not exist a single theory that accomplishes this without ad hoc, auxiliary assumptions.", "We must then ask ourselves: what \"fills\" the \"vacuum\" in the region, the \"region\" being the volume between R=0 and our new (and expanding) R4?" ]

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[ "The moons of Saturn are numerous and diverse, [1] ranging from tiny moonlets less than 1 kilometer across to the enormous Titan , which is larger than the planet Mercury . Saturn has 62 moons with confirmed orbits, 53 of which have names and only 13 of which have diameters larger than 50 kilometers, as well as dense rings with complex orbital motions of their own. [2] [3] [4] Seven Saturnian moons are large enough to be ellipsoidal in shape, though only two of those, Titan and Rhea , are currently in hydrostatic equilibrium . Particularly notable among Saturn’s moons are Titan, the second- largest moon (after Jupiter’s Ganymede ) in the Solar System, with a nitrogen-rich Earth-like atmosphere and a landscape including hydrocarbon lakes and dry river networks; [5] and Enceladus , which is seemingly similar in chemical makeup to comets, [6] emits jets of gas and dust and may harbor liquid water under its south pole region. [7]", "Titan is Saturn's largest moon. It's larger in diameter than the planet Mercury and larger and more massive than the planet Pluto. In fact, astronomers once listed Titan as the largest moon in the Solar System, but more precise measurements revealed that it has a very thick atmosphere around it and Jupiter's moon Ganymede has a larger solid surface. Titan was the prime target of the Cassini-Huygens mission.", "Saturn is the planet with the greatest number of significant moons, which also have the greatest variation of apparent sizes in the night sky. Titan is Saturn’s largest moon, and also happens to appear the largest in the Saturnian sky at slightly less than half the diameter (1/4 of the area) of our moon in our sky. Next is Tethys, which appears a bit smaller than Titan. Dione and Rhea both appear about 1/3 of the diameter (11% of the area) of our moon. Enceladus and Mimas are next, appearing about 1/4 of the diameter (6% of the area) of our moon. The remaining three moons, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Phoebe, would appear as no more than stars in the Saturnian sky. Hyperion and Iapetus at 0.5 and 1.4 arc minutes respectively, would be fairly bright, while Phoebe at less than 4 arc seconds, would be much smaller and fainter. A visual comparison of the moons’ actual size versus the apparent size in the sky as viewed from their respective planets is shown in Figure 3.", "At 5150 km in diameter, and 1,350×1020 kg in mass, Titan is Saturn’s largest moon and comprises more than 96% of the mass in orbit around the planet. Titan is also the only large moon to have its own atmosphere, which is cold, dense, and composed primarily of nitrogen with a small fraction of methane. Scientists have also noted the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere, as well as methane ice crystals .", "As already noted, Titan is the largest of the Cronian moons. In fact, at 5,150 km in diameter, and 1,350×1020 kg in mass, Titan is Saturn’s largest moon and comprises more than 96% of the mass in orbit around the planet. Based on its bulk density of 1.88 g/cm3, Titan’s composition is half water ice and half rocky material – most likely differentiated into several layers with a 3,400 km rocky center surrounded by several layers of icy material.", "There are 62 moons orbiting Saturn. The moons of Saturn vary not only in size but also in composition and shape. The largest of the moons of Saturn is the aptly named Titan, more than 5,000 km across and is bigger than Mercury.", "With a diameter and mass of 1,123 km and 11×1020 kg, Dione is the largest inner moon of Saturn. The majority of Dione's surface is heavily cratered old terrain, with craters that measure up to 250 km in diameter. However, the moon is also covered with an extensive network of troughs and lineaments which indicate that in the past it had global tectonic activity.", "With a diameter and mass of 1,123 km and 11×1020 kg, Dione is the largest inner moon of Saturn. The majority of Dione’s surface is heavily cratered old terrain, with craters that measure up to 250 km in diameter . However, the moon is also covered with an extensive network of troughs and lineaments which indicate that in the past it had global tectonic activity.", "aturn has 62 moons (and counting). Saturn’s largest moon is called Titan and even has its own atmosphere of mainly nitrogen gas. The atmosphere on Titan is so dense and the gravity so low that any future astronauts who land on Titan would be able to fly through the air by simply flapping their arms!", "Titan is the largest of Saturn’s moons and the 9th-largest moon in the Solar System. Saturn has 62 moons with confirmed orbits, 53 of which have names. 24 of these are regular satellites that orbit Saturn with only small inclinations to its equatorial plane. 37 of the remaining 38 are irregular satellites that orbit at high inclinations and a much greater distance from Saturn. These are probably minor planets captured by its gravity or debris from them. The final irregular satellite is unclear.", "Saturn has 62 known moons, 53 of which have formal names. In addition, there is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in Saturn's rings, which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings. Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own, along with a tenuous atmosphere. ", "The Cassini spacecraft captured this image on June 16, 2011. These are two of Saturn’s moons – the largest moon Titan and second-largest moon Rhea.", "Saturn has at least 62 moons, 53 of which have formal names. Titan, the largest, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings. Saturn's second largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own, along with a tenuous atmosphere. Many of the other moons are very small: 34 are less than 10 km in diameter and another 14 less than 50 km. Traditionally, most of Saturn's moons have been named after Titans of Greek mythology. Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System with a major atmosphere in which a complex organic chemistry occurs. It is also the only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes.", "This colorized image taken by the Cassini orbiter, shows Saturn’s A and F rings, the small moon Epimetheus and Titan, the planet’s largest moon. Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute", "Saturn has 34 named moons, though the total is now up to 62! Most of them are small, but Saturn boasts the second largest (after Ganymede) moon in the solar system: Titan. Titan has a thick atmosphere that obscures the surface from view:", "Fellow gas giant Saturn has 62 known moons, but only seven are visible. Due to its sheer size, the easiest of Saturn's satellites to see is Titan. This moon has a diameter of 5,150km, which makes it bigger than the planet Mercury. In the moon rankings, it's the second largest in the Solar System, only beaten by Jupiter's Ganymede. It's also the only moon with a substantial atmosphere. When you're gazing at it through your scope, you're not actually looking at Titan's surface but at its nitrogen-rich cloud tops. In terms of brightness, Titan can reach mag. +8.4, putting it well within the reach of binoculars, while with a small telescope you'll have no trouble seeing it.", "Wednesday, June 22, 2011: Three of Saturn's moons appear in a somber group portrait along with the northern, sunlit ringplane. Rhea (949 miles or 1,528 kilometers across) is closest to Cassini spacecraft, which took the photograph, and appears largest at the center of the image. Enceladus (313 miles or 504 kilometers across) is to the right of Rhea. Dione (698 miles or 1,123 kilometers across) is to the left of Rhea, partly obscured by Saturn. Saturn is present on the left of this image but its night side is too dark to see.", "At 1,470 km in diameter and 18×1020 kg in mass, Iapetus is the third-largest of Saturn’s large moons. And at a distance of 3,560,820 km from Saturn, it is the most distant of the large moons, and takes 79 days to complete a single orbit. Due to its unusual color and composition – its leading hemisphere is dark and black whereas its trailing hemisphere is much brighter – it is often called the “yin and yang” of Saturn’s moons.", "Saturn has 30 moons than any other planet.  The names of Saturn's moons are as follows:  Pan, Atlas, Prometheus, Pandora, Epimetheus, Janus, Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Telesto, Calypso, Dione, Helene, Rhea, Titan, Hyperion, Iapetus, Phoebe, S/2000 S 1, S/2000 S 2, S/2000 S 3, S/2000 S 4, S/2000 S 5, S/2000 S 6, S/2000 S 7, S/2000 S 8, S/2000 S 9, S/2000 S 10, S/2000 S 11, and S/2000 S 12.  ", "Iapetus – With a diameter of 1,470 km, it is the 3rd largest moon of Saturn. It was discovered by Giovanni Cassini in 1671. It has a distinct feature of having a bright and dark hemisphere.", "The Cassini spacecraft looks toward the Rhea's cratered, icy landscape with the dark line of Saturn's ringplane and the planet's murky atmosphere as a background. Rhea is Saturn's second-largest moon, at 1,528 kilometers (949 miles) across. This image was taken on Oct. 20, 2008.", "The size of the Moon to the primary, Earth, is the largest in the solar system, all the other satellites larger then our Moon: Ganymede, Callisto and Io around Jupiter, Titan around Saturn and Triton around Neptune are small in comparison with the large gas giants they revolve around.  The mass of these moons will hardly be noticable to such large massive gas giants.", "Hyperion. Hyperion orbits Saturn between Iapetus and Titan. It is an icy moon with an irregular shape. Larger than nearly spherical Phoebe, its major dimensions are about 380 by 290 by 230 km with angular features and facets as well as rounded edges (Figure 10.34). Its irregular shape suggests that it is a remnant of a larger body that was shaped by impact.", "With the last Titan flyby on October 12, Cassini came back to an orbit that's nearly in the equatorial plane, and immediately rewarded us with some fine views of several of the icy moons. Here are a bunch of images of those moons taken over the 13th and 14th: Rhea, Saturn's second-largest moon. Cassini got quite close so used the wide-angle rather than narrow-angle camera to get a whole-moon view:", "The most detailed images ever taken of Saturn's moon Mimas show it to be one of the most heavily cratered Saturnian moons, with little if any evidence for internal activity. Mimas has been so heavily cratered that new impacts can only overprint or even completely obliterate other older craters. Mimas is 397 kilometers or (247 miles) across.", "This image shows the relative sizes of the largest moons and the smallest planets in the solarsystem. The largest satellites pictured in this image are: Ganymede (5262 km), Titan (5150 km), Callisto (4806 km), Io (3642 km), the Moon (3476 km), Europa (3138 km), Triton (2706 km), and Titania (1580 km). Both Ganymede and Titan are larger than planet Mercury followed by Io, the Moon, Europa, and Triton which are larger than the planet Pluto . (Copyright Calvin J. Hamilton)", "Beautiful ringed Saturn, is the most recognized planet in our solar system, yet Saturn is not alone, but accompanied by many moons. Here, we will learn about the 6 largest moons of glorious Saturn. You will learn about...", "A moon of 12 km diameter at about 11,124,000 km from the planet Saturn . The gravity at its surface is about 0.0002 times as strong as on Earth . The moon goes once around its planet in about 438.3 days. The moon was discovered in 2000. Also called SXXII ( Saturn twenty-two). Its provisional designation was S/2000 S6.", "A moon of 5 km diameter at about 19,878,000 km from the planet Saturn . The gravity at its surface is about 0.0000 times as strong as on Earth . The moon goes once around its planet in about 2.9 years . The moon was discovered in 2005.", "A moon of 6 km diameter at about 18,403,000 km from the planet Saturn . The gravity at its surface is about 0.0000 times as strong as on Earth . The moon goes once around its planet in about 932.6 days. The moon was discovered in 2005.", "A moon of 7 km diameter at about 18,685,000 km from the planet Saturn . The gravity at its surface is about 0.0001 times as strong as on Earth . The moon goes once around its planet in about 954.1 days. The moon was discovered in 2000. Also called SXXV ( Saturn twenty-five). Its provisional designation was S/2000 S9.", "Neptune has 14 known moons. The largest of these moons is Titan – a frozen world which spits out particles of nitrogen ice and dust from below its surface. It is believed that Titan was caught by the immense gravitational pull of Neptune and is regarded as one of the coldest worlds in our solar system." ]

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[ "The biggest planet in the Solar System is Jupiter. But the title for the second biggest planet in our Solar System goes to Saturn.", "The largest planet in the solar system is Jupiter. Jupiter is actually over 300 times larger than earth - and if Jupiter was a hollow shell - you could fit over 1,000 Earths inside of it.", "The planet Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System and has a huge number of moons that orbit around it.", "Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system and is 318 times bigger than the Earth! It's also the fastest rotating planet too, with 1 day only lasting 10 hours – but a year on Jupiter lasts for 12 Earth years.", "Jupiter, the fifth planet from the sun, is the largest planet in our solar system. In Greek the name of the planet Jupiter is Dias, the Greek name of god Zeus.", "Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun, and is the largest planet in the solar system. Its average distance from the Sun is 5.2 AU (778,330,000 km), and its equatorial radius is 68,700 km (almost 11 times that of Earth):", "From largest to smallest, based on total circumference, the planets that make up this solar system are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury. Any publication that lists Pluto as a planet is out of date. Astronomers now consider Pluto a dwarf planet.", "Planets are generally divided into two main types: large, low-density gas giants , and smaller, rocky terrestrials . Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus , Earth, and Mars, then the four gas giants, Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus, and Neptune. The Solar System also contains at least five dwarf planets: Ceres, Pluto (originally classified as the Solar System's ninth planet), Makemake, Haumea and Eris. With the exception of Mercury, Venus, Ceres and Makemake, all of these are orbited by one or more natural satellites.", "From 1930 to 2006, Pluto (?), one of the largest known Kuiper belt objects, was considered the Solar System's ninth planet. However, in 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) created an official definition of the term \"planet\".[5] Under this definition, Pluto is reclassified as a dwarf planet, and there are eight planets in the Solar System . In addition to Pluto, the IAU currently recognizes two other dwarf planets: Ceres (Old symbol of Ceres) , the largest object in the asteroid belt, and Eris (no symbol), which lies beyond the Kuiper belt in a region called the scattered disc. Of the known dwarf planets, only Ceres has no moons.", "Jupiter is the fifth planet of the Solar System, counting from the Sun . Jupiter is a jovian planet , with a very dense and thick atmosphere (of mostly hydrogen and helium), many moons , and narrow rings . Jupiter is the largest and most massive planet in our Solar System. Jupiter has an equatorial diameter of 142,984 km and is number 2 on the list of largest objects in our Solar System.", "Gas giants  (Jovians): Planets with a composition largely made up of gaseous  material and are significantly more massive than terrestrials: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Jupiter, at 318 Earth masses, is the largest planet in the Solar System, while Saturn is one third as big, at 95 Earth masses.", "Description Jupiter is the biggest planet in our solar system with a diameter of 69,911km. It has a giant storm that was two to three times bigger than Earth. It has been for over four centuries and hasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t stopped for a second. Jupiter has 67 natural satellites and the four main ones are called IO, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.", "165: The number of potential planets found to be the size of Jupiter, which is the largest planet in our solar system. Jupiter has a radius of about 44,423 miles (71,492 km) and has a mass that is 318 times that of the Earth.", "The solar system is subdivided into the inner planets, the asteroid belt , and the outer planets. The inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . The outer gas giant planets are Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune . Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt , and finally the Oort Cloud , which may extend as far as a light-year.", "Unbelievably, the ninth and tenth largest objects in the Solar System happen to be moons. Well, I found it quite unbelievable when I found out. The Solar System's largest moon is Ganymede which orbits the Solar System's largest planet, Jupiter . Large enough to have been spotted by Galileo Galilei in 1610 through one of the first telescopes, Ganymede's surface is a mixture of extremely ancient and slightly less extremely ancient. Part of it is heavily cratered, much like many moons, whereas other parts are much smoother, suggesting that some sort of geological disturbance occurred after the period of heavy bombardment. Scientists reckon that deep below the surface, there may be water.", "The romans named the planet Jupiter after their king of gods who was also the god of sky and thunder. Jupiter is the largest object in the solar system and the most powerful. Description Jupiter is 69,911 km in diameter it is so big that three earths could fit inside it. Jupiter has sixteen moons the main Four are called Ganymede, cellist, Europa and Io. Jupiter is the biggest planet in the solar system. The great red spot is a huge storm on Jupiter, it has raged for at least 46 | P a g e", "Neptune is the 8th and final planet in the Solar System, orbiting the Sun at a distance of 29.81 AU (4.459 x 109 km) at perihelion and 30.33 AU (4.537 x 109 km) at aphelion. With a mean radius of 24,622 ± 19 km, Neptune is the fourth largest planet in the Solar System and four times as large as Earth. But with a mass of 1.0243×1026 kg – which is roughly 17 times that of Earth – it is the third most massive, outranking Uranus.", "It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets. It is sometimes referred to as the world, the Blue Planet or by its Latin name, Terra.", "Pluto is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris, a dwarf planet in the scattered disc. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small—about one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding. Light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance (39.5 AU).", "The Sun is over 300000 times larger than earth Halley’s Comet was last seen in the inner Solar System in 1986, it will be visible again from Earth sometime in 2061 Venus is the hottest planet in our solar system with a surface temperature of over 450 degrees Celsius. Many scientists believe that an asteroid impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs around 65 million years ago. The Solar System formed around 4.6 billion years ago. The Moon appears to have more craters and scars than Earth because it has a lot less natural activity going on, the Earth is constantly reforming its surface through earthquakes, erosion, rain, wind and plants growing on the surface, while the moon has very little weather to alter its appearance. Saturn isn't the only ringed planet, other gas giants such as Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune also have rings, they are just less obvious. Footprints and tyre tracks left behind by astronauts on the moon will stay there forever as there is no wind to blow them away. In 2006, astronomers changed the definition of a planet. This means that Pluto is now referred to as a dwarf planet. Because of lower gravity, a person who weighs 100kg on earth would only weigh 38kg on the surface of Mars. The only planet that rotates on its side like a barrel is Uranus. The only planet that spins backwards relative to the others is Venus.", "(a) Titan is the largest moon in the solar system and bigger than the planet Venus.", "The sun (which, incidentally, is only a medium-size star) is larger than any of the planets in our solar system. Its diameter is 1,392,000 kilometers (864,949 miles). Earth's diameter is only 12,756 kilometers (7,926 miles). More than one million Earths could fit inside the sun. The large mass of the sun produces an enormous gravitational pull that keeps all the planets of the solar system in their orbits. Even Pluto, which is six billion kilometers (3,728,227,153 miles) away, is kept in orbit by the sun.", "Ganymede is the largest of the four Galilean moons and is seventh in orbit from the planet. Ganymede also holds the distinction of being the largest moon in the Solar System, even larger than the planet Mercury. It is the only moon with its own internally generated magnetic field. Its surface is made of silicate rock and water ice and is characterized by dark regions of craters and light regions of grooves and ridges. Ganymede completes one orbit around Jupiter in 7.15 days.", "Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun and is the third largest in the solar system.", "The Solar System consists of the Sun and the astronomical objects gravitationally bound in orbit around it. The vast majority of the system's mass is in the Sun. If total weight of the system is divided into a thousand parts, the other planets will have only fourteen parts while rest is the Sun (99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System). The diameter of the Sun being 864000 miles or 1,392,684 km is 109 times bigger than diameter of the earth. Its volume is 1.3 million times the earth’s volume; its weight is 300000 times the earth’s weight. The Sun’s gravity is 32 times the gravity of the earth, its water density is four times more and its distance from the earth is 92656200 miles (called AU or astronomical unit). Of the many objects that orbit the Sun, most of the mass is contained within eight relatively solitary planets whose orbits are almost circular and lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic plane.", "A collection of the largest moons in the Solar System are in orbit around the largest planet.", "Compare your scaled answer in part (d) with the true diameter of the Solar System (as defined by Pluto's orbit), about 12 billion km. Which is larger, and by roughly what factor?", "Here’s another article about the which is the largest planet in the Solar System , and here’s what’s the smallest planet in the Solar System .", "Its biggest moon is called Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system – which is", "Here’s a list of all the largest moons in the Solar System, and a listing of the largest moons and smallest planets at Solar Views.", "This is a classic exercise for visualizing just how BIG our Solar System really is. Both the relative size and spacing of the planets are demonstrated in this outdoor exercise, using a mere peppercorn to represent the size of the Earth. Guy Ottewell has kindly given permission for this electronic presentation of The Thousand-Yard Model; his exercise is presented in its original form, indexed with a few anchors to help you find you way around the large file. We also include a catalog describing several Ottewell publications. Image of the planets courtesy of NASA .", "What is the only planet in the solar system that is not named after a Greek or Roman god?" ]

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[ "The smallest planet in the solar system, according to the International Astronomical Union's classification, is Mercury, with a radius of approximately 1,516 miles, which is 38 percent the size of Earth. The next smallest is Mars, with a radius of approximately 2,460 miles, or 53 percent the size of Earth.", "The smallest planet in the Solar System is Mercury (the biggest planet is Jupiter). For the longest time, the smallest planet was considered to be Pluto, but now Pluto isn’t a planet any more, so we’re back to Mercury.", "Mercury is the Solar System’s smallest planet, with an average diameter of 4879 km (3031.67 mi). It is also one of its densest at 5.427 g/cm3, which is second only to Earth. As a terrestrial planet , it is composed of silicate rock and minerals and is differentiated between an iron core and a silicate mantle and crust. But unlike its peers (Venus, Earth and Mars), it has an abnormally large metallic core relative to its crust and mantle.", "The smallest planet in the solar system, Mercury and the largest planet, Jupiter provide many clues to the formation of our solar system, the geochemical variability therein, and the evolution of earth. Pluto, a dwarf planet, will also be touched on and where it calls within the list of planets.", "Mercury is the innermost and smallest planet in the solar system, orbiting the Sun once every 88 days. It can only be seen in morning or evening twilight.", "Pluto use to be smallest planet in our solar system at a diameter of 2700 km (smaller than 7 of the solar systems moons, including Earths) and the farthest away. Although every 248 years Pluto’s weird orbit brings it in closer to the sun than Neptune, making it the eight planet from the sun for about 20 years.", "The asteroid Chariklo has been confirmed as the smallest object in the Solar System to display a ring system. Encircling bands of material are more usually associated with the giant planets, such as Saturn and Uranus.", "Description Mercury is 2,440KM in diameter. There are no moons that have been recorded so far. It is the smallest planet in our Solar System. It is known as a terrestrial planet but it has no living life that has been found on Mercury. Standing on its surface at its closest point to the Sun, the Sun would appear three times larger than on Earth. The special feature of this planet is that itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s so close to the Sun.", "From largest to smallest, based on total circumference, the planets that make up this solar system are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury. Any publication that lists Pluto as a planet is out of date. Astronomers now consider Pluto a dwarf planet.", "Ceres also known as 1 Ceres, is the smallest dwarf planet in the Solar System and the only one in the main asteroid belt. It was discovered on January 1, 1801, by Giuseppe Piazzi, and is named after the Roman goddess Ceres the goddess of growing plants, the harvest, and of motherly love. After about 200 years from its discovery, the International Astronomical Union decided to upgrade Ceres from an asteroid or minor planet to dwarf planetary status in 2006.", "The fourth planet from the Sun is Mars , which is also the second smallest planet in the Solar System. It has a radius of approximately 3,396 km at its equator, and 3,376 km at its polar regions – which is the equivalent of roughly 0.53 Earths. While it is roughly half the size of Earth, it’s mass – 6.4185 x 10²³ kg – is only 0.151 that of Earth’s. It’s density is also lower than Earths, which leads to it experiencing about 1/3rd Earth’s gravity (0.376 g).", "Smallest. The smallest moon is Deimos, at Mars, only seven miles in diameter, although its size now is rivaled by the small shepherd moons discovered by Cassini at Saturn and by others yet to be counted and named in the rings around Jupiter, Saturn and other giant gas planets in the outer Solar System. There may be tiny moons as small as only around a mile across.", "Mercury, named by the Romans after the messenger of the gods, is the closest planet to the Sun, and second smallest planet in the Solar System. It is believed that Mercury resembles very much the Moon (its diameter is almost as twice as the diameter of Earth's only satellite).", "Mercury – 1 Did you know that not only is Mercury the closest planet to the sun, it is also the smallest planet, has the oldest surface, is the planet that orbits the sun the fastest, has the largest variations between day and night temperatures and is the least explored inner planet in our solar system. ‘Little’ Mercury wins a few ‘big’ planetary competitions! Along with Venus, Earth and Mars, Mercury is one of the four planets closest to the sun. Also known as ‘terrestrial’ planets, they are mostly composed of rock and are smaller and have fewer or no moons when compared with the four giant outer gas planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. (Mercury has no moons.)", "The solar system consists of a central star, the Sun, and all of the smaller celestial bodies that continuously travel around it. The smaller bodies include eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, which are themselves orbited by more than 140 moons. (Only Mercury and Venus have no moons.) In addition, the solar system contains millions of rocky asteroids and billions of icy comets. All of these objects are held together in a group by the Sun's gravity.", "Smallest. The smallest moon is Deimos, one of two moons of Mars. Deimos is only seven miles in diameter. It's possible there are smaller shepherd moons yet to be counted and named in the rings around Saturn and other giant gas planets in the outer Solar System.", "In addition to being the planet closest to the Sun, Mercury is also the smallest by mass. If you ignore the former planet Pluto, it is also the smallest by surface area, as well. The planet has the most eccentric orbit: at perihelion it is 46,001,200 km from the Sun and at aphelion it is 69,816,900 km. The planet’s short orbital period(87.969 Earth days) and slight axial tilt combine to make the day on Mercury(116 Earth days) longer than the year.", "Of the four rocky planets, Mercury is the smallest, about two-fifths the size of Earth. Earth and Venus are almost the same size, while Mars is about half their size. Astronomers speculate that a smaller object must have hit Mercury, vaporizing its crust and leaving only the larger-than-usual iron core.", "The ninth planet of the Solar System, the smallest (5700 km radius) and most distant from the sun. The suggestion has been made that it more closely resembles a large close comet than a planet. Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.248, larger than that of any other planet; it varies from 4.44 to 7.37 billion km distance from the sun.", "The planet closest to the sun and the second smallest, with a diameter about two-fifths that of Earth. Mercury's surface is covered with mountains, craters, ridges, and valleys. It orbits the sun once every 88 days, the shortest amount of time for any planet. See Table at solar system . See Note at planet .", "Gliese 581 C is the smallest extrasolar planet, or \"exoplanet,\" discovered to date. It is located about 15 times closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun; one year on the planet is equal to 13 Earth days. Because red dwarfs, also known as M dwarfs, are about 50 times dimmer than the Sun and much cooler, their planets can orbit much closer to them while still remaining within their habitable zones , the spherical region around a star within which a planet's temperature can sustain liquid water on its surface.", "Most of the mass of the solar system is concentrated in the Sun, with its 1.99 × 1033 grams. Together, all of the planets amount to 2.7 × 1030 grams (i.e., about one-thousandth of the Sun's mass), with Jupiter alone accounting for 71 percent of this amount. The solar system also contains a few known objects of intermediate size classified as dwarf planets and a very large number of much smaller objects collectively called small bodies . The small bodies, roughly in order of decreasing size, are the asteroids , or minor planets; comets , including Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects; meteoroids (see meteor and meteoroid ); and interplanetary dust particles . Because of their starlike appearance when discovered, the largest of these bodies were termed asteroids, and that name is widely used, but, now that the rocky nature of these bodies is understood, their more descriptive name is minor planets.", "One way to help visualize the relative sizes in the solar system is to imagine a model in which everything is reduced in size by a factor of a billion. Then the model Earth would be about 1.3 cm in diameter (the size of a grape). The Moon would be about 30 cm (about a foot) from the Earth. The Sun would be 1.5 meters in diameter (about the height of a man) and 150 meters (about a city block) from the Earth. Jupiter would be 15 cm in diameter (the size of a large grapefruit) and 5 blocks away from the Sun. Saturn (the size of an orange) would be 10 blocks away; Uranus and Neptune (lemons) 20 and 30 blocks away. A human on this scale would be the size of an atom but the nearest star would be over 40000 km away.", "Not shown in the above illustrations are the numerous smaller bodies that inhabit the solar system: the satellites of the planets; the large number of asteroids (small rocky bodies) orbiting the Sun, mostly between Mars and Jupiter but also elsewhere; the comets (small icy bodies) which come and go from the inner parts of the solar system in highly elongated orbits and at random orientations to the ecliptic; and the many small icy bodies beyond Neptune in the Kuiper Belt . With a few exceptions, the planetary satellites orbit in the same sense as the planets and approximately in the plane of the ecliptic but this is not generally true for comets and asteroids. The classification of these objects is a matter of minor controversy. Traditionally, the solar system has been divided into planets (the big bodies orbiting the Sun), their satellites (a.k.a. moons, variously sized objects orbiting the planets), asteroids (small dense objects orbiting the Sun) and comets (small icy objects with highly eccentric orbits). Unfortunately, the solar system has been found to be more complicated than this would suggest:", "This artist's concept depicts an itsy bitsy planetary system -- so compact, in fact, that it's more like Jupiter and its moons than a star and its planets. Astronomers using data from NASA's Kepler mission and ground-based telescopes recently confirmed that the system, called KOI-961, hosts the three smallest exoplanets known so far to orbit a star other than our sun. An exoplanet is a planet that resides outside of our solar system.", "The seventeenth and outermost moon; S/1999 J 1 is the smallest-known moon orbiting a major planet. This moon is 3 miles (5 km) in diameter and has an irregular orbit roughly 15 million miles (24 million km) from Jupiter. It orbits Jupiter in 774 (Earth) days and is in a retrograde orbit (orbiting opposite to the direction of Jupiter). It was discovered by Robert S. McMillan et al (at the Spacewatch program at the University of Arizona ) in 2000.", "And here’s another take on the smallest planet in the Solar System , and here’s a link to NASA’s Solar System Exploration Guide .", "It is not presently clear whether a lower size bound will be established as part of the definition of small Solar System bodies in the future, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of meteoroids, the smallest macroscopic bodies in orbit around the Sun. (On a microscopic level there are even smaller objects such as interplanetary dust, particles of solar wind and free particles of hydrogen.)", "What are the names of the planets in this solar system in order from the biggest to the smallest? | Reference.com", "the second smallest planet and the nearest to the sun. Mean distance from sun: 57.9 million km; period of revolution around sun: 88 days; period of axial rotation: 59 days; diameter and mass: 38 and 5.4 per cent that of earth respectively", "Even smaller objects (comets, most asteroids, etc.) will be called \"Small Solar System Bodies\". This does leave open the question of how this applies to planets outside the solar system, especially the truly planet-sized objects that are not bound to any star. Another controversial issue behind the IAU 2006 decision was the small proportion of members who voted on the decision. After the initial series of arguments following the 2006 decision, over time the astronomers came to accept the decision and the planet definition issue did not even come up at the IAU 2009 and 2012 meetings.", "mini-Solar System model where the closer moons are rocky, high density and the outer moons are icy, low density" ]

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[ "C/1729 P1 'Great Comet of 1729' is the brightest comet ever recorded, at an absolute magnitude of -3.0. C/1577 V1 'Great Comet of 1577', observed by the great astronomer Tycho Brahe (and so determining that comets travel above the atmosphere of the Earth), comes third at -1.8 and C/1746 P1 is fourth. In second place? Why, the mighty C/1995 O1 Hale-Bopp of course!", "C/2006 P1 McNaught was the brightest comet in decades and could be seen during the day. As with C/1996 B2 Hyakutake, the solar observing spacecraft Ulysses passed through the tail. This unexpected bonus continues to add to our knowledge of comets, their composition and origin.", "Halley’s Comet, also known as 1P/Halley, is the most well known comet in the Solar System. As a periodic (or short-term comet) it has orbital period that is less than 200 years, and has therefore been observed more than once by people here on Earth over the centuries.", "Comet Halley, or Halley's Comet, is without a doubt the most famous of the myriad comets that inhabit the solar system. It is named for 17th-century English astronomer Edmund Halley, who first noticed its regular 76-year orbit and was the first to realize that it was the comet which appeared shortly before the 1066 Norman Conquest of England in which King William I, \"The Conqueror,\" deposed and killed Harold II, last of the Anglo-Saxon kings of England, a pivotal event in world history depicted in the so-called Bayeux Tapestry.", "Halley's Comet or Comet Halley ( or, named after astronomer Edmond Halley), officially designated 1P/Halley, is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–76 years. Halley is the only known short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth, and the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Halley last appeared in the inner parts of the Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.", "The Rosetta spacecraft captured this image of a jet of white debris spraying from Comet 67P/Churyumov--Gerasimenko on July 29, 2015. Mission scientists said this was the brightest jet seen to date in the mission. The debris is mostly of ice coated with dark organic material.", "The sky, for the most part, is predictable; the Sun rises and sets, the Moon goes through its phases, and the constellations appear pretty much the same on the day that you are born as the day you die. The appearance of a great comet, however, offers a wonderful exception; though many are on periodic orbits, many others enter our inner solar system unannounced, putting on dazzling displays. A bright comet may even be visible in the daytime. The recent discovery of comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) has raised some speculation that we may just be in for such an event in late 2013, with some scientists predicting that comet could be as bright as the full Moon. Here’s a compilation of 10 remarkable comets from the past few hundred years.", "Halley (comet) - The most famous periodic comet, it returns to the inner solar system every 76 years. Named after the 17th century British scientist, Edmond Halley, who first recognized its regular pattern of reappearances. Studied by a fleet of spacecraft during its 1986 appearance.", "First spotted through binoculars, the comet remained visible to the naked eye for three months and was the brightest comet seen in 20 years. Its tail was perhaps its most spectacular feature, stretching out more than 100 degrees as seen from Earth, according to NASA.", "For almost all of its life, a comet roams through the blackness of space far from Earth and Sun. One of the darkest masses of material possible, the black snowball is all but invisible. The solar system contains two major storehouses of comets. Both were proposed independently around the same time that Whipple was defining the structure and composition of comets. One lies in a belt beyond the orbit of Neptune. It includes the planet Pluto, and several observed comets of large size, more than one hundred miles across. The belt is named after Gerard Kuiper, a Dutch planetary scientist who spent most of his career at the University of Arizona in Tucson. The other repository, the ancestral home of Comet Levy, which I found in 1990, is an enormous sphere several trillion miles out. Called the Oort cloud, for Dutch astronomer Jan Oort, this sphere completely circumscribes the solar system.", "Before reaching the point, closest to the sun, comet Chury ( 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko ) has come a long way. It traveled all the way from the Kuiper Belt in the outlying areas of our solar system. It will get closer and closer to the sun and eventually disintegrate, but that’s still a long way...", "The Giotto spacecraft (Fig. 1 ), the first ESA (European Space Agency) interplanetary probe, was designed to flyby comet Halley . Launched on 2 July 1985 by an Ariane-1 rocket from Kourou, Giotto succeeded in approaching the cometary nucleus to within 600 km on 14 March 1986. Through its first accurate images of a nucleus and in situ studies of gases and dust particles within a coma, the mission has revealed the complexity of comets. Afterwards, the Giotto spacecraft was re-oriented in order to study comet Grigg-Skjellerup, which was flown by on 10 July 1992, at a nucleus distance in the 150–200 km range.", "Moreover, Comet Hyakutake's orbit meant that it had last been to the inner Solar System approximately 17,000 years earlier. Because it had probably passed close to the Sun several times before, the approach in 1996 would not be a maiden arrival from the Oort cloud, a place where comets with orbital periods of millions of years come from. Comets entering the inner Solar System for the first time may brighten rapidly before fading as they near the Sun, because a layer of highly volatile material evaporates. This was the case with Comet Kohoutek in 1973; it was initially touted as potentially spectacular, but only appeared moderately bright. Older comets show a more consistent brightening pattern. Thus, all indications suggested Comet Hyakutake would be bright.", "The most famous periodic comet. Its aphelion is beyond the orbit of Neptune, but it returns to the inner Solar System every 76 years. Named after the 17th century British scientist, Edmond Halley, who first recognised its regular pattern of reappearances. Studied by a fleet of spacecraft during its 1986 apparition, including ESA's Giotto.", "Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (formally designated D/1993 F2) was a comet that broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System.", "Halley's Comet: A specific bright comet, visible to the naked eye, whose path we can predict.", "During its 1986 apparition, Halley's Comet became the first comet to be observed in detail by spacecraft , providing the first observational data on the structure of a comet nucleus and the mechanism of coma and tail formation. [13] [14] These observations supported a number of longstanding hypotheses about comet construction, particularly Fred Whipple 's \"dirty snowball\" model, which correctly predicted that Halley would be composed of a mixture of volatile ices – such as water , carbon dioxide , and ammonia – and dust . The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, it is now understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.", "The Giotto mission was designed to study Comet P/Halley, and also studied Comet P/Grigg-Skjellerup during its extended mission. The image at the top of the page is the nucleus of Halley taken by Giotto. The major objectives of the mission were to: (1) obtain color photographs of the nucleus; (2) determine the elemental and isotopic composition of volatile components in the cometary coma, particularly parent molecules; (3) characterize the physical and chemical processes that occur in the cometary atmosphere and ionosphere; (4) determine the elemental and isotopic composition of dust particles; (5) measure the total gas-production rate and dust flux and size/mass distribution and derive the dust-to-gas ratio; and, (6) investigate the macroscopic systems of plasma flows resulting from the cometary-solar wind interaction.", "# During the period July 16, 1994, to July 22, 1994, over 20 fragments from the comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (SL9, formally designated D/1993 F2) collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere, providing the first direct observation of a collision between two Solar System objects. This impact provided useful data on the composition of Jupiter's atmosphere. ", "The impact of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 onto Jupiter represents the first time in human history that people have discovered a body in the sky and been able to predict its impact on a planet more than seconds in advance. The impact will deliver more energy to Jupiter than the largest nuclear warheads ever built, and up to a significant fraction of the energy delivered by the impact which is generally thought to have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs on Earth, roughly 65 million years ago. Earth-bound observers are taking this opportunity to observe and study the comet's collision with a planet to gain more understanding of one of the fundamental physical processes within the solar system, impacts. The discovery has spawned scientific thinking about the frequency with which comets fragment and implications related to the inventory of small bodies in the Solar System and how they modify the surface and atmospheres of the planets.", "Comet Bennett was discovered on December 28, 1969 by South African amateur astronomer John Caister (Jack) Bennett of Pretoria and attained perihelion on March 20, 1970 when the Sun was at 29 Pisces 17 and attained a maximum brightness in the high positive numbers of magnitude(+1 or +2). Its period has been estimated at around 1700 years.", "Halley is almost unique among comets in that it is both large and active and has a well defined, regular orbit. This made it a relatively easy target for Giotto et al. but may not be representative of comets in general.", "A comet is an icy small Solar System body that is leftover from the formation of the nine planets in the solar system. These phenomena are both due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind on the center of the comet. The inside of comets is loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles, ranging from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across. Generally considered bad omens, comets have been observed since ancient times.The orbital periods of comets range from a few years to hundreds of thousands of years. Short-period comets originate in the  Kuiper Belt  beyond the orbit of Neptune. Longer-period comets are", "Both the coma and tail are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible from Earth when a comet passes through the inner solar system, the dust reflecting sunlight directly and the gases glowing from ionisation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye.", "The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230,000 AU (1.1 parsecs (3.6 light-years)). All comets with parabolic and slightly hyperbolic orbits belong to the Solar System and had certain orbital periods, generally hundreds of thousand, or millions of years before being perturbed onto an ejection trajectory.", "A comet is an icy small Solar System body (SSSB) that, when close enough to the Sun , displays a visible coma (a thin, fuzzy, temporary atmosphere ) and sometimes also a tail . These phenomena are both due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus of the comet . Comet nuclei range from a few hundred meters to tens of kilometers across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. Comets have been observed since ancient times and have traditionally been considered bad omens .", "Usually a small, bright nucleus (less than 10 km in diameter) is visible in the middle of the coma. The coma and the nucleus together constitute the head of the comet.", "visible in 4-inch and larger telescopes. Click HERE for the latest views of the comet with the STEREO-B (behind) solar telescope.", "At the time of its discovery, the comet was shining at magnitude 11.0 and had a coma approximately 2.5 arcminutes across. It was approximately 2 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun. Later, a pre-discovery image of the comet was found on a photograph taken on January 1, when the comet was about 2.4 AU from the Sun and had a magnitude of 13.3. ", "Our data about Comet Halley may not be representative of comets in general. When will the next spacecraft encounter a comet?", "Prof. George Gloeckler, the principal investigator on the Solar Wind Ion Composition Spectrometer (SWICS), said the discovery was important as the composition of comets told them about conditions approximately 4.5 billion years ago when the Solar System was formed. \"Here we got a direct sample of this ancient material which gives us the best information on cometary composition. We're still in the process of figuring out what it tells us. We're contributing part of the whole puzzle\".", "The total energy will be negative if the comet is bound to the sun, i.e., if it has an elliptical orbit and not a hyperbolic one; the total energy will be positive if the comet is unbound and has a hyperbolic orbit about the sun. " ]

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[ "If placed at the center of our Solar System, it would extend to the orbit of the Earth.", "What would you see on a journey to the centre of the Earth? | New Humanist", "However, NML Cygni is one of the largest that we’ve discovered. It has a radius about 1,650 times the Sun’s. If it were placed at the center of our Solar System, its surface would extend beyond many of our planets. So say goodbye to Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, etc., and all of their various moons. And this doesn’t even take into account the amazing solar storms that would emanate from this beast. If we were to consider all the stellar activity, few things in our solar system would have a chance of survival.", "The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System, and its gravity holds all the planets in place.", "The sun is at the centre of our solar system, which is on the edge of the Milky Way galaxy. ‘Solar’ means anything to do with the sun. The Earth, the other seven planets, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids, meteors and other celestial objects in our solar system all orbit the sun.", "The Solar System's location in the Milky Way is a factor in the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Its orbit is close to circular, and orbits near the Sun are at roughly the same speed as that of the spiral arms. Therefore, the Sun passes through arms only rarely. Because spiral arms are home to a far larger concentration of supernovae, gravitational instabilities, and radiation that could disrupt the Solar System, this has given Earth long periods of stability for life to evolve. The Solar System also lies well outside the star-crowded environs of the galactic centre. Near the centre, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. The intense radiation of the galactic centre could also interfere with the development of complex life. Even at the Solar System's current location, some scientists have speculated that recent supernovae may have adversely affected life in the last 35,000 years, by flinging pieces of expelled stellar core towards the Sun, as radioactive dust grains and larger, comet-like bodies. ", "Center is the sun, followed by four terrestrial planet, the asteroid belt, then jovan planets, the kuiper belt of comet, and then the big spherical oort cloud surrounding.", "If You Could Tour The Solar System At The Speed Of Light, It Might Look Like This", "The middle region of the Solar System is home to the gas giants and their planet-sized satellites. Many short period comets, including the centaurs, also lie in this region. It is occasionally referred to as the \"outer Solar System\", although recently that term has been more often applied to the region beyond Neptune. The solid objects in this region are composed of a higher proportion of \"ices\" (water, ammonia, methane) than the rocky denizens of the inner Solar System.", "The solar system is divided in three parts (the sun excluded): the inner rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars), the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune), and the outermost part: The Kuiper belt objects , which Pluto is a part of. This region of the solar system is left vastly unexplored till today. It contains small icy objects that are the material from which the solar system was created (and, to an extent, from which life was created on Earth). Also, the Kuiper belt contains comets that impact the Earth from time to time. Gaining an understanding of this region could give us more safety.", "The solar system appears to have a very remarkable orbit. It is both extremely close to being circular, and at nearly the exact distance at which the orbital speed matches the speed of the compression waves that form the spiral arms. The solar system appears to have remained between spiral arms for most of the existence of life on Earth. The radiation from supernovae in spiral arms could theoretically sterilize planetary surfaces, preventing the formation of large animal life on land. By remaining out of the spiral arms, Earth may be unusually free to form large animal life on its surface. The solar system also lies well outside the star-crowded environs of the galactic centre. The opposing gravitational tugs from so many close stars within the galactic centre would have prevented planets from forming.", "a theory of the formation and evolution of the solar system with the sun at the center", "The solar system is subdivided into the inner planets, the asteroid belt , and the outer planets. The inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury, Venus , Earth, and Mars. The outer gas giant planets are Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus, and Neptune. Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt, and finally the Oort Cloud, which may extend as far as a light-year.", "The standard theory of the planets involved an eccentric circle , which carried an epicycle . Imagine looking down on the plane of the solar system from above its north pole. The planet moves counterclockwise on its epicycle. Meanwhile, the centre of the epicycle moves counterclockwise around the eccentric circle, which is centred near (but not quite exactly at) Earth. As viewed from Earth, the planet will appear to move backward (that is, go into retrograde motion) when it is at the inner part of the epicycle (closest to Earth), for this is when the westward motion of the planet on the epicycle is more than enough to overcome the eastward motion of the epicycle’s centre forward around the eccentric.", "A mode of the solar system which is centered on the Sun, with the Earth in motion about the Sun.", "During the past three decades a myriad of space explorers have escaped the confines of planet Earth and have set out to discover our planetary neighbors. This picture shows the Sun and all nine planets of the solar system as seen by the space explorers. Starting at the top-left corner is the Sun followed by the planets Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , Neptune , and Pluto . (Copyright 1998 by Calvin J. Hamilton)", "The inner solar system contains the Sun , Mercury , Venus , Earth and Mars :", "In keeping with years of previous research published here on Enterprise, would it surprise anyone to learn that the answer to those questions could lead us all the way back across the solar system � from the distant, icy realm of Saturn � back to�", "Solar System. The system containing the sun and all the smaller bodies in orbit around it.", "The smallest planet of our solar system holds some big mysteries for secular astronomers, and it continues to delight creationists. Mercury is only 38 percent the diameter of Earth, making it the smallest and least massive of the eight planets. It is the innermost planet of the solar system, orbiting the sun at a distance of only 36 million miles. That is nearly three times closer to the sun than Earth is. Mercury is a solid, rocky world, with only a trace of an atmosphere. It has mountains, valleys, plains, and craters—lots and lots of craters! In appearance, Mercury resembles a 40 percent larger (in radius) version of the moon. But when it comes to creation research of the early solar system, Mercury provides many interesting clues. The unusual characteristics of this world make for an intriguing study.", "Interior to the G ring and above the brighter main rings is the pale dot of Earth. Cassini views its point of origin from over a billion kilometers (and close to a billion miles) away in the icy depths of the outer solar system.", "Apollo 12: Also right in the centre of the Earth, now we have some real bright light shining, staying on that, Dick is looking at it with binoculars. It’s real bright.", "You may also like to take a gander at The Solar System And Beyond: A Guide To The Cosmos .", "(i) The central region of the Earth, surrounded by the mantle. (ii) The central region of any planet or star.", "In the next (and last) section of notes you'll learn about the rest of the stuff in the solar system. This is mainly small stuff, but as you'll see, it can have a big impact.", "Earth and Moon transit the solar disk, seen from an outer planet during a “special” opposition when the planet is near the Line of Nodes. Credits: P. Molaro, et al., from arXiv 1509.01136, 2015", "The sun and everything that orbits it, including the planetary, moons, and many small bodies found in interplanetary space", "One of the four innermost planets of the solar system, resembling the Earth in general physical and chemical properties.", "Still from his place sitting at the console, Ianto pointed to an area of the projection. \"The transmat delivers to that point. Right on the edge of the solar system.\"", "Here's a look at the innermost planets of the solar system in order of increasing eccentricity:", "Views of the Solar System Copyright © 1995-2011 by Calvin J. Hamilton . All rights reserved. Privacy Statement .", "Is there life elsewhere in the solar system? If not, why is Earth special? (Updated June 2014)" ]

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[ "Planets are generally divided into two main types: large, low-density  gas giants , and smaller, rocky  terrestrials . Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order of increasing distance from the  Sun , they are the four terrestrials, Mercury ,  Venus ,  Earth , and  Mars , then the four gas giants,  Jupiter ,  Saturn , Uranus , and  Neptune . Six of the planets are orbited by one or more  natural satellites . Additionally, the Solar System also contains at least five  dwarf planets [3] and hundreds of thousands of  small solar system bodies .", "The Solar System or solar system[1] comprises the Sun and the retinue of celestial objects gravitationally bound to it: the eight planets, their 162 known moons,[2] three currently identified dwarf planets and their four known moons, and thousands of small bodies. This last category includes asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and interplanetary dust.", "Planets are generally divided into two main types: large, low-density gas giants , and smaller, rocky terrestrials . Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order from the Sun , they are the four terrestrials, Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars , then the four gas giants, Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune . The Solar System also contains at least five dwarf planets : Ceres , Pluto (originally classified as the Solar System's ninth planet), Makemake , Haumea and Eris . With the exception of Mercury, Venus, Ceres and Makemake, all of these are orbited by one or more natural satellites .", "Our solar system has eight planets: Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus and Neptune .", "Our solar system (right) is one of many that are located within our galaxy, the Milky Way. Ancient astronomers who observed the points of light moving across the sky and called them planets, meaning wanderers. They further named these planets after their Roman deities. This solar system consists of nine planets (or, according to more recent debates, eight planets and one dwarf planet) which orbit the Sun. These planets, in order of distance from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. The first four planets are the rock and iron planets of the Solar System, whereas the other four are the gaseous giants with no solid surface until their core. Pluto is also a rocky planet but due to it being so far away from the Sun it is mostly rock and ice. Mars and Jupiter are separated by an asteroid belt, some of these asteroids being up to 1000km across. ", "According to the IAU 's current definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System . In increasing distance from the Sun , they are:", "You should all know that the Solar System consists of 9 planets, which all orbit around the Sun!", "The solar system is an entity that has in its vicinity eight planets (including ours), gravitating around the Sun (which gave the solar system its name) and asteroids, moons or satellites, comets, dust, gas, dwarf planets and others.", "A: There are eight planets in our Solar System; Mercury, Venus, Earth,Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Mnemonic: *My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos (Phyllis Lugger, * http://www.aas.org/cswa/bulletin.board/2006/08.25.06.html ).", "According to the IAU’s definition for planet above, there are 8 known planets in the Solar System: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.", "The solar system is the collection of objects gravitationally bound to our Sun. In addition to the Sun itself, the solar system contains at least nine planets, their approximately 150 moons, a large number of asteroids (small, rocky bodies), and comets (small, icy bodies). These objects exist in the interplanetary medium, a sparse blend of dust and gas particles.", "The solar system is a group of celestial bodies orbiting around the dwarf star called the Sun. The main members of the solar system are eight major planets, and their satellites. Other interesting members are comets, meteors and meteorites and dwarf planets. The order of the planets from the Sun from nearest to the farthest is Mercury, Venus, earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn Uranus, and Neptune.", "The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity . These objects are the eight planets and their 166 known moons, four dwarf planets and billions of small bodies, including asteroids , icy Kuiper belt objects, comets , meteoroids , and interplanetary dust.", "The IAU changed the definition  of \"planet\" so that Pluto no longer qualifies. There are officially only eight planets in our solar system. Of course this change in terminology does not affect what's actually out there. In the end, it's not very important how we classify the various objects in our solar system. What is important is to learn about their physical nature and their histories.", "(Warning: Pluto was regarded as a planet from its discovery in 1930 until 2006, but is regarded as a dwarf planet since 2006. So, from 1930 until 2006 there were 9 planets in our Solar System, but since 2006 there are only 8. \"The tenth planet \" dates from the period between 1930 and 2006, when there were 9 planets known, and refers to \"the next newly discovered planet\".)", "a spherical ball of rock and/or gas that orbits a star. The Earth is a planet. Our solar system has nine planets. These planets are, in order of increasing average distance from the Sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.", "There are 8 major planets in our solar system .There were 9 planets which including Pluto too.International Astronomical Union decided that Pluto is no longer a planet , it is a dwarf planet.There are 5 dwarf  planets .", "How I spent my vacation on Mercury There are eight planets in our solar system, which is called the Milky Way. The eight planets in", "Below is a brief overview of the eight primary planets in our solar system , in order from the inner solar system outward:", "Since Pluto no longer \"counts\" as a \"real\" planet, as it has been re-defined to be a \"dwarf planet\", we have 8 planets in our solar system.", "\"The exact number is uncertain, given that the data that we have is limited, but our calculations suggest that there are at least two planets, and probably more, within the confines of our solar system ,\" he added.", "The title The Nine Planets is somewhat misleading. In addition to the (eight) planets and their satellites the solar system contains a large number of smaller but interesting objects.", "ALAN STERN: It looked like the solar system consisted of four terrestrial planets, four giant planets and misfit Pluto, but, today, instead, we see a solar system with four terrestrial planets, four freakishly giant planets and a whole cohort of Pluto-like objects, which turn out to be the dominant class of planet in our solar system. These are typically rocky and icy objects. Many have atmospheres; many, possibly most, have moons—all the things we're used to in the planets we're familiar with but in miniature. I think a decent analogue is, if you see a Chihuahua, it's still a dog, because it has the characteristics of the canine species, just in miniature.", "There are four planets within the Solar System that have rings. All of the outer planets, often called \"gas giants,\" have a system of rings.", "I'm just going to warn you, this is a controversial topic. Some people get pretty grumpy when you ask: how many planets are in the Solar System? Is it eight, ten, or more?", "This talk of planets and dwarf planets is still a little confusing, so here’s the most recent tally: NASA currently recognizes eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, and the five named dwarf planets we listed earlier.", "In addition to Pluto there are also four other dwarf planets caught in orbits around the sun. These are Ceres, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. The planets and dwarf planets also have their own orbiting bodies. As of 2014 there are 176 identified moons in the solar system.", "Do you know how many planets and dwarf planets are in our solar system.  I thought I did, but I didn’t. ", "Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system, with a radius of 43,441 miles. That is more than 10 times Earth's 3,359-mile radius, but it is also about 16 times smaller than the Sun's radius. Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar system with a radius of 1,516 miles.", "And even now, we are still learning. In the past few decades, the total number of celestial bodies and moons that are known to orbit the Sun has expanded. We have also come to debate the definition of “planet” (a controversial topic indeed!) and introduced additional classifications – like dwarf planet, minor planet, plutoid, etc. – to account for new finds. So just how many planets are there and what is special about them? Let’s run through them one by one, shall we?", "ranus has a family of 27 moons and Neptune has 13. Even tiny Pluto– which is no longer classed as a planet – has three Moons called Charon, Nix and Hydra. That makes a total of at least 171 moons in our solar system and almost every one different from the next.", "Solar System Explanation ::-- Sun || Solar Planet || Mercury Planet || Jupitor Planet || Venus Planet || Earth Planet || Uranus Planet || Saturn Planet || Mars Planet || Neptune Planet || Dwarf Planet || Astroids || Comet ||" ]

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[ "The planet Venus was named after the Roman goddess of love, who was known to the Greek as Aphrodite . Venus was either the daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) and Dione , or of she sprung up from the sea from the severed genital of Uranus . (See Roman Deities, Venus .)", "The planet is named after Venus, the Roman goddess of love; most of its surface features are named after famous and mythological women. The adjective Venusian is commonly used for items related to Venus, though the Latin adjective is the rarely used Venerean; the now-archaic Cytherean is still occasionally encountered. Venus is the only planet in the Solar System named after a female figure, although two dwarf planets - Ceres and Eris - also have female names.", "The planet Venus was named after the Roman goddess Venus, the goddess of love and beauty. Venus was considered a major deity, and was also referred to as Aphrodite by the Greeks. Venus was married to Vulcan, but Romans believed Mars, the god of war, and Adonis were her lovers.", "The planet is named after Venus, the Roman goddess of love and beauty. After the Moon, it is the brightest natural object in the night sky, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6, bright enough to cast shadows.", "All of the planets, except for Earth, were named after Greek and Roman gods and godesses. Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus and Mercury were given their names thousands of years ago. The other planets were not discovered until much later, after telescopes were invented. The tradition of naming the planets after Greek and Roman gods and goddesses was carried on for the other planets discovered as well. Mercury was named after the Roman god of travel. Venus was named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. Mars was the Roman god of War. Jupiter was the king of the Roman gods, and Saturn was the Roman god of agriculture. Uranus was named after an ancient Greek king of the gods. Neptune was the Roman god of the Sea. Pluto, which is now classified as a dwarf planet, was the Roman god of the underworld. The name Earth is an English/German name which simply means the ground.", "Venus was the Roman goddess of love and beauty, so it is a fitting name for this brightly shining planet. The only objects in our Solar System brighter than Venus are the Sun and the Moon. Ancient civilizations thought that Venus was two different objects – the Morning Star and the Evening Star. Other civilizations have also associated the planet with love. The Babylonians called the planet Ishtar after their goddess of womanhood and love.", "The other planets of our solar system are all named for mythological beings.  Venus is the Roman goddess of love and beauty; Mars, the Roman god of war; Jupiter the king of the Roman gods.  But the Earth�what is it named for?  Dirt?", "Venus is the second planet in our solar system and is named after the goddess of love and beauty.  The goddess Aphorodite.  They named Venus after her because even though the planet is any thing but beautyfull they believe that under all that grossness and uglyness there is some beauty.  The planet does not have any moons that we know of. ", "Mars was often associated with war because of its reddish color, which can be spotted through naked-eye observations; the ancient Egyptians called it the Red One. However, there are other parallels that are unlikely to be accidental. In ancient Mesopotamia, Ishtar was the Babylonian and Assyrian counterpart of Inanna, the moody Sumerian goddess of love and fertility, identified with the planet Venus. To the Romans, Venus was the goddess of love and fertility, their equivalent of the Greek goddess Aphrodite, who was also a symbol of love and fertility.", "Venus Roman name for Aphrodite, goddess of love and sex. I don't know why our sister planet got this name. Maybe because its exceedingly dense clouds shroud it in mystery, and the ancients felt that that appropriately describes women and love.", "Venus was the Roman goddess of love and beauty. Usually equated with the Greek goddess Aphrodite, Venus was originally an Italic goddess of vegetation and patron of gardens. The daughter of Jupiter, her son was Cupid.", "*Venus: Goddess of Love and consort of Mars. Divine mother of Aeneas, ancestor of the Romans.", "In Roman mythology: Mercury was the messenger-god of Jupiter, and was the god of games, of business, and of story telling. Venus was the goddess of love and beauty. To her perfect figure and pure features she added an innocent manner. Mars was identified with the Roman god of wars. He always acted like a strong warrior and a strong desire for violence. Jupiter was the king of heaven and Earth and of all the Olympian gods. He was also known as the god of justice. In Greek mythology, Cronus was the son of Uranus and Gaea. The Romans adopted Cronus as the god Saturn. Uranus stands for the starry sky in the evening. In the creation myth of the Greeks, Uranus suddenly came out of the Earth (shown as the goddess Gaea). Gaea herself suddenly came into being out of Chaos, which came before all things. Neptune was the name that ancient Romans gave to the Greek god of the sea and earthquakes, Poseidon.", "Aphrodite -  Roman name: Venus. Aphrodite is the sweet and delicate goddess of Love, Beauty, and Romance. Even so, she often shows formidable power, as in the story of Cupid and Psyche, and is herself a principal cause of the Trojan War. In a strange twist, lovely Aphrodite is married to the ugly and crippled Hephaestus.", "Venus was a Roman goddess principally associated with love, beauty and fertility. She was the equivalent of the Greek goddess Aphrodite. Painters most often used the name Venus instead of the name Aphrodite.", "In Roman mythology , Venus was the goddess of love, sex, beauty, and fertility. She was the Roman counterpart to the Greek Aphrodite . However, Roman Venus had many abilities beyond the Greek Aphrodite; she was a goddess of victory, fertility, and even prostitution. According to Hesiod 's Theogony, Aphrodite was born of the foam from the sea after Saturn (Greek Cronus) castrated his father Uranus (Ouranus) and his blood fell to the sea. This latter explanation appears to be more a popular theory due to the countless artworks depicting Venus rising from the sea in a clam.", "The Ancient Babylonians called her Ishtar, too the Greeks she was Aphrodite and to the Romans Venus – goddess of love, fertility, and beauty. She is the brightest star in the night sky and visible even on a clear day. Some saw her as the harbinger of morning and evening, of new seasons or portentous times. She reigns as the 'Morning Star' or the 'Bringer of Light' for 260 days, and then disappears to rise again as the 'Evening Star' and the 'Bringer of Dawn.'", "The planet Venus was called the star of Aphrodite in fourth century b.c.e. Greece, recognizing it as the home of the goddess. Sometime during the Hellenic period of Alexandria, the flourishing Greek astrology began referring to the planet as simply Aphrodite. Vettius Valens, who recorded an Anthology of Hellenistic astrology in the second century c.e., wrote that the nature of Aphrodite was desire and erotic love, and that it signified the mother and nurse. The star represented priestly rites, parties, weddings, friendships, jewels and ornaments, music, beauty, the arts, as well as a variety of colors. It gave gifts of businesses, involved markets and weights and measures, bestowed favors from female royals or relatives and assured an excellent reputation. It was lord of the neck, face, and lungs, and ruled sexual intercourse. It also indicated the giving of nurturing or pleasure to another. It was the lord of precious stones and the oil of fruits, its color was white, and it belonged to the nocturnal (lunar) sect, along with Ares (Mars) and Hermes (Mercury, as evening star).", "Cupid is the ancient Roman god of Love, the counterpart of the Greek god Eros and the equivalent of Amor in Latin poetry.", "In Roman mythology, Cupid (Latin cupido, meaning \"desire\") is the god of desire, affection and erotic love. He is often portrayed as the son of the goddess Venus, with a father rarely mentioned. His Greek counterpart is Eros. Cupid is also known in Latin as Amor (\"Love\"). The Amores (plural) or amorini in the later terminology of art history are the equivalent of the Greek Erotes.", "Derived from Latin cupido meaning \"desire\". He was the Roman god of love, the son of Venus. He was portrayed as a winged, blindfolded boy, armed with a bow and arrows which caused the victim to fall in love. His Greek equivalent was Eros.", "But what about feature on, for example, the planet Mercury? These are generally named after famous authors and composers. (By the way, the naming of the celestial bodies is the task of the naming committee of the International Astronomical Union; star names have been recently sold arbitrarily along with a picture of the star, but this questionable practice has never been recognized by the IAU and such names are never used by the professional astronomical community). Thus we have craters on Mercury named Tolstoy, we have Bach crater, and the Wagner Mountain range there. On Venus, with one exception (the Maxwell mountains named after the great 19th century physicist James Clerk Maxwell) all features are named for famous women. There we can find Sacagawea crater, Florence Nightingale rile, Cleopatra caldera, and the Frejya (the Norse lady whom the day of the week, Friday is also named after) Mountains.", "The Roman poet Ovid recounts that Aphrodite bore Hermaphroditos by Hermes , who was the epitome of effeminacy and androgyny. She also bore with either Hermes or Zeus , Fortuna (Tyche) who was the personification of luck and fate within Roman religion . Venus is ascribed as the mother of the minor deity Priapus (a fertility god often characterized with an absurdly large phallus) by Bacchus. According to Pausanias , the Graces were thought to be the offspring of Venus and Bacchus, but more commonly their birth is credited to Jupiter and Euynome. However, the Graces were part of Venus' retinue along with the Cupids and Suadela, the goddess of persuasion in the realms of romance, love, and seduction.", "Cupid (1.1.175, 3.2.108)): Roman name for the Greek god of love, Eros, who shot arrows at humans to wound them with love.", "Piazzi named it \"Ceres Ferdinandea,\" after the Roman and Sicilian goddess of grain and King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Sicily. The Ferdinandea part was later dropped for political reasons. Ceres turned out to be the first, and largest, of the asteroids existing within the asteroid belt. Ceres is today called a dwarf planet.", "Of or pertaining to the Moon. Diana, the Roman goddess of the Moon, was sometimes called Cynthia for her birthplace on Mount Cynthus in Delos. [H76] Cytheran", "Like the other moons that orbit Jupiter , Callisto was named after a character from Greek mythology who had been loved by the Greek sky god Zeus, known to the Romans as Jupiter.", "A dwarf planet(950km and largest in the belt) lying within the asteroid belt, named after the Roman Goddess of agriculture.", "The Roman goddess of honor and reverence, and the wife of the god Vulcan. Some sources say that the month of May is named after her. Others say she is the goddess Maia.", "A Roman goddess (the Greek Hera).  Her chief attribute is ascribed to as the queen of heaven and as a divine watcher over the female sex.  Because of this the month of June is held most favorable for getting married.", "What is the only planet in the solar system that is not named after a Greek or Roman god?", "The above names were all derived from Roman deities and every day is associated to a body in the solar system:" ]

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[ "Comet Halley, or Halley's Comet, is without a doubt the most famous of the myriad comets that inhabit the solar system. It is named for 17th-century English astronomer Edmund Halley, who first noticed its regular 76-year orbit and was the first to realize that it was the comet which appeared shortly before the 1066 Norman Conquest of England in which King William I, \"The Conqueror,\" deposed and killed Harold II, last of the Anglo-Saxon kings of England, a pivotal event in world history depicted in the so-called Bayeux Tapestry.", "The most famous periodic comet. Its aphelion is beyond the orbit of Neptune, but it returns to the inner Solar System every 76 years. Named after the 17th century British scientist, Edmond Halley, who first recognised its regular pattern of reappearances. Studied by a fleet of spacecraft during its 1986 apparition, including ESA's Giotto.", "Comet Halley is perhaps the most famous comet in history. It was named after British astronomer Edmund Halley, who calculated its orbit. He determined that the comets seen in 1531 and 1607 were the same objects that followed a 76-year orbit. Unfortunately, Halley died in 1742, never living to see his prediction come true when the comet returned on Christmas Eve in 1758. Each time this comet's orbit approaches the Sun, its 15-km (9-mile) nucleus sheds about 6 m (7 yards) of ice and rock into space. This debris forms an orbiting trail that, when falling to Earth, is called the Orionids meteor shower. Comet Halley will return to the inner Solar System in the year 2061.", "Halley's Comet officially designated 1P/Halley) is the best-known of the comets. It is visible from Earth every 75–76 years. Halley is the only short-period comet that is clearly visible to the naked eye from Earth, and thus the only naked-eye comet that might appear twice in a human lifetime. Other naked-eye comets may be brighter and more spectacular, but will appear only once in thousands of years. The comet's periodicity was first determined in 1705 by English astronomer Edmond Halley, after whom it is now named. Halley's Comet last appeared in the inner Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.", "Edmond Halley (1656-1742) was the English astronomer who gave his name to Halley’s Comet.   He was a captain in the Royal Navy, and designed a diving bell.   He demonstrated the link between barometric pressure and altitude, and contributed to the development of actuarial science.  ", "Edmond Halley (1656-1742) was the British scientist who reviewed historical comet sightings and proposed that the comet which appeared in 1456, 1531, 1607, and 1682 were all the same, and would return in 1758. Although he died before its return, he was proven correct, and the comet was named in his honor.", "Edmond Halley: First to accurately calculate the elliptical orbit of a comet. Studied the moon. Comet named after him.", "1P/Halley is named for Edmund Halley, the first person to recognise the periodicity of this comet. After analysing a list of historic comets, he noticed that several of the comets appeared to have nearly identical orbits. These apparitions were separated by 75 year intervals so on this basis, Halley predicted that the comet would return in 1758. Sadly, Halley died before he could see if his prediction was correct but in late 1758, an amateur astronomer named Paltizsch recovered the comet which now bears Halley's name. Astronomers and historians have since found records mentioning this comet from all over the world, with the earliest dating from 240  BC in China.", "Edmond (or Edmund) Halley was an English scientist who is best known for predicting the orbit of the comet that was later named after him. Though he is remembered foremost as an astronomer, he also made significant discoveries in the fields of geophysics, mathematics, meteorology and physics.", "However, it was not until the 16th and 17th centuries that a scientific understanding of planet Earth and its structure truly began to advance. In 1692, Edmond Halley (discoverer of Halley’s Comet ) proposed what is now known as the “Hollow-Earth” theory. In a paper submitted to Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London , he put forth the idea of Earth consisting of a hollow shell about 800 km thick (~500 miles).", "1656 Birth of Edmond Halley, English astronomer and mathematician best known for the comet named after him and for his work predicting its orbit. He also produced the first meteorological chart.", "In 1986 five spacecraft were sent to encounter Halley’s Comet. They were informally known as the Halley Armada and consisted of two Japanese spacecraft, Suisei and Sakigake (Japanese for “comet” and “pioneer,” respectively); two Soviet spacecraft, Vega 1 and 2 (a contraction of Venus-Halley using Cyrillic spelling); and an ESA spacecraft, Giotto (named after the Italian painter who depicted the Star of Bethlehem as a comet in a fresco painted in 1305–06).", "Edmund Halley - English astronomer; discovered the proper motion of stars and the periodicity of comets. His activities also ranged from the studying of archaeology to serving as deputy comptroller of the mint at Chester. He was a very important part of the English scientific community at the height of its activity. A graduate of Oxford, he became a member of the Royal Society at the age of twenty two. In 1676 to 1678 from the island of Saint Helena, he cataloged the positions of about 350 Southern Hemisphere stars and observed a transit of Mercury. He worked out a theory of cometary orbits and concluded that the comet of 1682, otherwise known as Halley's comet, was periodic and correctly predicted that it would return in 76 years. In 1710, he compared current star positions with those listed in Ptolemy's catalog, he determined that the stars must have a slight motion of their own.", "Edmond Halley , astronomer, famous for computing the orbit of Halley's comet, later the second Astronomer Royal of Britain", "Edmond Halley visited Saint Helena on leaving the University of Oxford in 1676 and set up an astronomical observatory with a aerial telescope, with the intention of studying stars from the Southern Hemisphere. The site of this telescope is near Saint Mathew's Church in Hutt's Gate in the Longwood district. The 680 m high hill there is named for him and is called Halley's Mount.", "The most crucial advance in the understanding of comets came over one hundred years after Brahe's work. The English astronomer Edmond Halley (right) was very interested in the comet which he had seen in 1682. A close friend of Isaac Newton, Halley persuaded Newton to publish his work on gravitation; in fact, Halley paid for Newton's writings to be published. He then used Newton's theories of planetary motion to work out the motions of several different comets which had been seen in past years, and noticed that three of the comets - those of 1531, 1607 and the one he'd seen in 1682 - had very similar orbital paths. Halley believed that these three objects were just seperate appearances of one comet, and he predicted that, if his theory was correct, the same comet would return once again in 1759. Unfortunately, Halley died on January 14th, 1742, before he could put his prediction to the test. But on Christmas day, 1758, a German amateur astronomer called Palitzsch spotted a comet in the sky, just as Halley had predicted. So the work of Edmond Halley and Isaac Newton had finally shown that comets are not just mysterious objects which appear randomly in the sky - they follow orbits, similar to those of the planets.", "Edmund Halley (1656-1742) - Though they at first appeared to follow different laws of motion than the planets, Edmund Halley believed that comets must also be affected by gravitational pulls. In his analysis of comet observations, he realized that certain aspects of three were so similar that they must be the successive returns of a single entity whose orbit was an elongated ellipse. He then determined the periodicity of the comet and successfully predicted it would return in 1758. In addition to his study of comets, Halley discovered relative motion among the stars, which had previously been believed to be fixed. He contrived the first meteorological weather map and established accurate quantitative mortality tables. Halley also commanded the first sea voyage undertaken purely for scientific purposes, noting any compass variations that could be caused by the Earth's magnetic field.", "The scientific description of comets took another major step forward in 1705 thanks to the work of the British astronomer and physicist, Edmond Halley, a friend and patron of Isaac Newton. Investigating recorded comet measurements, he observed that the orbits of a number of bright comets were very similar: his own calculation of the orbit of a comet observed in 1682 coincided with the data recorded by Johannes Kepler in 1607 and by Apianus in 1531. He concluded that various comet observations were attributable to one and the same comet.", "The orbit of Halley's comet (shown above), for example, has its perihelion at 0.587 AU (inside the orbit of Venus), and its aphelion at 39AU--out by Pluto! Halley's comet takes 76 years to complete one orbit of the Sun. Because it regularly appears, Halley's comet is known as a \"periodic\" comet. Periodic comets are ones that have orbital periods that are relatively short, less than 200 years or so. Most comets, however, have extremely eccentric orbits, and can have periods of millions of years! Most of the time the comet is cold, and invisible. As it approaches the Sun, however, the ices begin to vaporize and form the structure we see (see figure 12.12 of the text):", "Halley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict its 1759 return. Streams of vapour observed during the comet's 1835 apparition prompted astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit. ", "The Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets, Halley's celebrated treatise, which laid the foundation of modern cometary science was rather brief. It was first published in Latin in 1705 as a six page folio pamphlet. An English version was also brought out in the same year. A longer and slightly modified Latin version also appeared in the Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society. In this treatise Halley presented the orbital features of 24 comets seen from 1337 through 1698. This information was presented in tabular form. Though Halley noted in this treatise that all the 24 comets had parabolic paths he himself believed that the true paths of comets were very eccentric ellipses. The most important observation put forward in this treatise was that the comets observed in 1531, 1607 and 1682 were the same object. Halley noted that their orbital features were identical except that the historic periods between their perihelion (the point nearest the Sun in the orbit of a planet, comet or man-made satellite) passages were different over 76 years between 1531 and 1607 and just under 75 years between 1607 and 1682.", "It was not easy for astronomers to understand what a galaxy looks like. Early viewers of the Andromeda galaxy did not imagine that it was a star system like our own. Christian Huygens (HOY-gens) thought it was a hole in the heavens through which we might peer into the luminous regions beyond. Edmond Halley (rhymes with \"valley\") agreed, suggesting that the light came from a region of perpetual day, a shining ether filled with the light that originated on the first day of creation, before the formation of the Sun, Moon and stars.", "Because its orbit comes close to Earth’s in two places, Halley is the parent body of two meteor showers: the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October. Observations conducted around the time of Halley’s appearance in 1986, however, suggest that the Eta Aquarid meteor shower might not originate from Halley’s Comet, although it might be perturbed by it.", "Alexis Clairaut was extremely precocious, delivering a math paper at age 13, and becoming the youngest person ever elected to the Paris Academy of Sciences. He developed the concept of skew curves (the earliest precursor of spatial curvature); he made very significant contributions in differential equations and mathematical physics. Clairaut supported Newton against the Continental schools, and helped translate Newton's work into French. The theories of Newton and Descartes gave different predictions for the shape of the Earth (whether the poles were flattened or pointy); Clairaut participated in Maupertuis' expedition to Lappland to measure the polar regions. Measurements at high latitudes showed the poles to be flattened: Newton was right. Clairaut worked on the theories of ellipsoids and the three-body problem, e.g. Moon's orbit. That orbit was the major mathematical challenge of the day, and there was great difficulty reconciling theory and observation. It was Clairaut who finally resolved this, by approaching the problem with more rigor than others. When Euler finally understood Clairaut's solution he called it \"the most important and profound discovery that has ever been made in mathematics.\" Later, when Halley's Comet reappeared as he had predicted, Clairaut was acclaimed as \"the new Thales.\"", "Halley’s astronomical contributions were not confined to comets, and he made notable advances in the determination of the distance of the sun, in positional and navigational astronomy, and in general stellar astronomy. Determination of the distance of the sun from the earth was crucial, since a correct evaluation was necessary before the size of the planetary system or the distances of the stars could be determined as direct values. Halley proposed evaluating the distance by observing the transit of Venus across the sun, an idea first sketched by James Gregory in 1663. Halley first assessed the practicability of the idea when he observed and timed a transit of Mercury in 1677. By recording the local time at which Mercury appeared to enter the sun’s disk and the time at which it left, and then comparing his results with those made at an observing station in a different latitude, the distance of Mercury was obtained. Using Johann Kepler’s third law of planetary motion, the distance from the earth to the sun could be found.", "The dust particles have been found to be primarily a mixture of carbon–hydrogen–oxygen–nitrogen (CHON) compounds – which are common in the outer Solar System – and silicates, like those found in terrestrial rocks. At one time, it was thought that Halley could have delivered water to Earth in the distant past – based on the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen found in the comet’s water that showed it to be chemically similar to the Earth’s oceans. However, subsequent observations have indicated that this is unlikely.", "Various related terms are used for other celestial objects. The '-gee', '-helion' and '-astron' and '-galacticon' forms are frequently used in the astronomical literature, while the other listed forms are occasionally used, although '-saturnium' has very rarely been used in the last 50 years. The '-gee' form is commonly (although incorrectly) used as a generic 'closest approach to planet' term instead of specifically applying to the Earth. The term peri/apomelasma (from the Greek root) was used by Geoffrey A. Landis in 1998 before peri/aponigricon (from the Latin) appeared in the scientific literature in 2002.", "The naming of the satellites provides an interesting example of how such matters were handled before the foundation of the International Astronomical Union in the twentieth century. As their discoverer, Galileo claimed the right to name the satellites. He wanted to name them after his patrons and asked whether they would prefer \"Cosmic Stars\" (after Cosimo II ) or \"Medicean Stars.\" They opted for the latter, and through much of the seventeenth century they were known by that name. In his notebooks, Galileo referred to them individually by number, starting with the satellite closest to Jupiter, but he never had occasion to refer to them in this way in print.", "The spacecraft is named in honor of the first modern astronomer --- Galileo Galilei. He made the first observations of the heavens using a telescope in 1610.", "In 1610, Galileo Galilei aimed his telescope at Jupiter and spotted four points of light orbiting the planet. For the first time, humans had seen the moons of another world. In honor of their discoverer, these four bodies would become known as the Galilean satellites or moons. But Galileo might have happily traded this honor for one look at the dazzling photographs returned by the Voyager spacecraft as they flew past these planet-sized satellites.", "[Wiki]: “The missions also provided data that substantially reformed and reconfigured these ideas; for instance, now it is understood that the surface of Halley is largely composed of dusty, non-volatile materials, and that only a small portion of it is icy.”", "The IAU has been the arbiter of planetary and satellite nomenclature since its inception in 1919. The various IAU Working Groups normally handle this process, and their decisions primarily affect the professional astronomers. But from time to time the IAU takes decisions and makes recommendations on issues concerning astronomical matters affecting other sciences or the public. Such decisions and recommendations are not enforceable by any national or international law; rather they establish conventions that are meant to help our understanding of astronomical objects and processes. Hence, IAU recommendations should rest on well-established scientific facts and have a broad consensus in the community concerned." ]

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[ "Sputnik 1 (/ˈspʌtnɪk/; Russian: Спутник-1 [ˈsputnʲɪk] \"Satellite-1\", or ПС-1 [\"PS-1\", i.e., Russian: Простейший Спутник-1 \"Elementary Satellite 1\"]) was the first artificial Earth satellite. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957. It was a 58 cm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennae to broadcast radio pulses. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses were detectable. This surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.", "The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1 , launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program , with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.", "The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States.", "The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. Artificial satellites originate from more than 40 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. About a thousand satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Vesta, Eros, Ceres, and the Sun.", "On Oct. 4, 1957, the Soviets launched “Sputnik,” which was the world’s first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into the Earth’s orbit. Sputnik’s launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans. In the United States, space was seen as the next frontier, a logical extension of the grand American tradition of exploration, and it was crucial not to lose too much ground to the Soviets.", "On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. The name comes from a Russian word for \"traveling companion of the world.\" It was a smallish metal ball that weighed just 83 kg (184 lbs.), and was lofted into space by an R7 rocket. It carried a thermometer and two radio transmitters. Circling Earth once every 96.2 minutes, it transmitted atmospheric information by radio for 21 days. Just 57 days after its launch, Sputnik was destroyed while reentering the atmosphere. The whole mission was a major shock to the world, especially in the United States, and it triggered the start of the Space Age. ", "Sputnik was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit (LEO) by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments; while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layer's density, through measuring the satellite's orbital changes. It also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellite's false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now at the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers (18,000 mi) per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit, and emitted radio signals at 20.005 and 40.002 MHz", "The first artificial satellite, Sputnik, launched by the Russians on October 4, 1957. Photo courtesy of NASA.", "Although studies from earth using optical and radio telescopes had accumulated much data on the nature of celestial bodies, it was not until after World War II that the development of powerful rockets made direct space exploration a technological possibility. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik I, was launched by the USSR (now Russia) on Oct. 4, 1957, and spurred the dormant U.S. program into action, leading to an international competition popularly known as the \"space race.\" Explorer I, the first American satellite, was launched on Jan. 31, 1958. Although earth-orbiting satellites have by far accounted for the great majority of launches in the space program, even more information on the moon, other planets, and the sun has been acquired by space probes.", "Sputnik 1 launched on a Soviet R-7 rocket to Earth orbit on October 4, 1957, the first artificial satellite in space.", "Following pressure by the American Rocket Society , the National Science Foundation , and the International Geophysical Year, military interest picked up and in early 1955 the Army and Navy were working on Project Orbiter , two competing programs: the army's which involved using a Jupiter C rocket , and the civilian/Navy Vanguard Rocket, to launch a satellite. At first, they failed: initial preference was given to the Vanguard program, whose first attempt at orbiting a satellite resulted in the explosion of the launch vehicle on national television. But finally, three months after Sputnik 2, the project succeeded; Explorer 1 became the United States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958. [15]", "For years, Newton and many other scientists before he had wondered what kept the moon and planets in orbit. Newton's work in this area, led not only to an understanding of gravity which is the attraction of bodies toward the center of the earth, but to theories on how an artificial satellite might be sent into orbit. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was finally launched in the year 1957, but only with the use of Newton's theories.", "Part of this fascination is because the success of Glenn's Friendship 7 flight altered the tide in the fierce Cold War competition between the U.S. and the former Soviet Union. The Soviets launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik I, in October 1957, four years later, Gagarin became the first person to reach space (and the first to orbit Earth) on April 12, 1961.", "The first artificial object sent into space was the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 , which was launched in space in 1957, successfully orbited the Earth for months, and collected information on the density of the upper atmosphere and the ionosphere. The American probe Explorer 6 , launched in 1959, was the first satellite to capture images of the Earth from space.", "Piloted spacecraft in orbit, such as space capsules, space shuttle orbiters, and space stations, are also considered artificial satellites. So, too, are orbiting pieces of \"space junk,\" such as burned-out rocket boosters and empty fuel tanks that have not fallen to Earth. But this article does not deal with these kinds of artificial satellites. Artificial satellites differ from natural satellites, natural objects that orbit a planet. Earth's moon is a natural satellite. The Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957. Since then, the United States and about 40 other countries have developed, launched, and operated satellites. Today, about 3,000 OCTOBER", "* The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth on October 4, 1957.", "Did you know that the Soviet satellite Sputnik was the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth?", "History changed on October 4, 1957, when the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik I. The world's first artificial satellite was about the size of a beach ball (58 cm.or 22.8 inches in diameter), weighed only 83.6 kg. or 183.9 pounds, and took about 98 minutes to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path. That launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments. While the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the space age and the U.S.-U.S.S.R space race.", "The early dreamers of satellites were an intricate part in the development of the artificial satellite. With ideas of Hale and the first satellite, along with the discovery of gravity by Newton, and the ideas for propelling the satellite with a rocket by Konstantin they all led to the development of an artificial satellite.", "The first artificial satellite was launched just over 50 years ago. Thousands are now in orbit around Earth. Satellites have orbited other objects in the solar system. These include the Moon, the Sun, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Satellites have many different purposes.", "communications satellite artificial satellite that functions as part of a global radio-communications network. Echo 1, the first communications satellite, launched in 1960, was an instrumented inflatable sphere that passively reflected radio signals back to earth. Later satellites carried with them electronic devices for receiving, amplifying, and rebroadcasting signals to earth. Relay 1, launched in 1962 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), was the basis for Telstar 1, a commercially sponsored experimental satellite. Geosynchronous orbits (in which the satellite remains over a single spot on the earth's surface) were first used by NASA's Syncom series and Early Bird (later renamed Intelsat 1 ), the world's first commercial communications satellite.", "The United States and Russia were the first two nations to draw plans for an artificial satellite. In 1955, the United States and Russia publicly announced their proposals concerning the construction of satellites. Within two years, Russia accomplished their goal, and the United States followed closely behind.", "Satellites have been blasted to space from Australia. On October 28, 1971, Great Britain became the sixth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite, named Black Knight 1, rode atop a rocket called Black Arrow in a launch from Woomera, Australia.", "The first successful U.S. satellite, Explorer I, was launched into Earth orbit by the Army on Jan. 31, 1958, at Cape Canaveral, Florida, four months after Russia orbited Sputnik. The 18-pound satellite had a cylindrical shape and was 80 inches long and six inches in diameter.", "The first fictional depiction of a satellite being launched into orbit is a short story by Edward Everett Hale, The Brick Moon. The story is serialized in The Atlantic Monthly, starting in 1869. The idea surfaces again in Jules Verne's The Begum's Fortune (1879).", "Unfortunately before the United States could successfully launch the Explorer 1 the Soviet Union had launched their second satellite, Sputnik 2. The United States' failure to launch a satellite was embarrassing since Russia already had two orbiting the earth. Sputnik 2 is known for its development in satellite technology. It was on November 3, 1957 that Sputnik 2 carried a female dog named Lakia (\"barker\") into orbit. Lakia was the first living creature to orbit the Earth. Sputnik 2's orbit pattern was elliptical, similar to that of the first Sputnik.", "Inside view An artificial satellite is a manufactured object that continuously orbits Earth or some other body in space. Most artificial satellites orbit Earth. People use them to study the universe, help forecast the weather, transfer telephone calls over the oceans, assist in the navigation of ships and aircraft, monitor crops and other resources, and support military activities. Artificial satellites also have orbited the moon, the sun, asteroids, and the planets Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. Such satellites mainly gather information about the bodies they orbit.", "Explorer 1 was also not the United States’ first attempt at an orbiting satellite. The US Navy attempted to put the first US satellite into orbit with the launch of the Vanguard TV3 in December 1957. The Vanguard launch ended in explosion and caused much embarrassment for the infant space program.", "Back in 1970, China became the fifth nation in the world to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. That satellite, Mao-1, rode atop a Long March-1 rocket from Jiuquan.", "The US would likely have had the first satellite in orbit if they had been allowed to use military rockets from the start. However, Eisenhower was worried he would be called a warmonger if he used military rockets for space. He told the scientists they must use research rockets instead.", "A satellite orbits a larger object. Moons are natural satellites. Artificial satellites are made by humans.", "The Space Flight Committee of the American Rocket Society issues a report on the application of artificial satellites. ( 791 )" ]

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[ "On January 28, 1986, the 25th Space Shuttle mission, STS 51-L, ended in tragedy shortly after launch. The Challenger orbiter was destroyed, and the seven crew members died.", "The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when Space Shuttle Challenger (mission STS-51-L) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members.", "The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the NASA Space Shuttle orbiter Challenger (OV-099) (mission STS-51-L) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members, which included five NASA astronauts and two Payload Specialists. The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 11:39 EST (16:39 UTC). Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster (SRB) failed at liftoff. The O-ring was not designed to fly under unusually cold conditions as in this launch. Its failure caused a breach in the SRB joint it sealed, allowing pressurized burning gas from within the solid rocket motor to reach the outside and impinge upon the adjacent SRB aft field joint attachment hardware and external fuel tank. This led to the separation of the right-hand SRB's aft field joint attachment and the structural failure of the external tank. Aerodynamic forces broke up the orbiter.", "1986 - Challenger Disaster / U.S.A. - January 28th, 1986: \"The space shuttle Challenger soared into the sky and then disintegrated spectacularly after just 73 seconds. The shocking moment of destruction, when seven lives were atomised, provided one of the decade's most awesome images.\"", "On Jan. 28, 1986, Space Shuttle Challenger (OV-099) (mission STS-51-L) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members. The Shuttle Program was grounded until a cause and a fix could be made.", "The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members.", "FILE - The Space Shuttle orbiter Challenger is destroyed by an explosion shortly after it lifted off from Kennedy Space Center on Jan. 28, 1986. Thursday, Jan. 28, 2016, marks the 30th anniversary of the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members. (AP Photo/Steve Helber, File)", "This photo, taken seconds after the explosion of the Challenger space shuttle on Jan. 28, 1986, at Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The seven crew members perished in the explosion. One of the shuttle's booster rockets, whose faulty O-rings were blamed for the disaster, shoots off to the right. (AP Photo/NASA)", "On 28 January 1986 American space shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after launch, killing all seven on board.", "The Space Shuttle Challenger 51-L was the 25th mission in NASA's STS program. On Jan. 28, 1986, STS 51-L exploded shortly after liftoff, destroying the vehicle and all of its seven crew members.", "A solid fuel rocket booster disappears behind the contrail of the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger 28 January 1986 over Kennedy Space Center as debris from the orbiter begins to fall to earth. The US space shuttle exploded seconds after lift-off, killing it crew of seven. Challenger was 72 seconds into its flight, travelling at nearly 2,000 mph at a height of ten miles, when it was suddenly envelope in a red, orange and white fireball as thousands of tons of liquid hydrogen and oxygen fuel exploded. AFP PHOTO BOB PEARSON (Photo credit should read BOB PEARSON/AFP/Getty Images)", "On January 28, 1986, a seven-person crew, including the first civilian headed to space, teacher Christa McAuliffe , took their seats inside the Challenger. Seconds after lift-off, with thousands of Americans watching, the Challenger exploded into fragments in the air. All seven on board were killed, four of whom were from Sally Ride’s 1977 training class. This public disaster was a great blow to NASA’s space shuttle program , resulting in grounding of all space shuttles for three years.", "CHALLENGER SPACE SHUTTLE- CASE ANALYSIS... On January 28, 1986, seven astronauts were killed when the space shuttle they were piloting, the Challenger, exploded just over a minute into the flight. The failure of the solid rocket booster O-rings to seat properly allowed hot combustion gases to leak from the side of the booster and burn through the external fuel tank. The failure of the O-ring was attributed to several...", "Picture taken 28 January 1986 showing the solid fuel rocket booster of the space shuttle Challenger starting to explode over Kennedy Space Center. The US space shuttle exploded seconds after lift-off, killing it crew of seven. Challenger was 72 seconds into its flight, travelling at nearly 2,000 mph at a height of ten miles, when it was suddenly envelope in a red, orange and white fireball as thousands of tons of liquid hydrogen and oxygen fuel exploded. AFP PHOTO BOB PEARSON (Photo credit should read BOB PEARSON/AFP/Getty Images)", "US space shuttle Challenger lifts off 28 January 1986 from a launch pad at Kennedy Space Center, 72 seconds before its explosion killing it crew of seven. Challenger was 72 seconds into its flight, travelling at nearly 2,000 mph at a height of ten miles, when it was suddenly envelope in a red, orange and white fireball as thousands of tons of liquid hydrogen and oxygen fuel exploded. AFP PHOTO NASA (Photo credit should read BOB PEARSON/AFP/Getty Images)", "The only crew fatality during launch occurred on January 28, 1986, when the Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart 73 seconds after liftoff, due to failure of a solid rocket booster seal which caused separation of the booster and failure of the external fuel tank, resulting in explosion of the fuel. All seven crew members were killed.", "The first Space Shuttle Disaster was Challenger which was lost during an explosion as it took off from Cape Canaveral on January 28, 1986, killing all seven people on board. NASA suspended shuttle flights for two years.", "The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after lifting off from Kennedy Space Center, Fla., Tuesday, Jan. 28, 1986. All seven crew members died in the explosion, which was blamed on faulty o-rings in the shuttle's booster rockets. The Challenger's crew was honored with burials at Arlington National Cemetery. (AP Photo/Bruce Weaver)", "1986/01/28 11 - Space shuttle Challenger explodes 73 seconds after liftoff, killing all seven crew members. It is the worst accident in the history of the U.S. space program.", "The left side of the Space Shuttle Challenger is seen in a hangar at Kennedy Space Center, Fla., April 9, 1986. Reporters and photographers were allowed to see the wreckage of the shuttle for the first time today. The Challenger exploded just after takeoff on Jan. 28, killing all seven crew members. (AP Photo/Doug Jennings)", "* January 28 – Space Shuttle Challenger disaster – STS-51-L: Space Shuttle Challenger disintegrates 73 seconds after launch from the United States, killing the crew of 7 astronauts, including schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe.", "astronaut: mission specialist aboard ill-fated space shuttle Challenger [he was killed when shuttle exploded 1 minute 13 seconds after launch Jan 28, 1986]", "28 January – NASA's Space Shuttle Challenger spacecraft disintegrates. Pictures from CNN in the United States (owned by Turner Broadcasting System, then owners of American superstation WTBS), are aired in countries around the world.", "Challenger broke apart 73 seconds after launch on Jan. 28, 1986, at the beginning of the orbiter's 10th flight. Seven astronauts died in a horrific accident caused by a faulty seal on one of the shuttle's twin solid rocket boosters, which was aggravated by exceptionally cold weather.", "The Space Shuttle Challenger Tragedy - On January 28, 1968 the space shuttle Challenger was deployed from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. One minute and thirteen seconds after liftoff the spaceship ignited in mid air and all seven crew members were killed. The cause of the destruction of the challenger was a certain part of rubber that relieves pressure on the side of the actual rocket booster called an O-ring. When a space shuttle as used as the Challenger is about to be used for another mission there should be an even more careful with checking everything before liftoff....   [tags: NASA, space exploration]", "Columbia, U.S. space shuttle. On its 28th flight, on Feb. 1, 2003, after completing a 16-day scientific mission, the spacecraft disintegrated during reentry, killing its seven-person crew. About 16 minutes before its expected landing at the Kennedy Space Center, when Columbia was about 203,000 ft (61,900 m) above Texas, communication with the spacecraft was lost; shortly thereafter reports of falling debris began coming in from E Texas and Louisiana. The disaster, the second in the space shuttle program (see also Challenger ), led to the suspension of shuttle flights.", "At 08:59 Eastern Standard Time, on February 1st, 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated in mid-air, 209,000 feet over Texas. The incident was caused by failure of protective tiles designed to deflect the intense heat of re-entry. These tiles had been damaged during launch, and consequently hot gases were able to destroy the left wing of the shuttle during the landing attempt, which led to its destabilization and break-up. All 7 crew members on board were killed.", "on January 28, 1986. The crew—Mission commander Francis R. Scobee, pilot Michael J. Smith, mission specialists Ronald E. McNair, Ellison S. Onizuka and Judith A. Resnick, and payload specialists Gregory B. Jarvis and Christa McAuliffe, a high school teacher from New Hampshire—died in the accident.", "terrible decision making that marked the morning of the 28th of January 1986 as a terribly tragic disaster. What it sadder is that this... disaster was mainly due to inhumane practices conducted by the NASA and the management bodies of companies associated with this project than natural reasons. The whistleblowing led to the loss of billions of dollars and more importantly loss of 7 innocent lives. The space shuttle was propelled by the two attached Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) and an external fuel tank. The...", "In 1986, Which US space shuttle went up in flames immediately after its launch, killing all seven astronauts?", "Killed in the explosion were astronauts Francis \"Dick\" Scobee, Ronald McNair, Mike Smith, Ellison Onizuka, Judy Resnik, Greg Jarvis and Connecticut teacher Christa McAuliffe. McAuliffe was slated to become the first teacher in space during the mission, boosting national attention on the spaceflight. It would take NASA three years to resume flying the shuttle.", "Columbia was the oldest shuttle in the NASA fleet. It first was launched in 1981. The fatal flight was its 28th mission." ]

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[ "What will be the ultimate fate of the sun and inner solar system and roughly when will this happen?", "Yes, It will die. The sun is a star in the galaxy MilkyWay. Every star has a birth, growth and death. When the nuclear fusion stops, the Sun will gradually die and become a White Dwarf and eventually become a Black Dwarf. Because the Sun is a low mass star, it will not explode like a super nova and become a black hole.", "Well, first, let me assure you that the Sun has no intention of doing any such thing. Only stars that weigh considerably more than the Sun end their lives as black holes. The Sun is going to stay roughly the way it is for another five billion years or so. Then it will go through a brief phase as a red giant star, during which time it will expand to engulf the planets Mercury and Venus, and make life quite uncomfortable on Earth (oceans boiling, atmosphere escaping, that sort of thing). After that, the Sun will end its life by becoming a boring white dwarf star. If I were you, I'd make plans to move somewhere far away before any of this happens. I also wouldn't buy any of those 8-billion-year government bonds.", "At the end of its lifetime, the sun will swell up into a red giant , expanding out beyond the orbit of Venus. As it burns through its fuel, it will eventually collapse. The outer layers will be ejected in a shell of gas that will last a few tens of thousands of years before spreading into the vastness of space. The small core, a newly formed white dwarf, will illuminate those layers in a dazzling, predominantly blue-green display. [ VIDEO: Earth to Be Consumed By Red Giant Star ]", "The future of the Earth is linked to the fate of the Sun. The Sun is halfway through its life cycle and will exhaust its supply of hydrogen fuel in around 4,000 million years. As the Sun cools, its core will collapse and its atmosphere will expand transforming the Sun into a red giant star. The swelling Sun will engulf the planets closest to it, and the Earth will be completely vaporized. The Sun will die in several stages. When its core crashes inwards, it will start fusing helium atoms into carbon. When the helium supply runs out, the center will collapse again and form a white dwarf star that will become dimmer until its light finally fades. The final collapse of stars which are a few times larger than the Sun ends in a massive supernova explosion that leaves behind a rapidly spinning neutron star.", "Several billion years from now, the hydrogen inside of the sun will run out, and the star will swell up into a red giant with a radius extending to Earth's orbit. The helium at its core will also be consumed. The star will never be hot enough to burn the oxygen and carbon that are left behind, so the sun will fizzle out and become a white dwarf.", "We already know that medium mass stars, like our Sun, become red giants. But what happens after that? Our red giant Sun will still be eating up helium and cranking out carbon. But when it's finished its helium, it isn't quite hot enough to be able to burn the carbon it created. What now?", "Eventually, though, the hydrogen in the sun's outer core will get depleted, and the sun will start to collapse once again, triggering another cycle of fusion. For about 2 billion years the sun will fuse helium into carbon and some oxygen, but there's less energy in those reactions. Once the last bits of helium turn into heavier elements, there's no more radiant energy to keep the sun puffed up against it's own weight. The core will shrink into a white dwarf. The distended sun's outer layers are only weakly bound to the core because they are so far away from it, so when the core collapses it will leave the outer layers of its atmosphere behind. The result is a planetary nebula.", "But after the death, the sun's radius will not reduce to 3 Kms, it is not massive enough to reach that radius. Its radius will remain more than 3 Kms. Hence the sun will not become a black hole but remain as a black dwarf star.", "The core of the Sun will eventually run out of hydrogen fuel because it has all been fused into helium. Without hydrogen as fuel, the outward explosions generated from the nuclear fusion no longer counteract the force of gravity. The outer layers of the star begin to collapse and the star builds up heat and pressure again, just as it did when it was born. This newly generated heat temporarily counteracts the force of gravity and the outer layers, still mostly hydrogen, are then pushed outward. The atmosphere of the star expands greatly and it becomes a red giant. At this point, the Sun will become a few hundred times bigger and the surface of the Sun would extend out past the orbit of Mars. As nuclear evolution continues, the Sun may become a variable, pulsating in size and brightness over periods of several months to a year. The visual brightness of such a star may vary by a factor of 100.", "Instead, once the hydrogen in the core is exhausted in 5.4 billion years, the Sun will begin to expand and become a red giant. It is hypothesized that it will grow large enough to encompass the orbit’s of Mercury, Venus, and maybe even Earth .", "This, then, is the fate of our Sun and the stars like it - ending its life as a dense body not much larger than the Earth. But before the sun reaches this stage, the Earth and all the inner planets will have been consumed in the fiercely hot atmosphere of the red giant which our star will first become.", "When a star gets bigger, its heat spreads out, making its overall temperature cooler. But the core temperature of our red giant Sun increases until it's finally hot enough to fuse the helium created from hydrogen fusion. Eventually, it will transform the helium into carbon and other heavier elements . The Sun will only spend one billion years as a red giant, as opposed to the nearly 10 billion it spent busily burning hydrogen.", "The Sun is about 4.5 billion years old. Since its birth it has used up about half of the hydrogen in its core. It will continue to radiate \"peacefully\" for another 5 billion years or so (although its luminosity will approximately double in that time). But eventually it will run out of hydrogen fuel. It will then be forced into radical changes which, though commonplace by stellar standards, will result in the total destruction of the Earth (and probably the creation of a planetary nebula)", "The exposed surface of the searing solar core will be so hot, at least 170,000 K°, that it will emit more x-rays than visible light.  (Post-red-giant stars are the hottest stars known, excepting neutron stars.)  Its luminosity will be a brilliant 4,000 Lo.  The Sun will have become a radiation source of truly galactic stature, its energy lighting up the escaping gas around it like a huge neon sign.  Such clouds are called planetary nebula, a misleading name, because 18th-century astronomers could barely see them with the telescopes of the time and thought that they looked like planets.  They are among the most beautiful sights in astronomy.  The photograph at right, of the nebula known as NGC 6751, is of one of my favorites.  The bright spot in the center is the post-red-giant parent star.", "The first way occurs in red giants. These are stars that have burned up all the hydrogen in their centers. When that happens, the star becomes, as the astrophysicist Craig Wheeler has put it, somewhat schizophrenic: The core loses energy, contracts, and heats up even as the envelope—the rest of the star outside the core—gains energy, expands, and cools (and appears redder). The expansion is quite, well, expansive: When our sun becomes a red giant, it will grow so large that it will engulf and evaporate the inner planets, including the Earth.", "Well, when this occurs, the core of the sun will shrink under its own gravity and become so dense that the helium atoms will begin to collide to form carbon and oxygen atoms. The collisions of said elements will churn out more energy than what the sun currently does (a lot more). This is because the current amount of energy is dependent on  the sun’s fusion of hydrogen into helium, and hydrogen and helium are the lightest elements.", "sun will form a red(cooler) giant in about 1 billion years; 140 diameter, mercury destroyed, venus∼1700ºC, earth 1400ºC, sun will collapse into white dwarf", "The beginning of the end for a red giant the mass of our Sun occurs very suddenly.  As the helium \"ashes\" continue to pile up at its center, a higher fraction of them turn electron-degenerate.  It is an odd paradox:  even as the outer layers of a red giant star are expanding into a huge but tenuous cloud, its inner core is contracting down to form a buried white dwarf.  The temperature and pressure in the Sun's core will soar to 10 times their current values.  And roughly 1.2 billion years after it leaves the main sequence, at the height of its glory as a red giant, the center of the helium core of the Sun will become sufficiently massive, dense, and hot that something amazing will happen:  within a matter of minutes, it will ignite and burn.", "Helium burning leads to higher core temperatures that would cause the sun to start swelling into a red giant, around 5 billion years from now. Simulations show the sun eventually expanding to around 250 times its current size.", "Smaller stars, however, will take a slightly more sedate path. Low- to medium-mass stars, such as the sun , will eventually swell up into red giants , eventually shedding their outer layers into a ring known as a planetary nebula (early observers thought the nebulae resembled planets such as Neptune and Uranus). The core that is left behind will be a white dwarf, a husk of a star in which no hydrogen fusion occurs.", "As the Sun exhausts the helium in the core, it desperately staves off the inevitable by resorting again to those reserves in its outer layers. Again the Sun expands. This time, it grows so large that its outer edge is only weakly gravitationally bound to the core. The Sun barely holds itself together anymore. This eleventh-hour attempt at life-support is pitifully ineffective; the final red-giant stage can be maintained for only 100 million years.", "The Sun has steadily increased in luminosity over the course of its life, increasing by 40% since it first became a main-sequence star. The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth. [49] The Maunder minimum , for example, is believed to have caused the Little Ice Age phenomenon during the Middle Ages . [50]", "Meanwhile, on the sun, the helium-burning reaction will produce strong solar winds like sun has never done before. As the material drifts from the sun’s surface and into the surrounding region, it will carry off some of its remaining hydrogen in its outermost layers, forming a brilliant planetary nebula. The resulting nebula will be visible for thousands of years to any civilizations existing within a few hundred light-years of our former stellar neighborhood.", "7. As a red giant, the Sun will have a core that is smaller than it was when the Sun was on the main sequence. HINT", "What remains outside of the white dwarf get shrugged off to form a planetary nebula. As this nebula slowly spreads into space over thousands of years, the white dwarf of what was the Sun will continue to glow away what is left of its energy over the course of the next billions of years. This white dwarf will continue to exist until it reaches conditions for a Type 1a supernova, which is explained above under the “Supernovae Models” section.", "As we approach still closer to the Sun, the spherical boundary gets to be only slightly larger than the Sun itself; the value of the current density becomes extremely large; we enter the arc mode region of the discharge. This is the region of the relatively high voltage granule.  This is the photosphere.  The intensity of the radiated light is much like an arc welding machine or motion picture projector.  A high intensity ultraviolet light is emitted. It is well-known that if the anode in a discharge is much smaller than the cathode an anode glow region often forms to increase the effective size of the anode (this is the reason the photosphere exists on the Sun).", "Now imagine an artificial sun. Around this sun we place 40 or 50 of these jars perhaps 100 kilometers apart and in a circle around the artificial sun as wagons around a campfire. In front of this circle of wagons is a large sheet of aluminum foil. The light radiating equtorially from this artificial sun is the sunlight for the wagons. The light radiating forward is captured by the aluminum foil and acts like wind on the sail of a ship propelling the wagon train through intersteller space and the light radiating backward does the same.", "The increasing identification of the hyperdimensional mechanism underlying the Sun’s primary energy production has, unfortunately, brought with it certain inevitable, potentially disquieting predictions …", "What happens to solar-mass stars once fusion is completed is discussed on the next page .", "The next step in solar fusion is the formation of an isotope of helium. A proton interacts with the deuteron particle produced in step (I), as symbolized by the equation", "Could this be what Kepler saw? Perhaps a medium sized star that was far enough away that it could not be seen without a telescope evolved into the red giant stage. Even though the red giant could get 100 times brighter, Kepler's observation showed a star getting gradually dimmer and not varying in brightness. Perhaps a giant explosion could release light that bright? What happens to a star when it dies?" ]

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[ "The years on the gas giants are very long because they are so far away from the Sun. They make bigger circles as they go around, so it takes much longer. A Jupiter year is almost 12 Earth years. On Saturn, the trip around the Sun takes nearly 30 years. A year on Uranus is 84 years long. Neptune takes almost 165 years to orbit the Sun!", "Neptune is the 8th planet from the sun, and is the farthest of the Jovian planets. It takes Neptune about 165 Earth years to rotate the sun and 16.1 Earth ours to rotate once. It is 30 time farther from the sun than Earth.", "Orbit The time Uranus takes to obit the sun in years is 84 Earth years. The time Uranus takes to orbit the sun in days is 30,687 earth days. Uranus is a very interesting planet with lots of interesting facts. One fact that is particularly interesting is that Uranus was first seen through a telescope on March 13, 1781 by a man named William Herschel.", "In our solar system, the time it takes each planet to complete an orbit around the Sun varies greatly. Inner planets have much shorter orbits - in distance and in time -- than outer planets. For example, Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, completes an orbit around the Sun in 88 days, while Earth takes one year to make a complete orbit. Pluto, whose average distance from the Sun is about 40 times greater than Earth's, takes 248 years to complete its orbit.", "As the furthest orbiting planet in the Solar System, Neptune has the longest year, taking 164.8 Earth years to complete a single orbit of the Sun. Prior to its reclassification as a dwarf planet in 2006, Pluto was the planet with the longest year, equal to about 248 Earth years.", "All planets in the Solar system orbit round the Sun.  The Earth takes just over 365 days, so the Earth’s year is 365 days.  It takes Jupiter 11.9 of the Earth’s years to make its orbit round the Sun.", "At times Pluto is the 8th planet from the Sun, and other times it is the 9th planet from the Sun. (See this image for an illustration of why this happens) Because of Pluto's great distance from the Sun, it takes a very long time to orbit the Sun. (The further a planet is away from the Sun, the slower it orbits the Sun) Pluto takes 249 years to orbit the Sun!", "The planets are far from the Sun, travel huge distances in space, and take a long time to do so. Pluto takes almost 250 years to go around the Sun completely and travels almost 23 billion miles to do so!", "Venus is the second planet near the Sun, between Mercury and Earth. It is similar in size to Earth, being only slightly smaller. Venus takes about 255 days to circle the Sun. Unlike Earth, Venus has no satellite.", "Just to give you a comparison, Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of 108.2 million km. And Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 149.6 million km. So you can see that Mercury is much closer, taking only 88 days to complete an orbit around the Sun.", "Our solar system’s three remaining planets were discovered relatively recently. Uranus, which at its brightest is barely visible as a greenish “star,” was discovered during a telescopic search in 1781. This planet takes 84 years—about the length of a human lifespan—to orbit the sun once. Backyard observers routinely spot Uranus through a pair of binoculars, provided they have a current finder chart.", "Uranus orbits the Sun lying on its side and takes 84 years to complete one orbit.  The Earth goes round the Sun in 365 days, one year.", "Astronomers discovered Eris, a Pluto-sized world, in 2003. It takes icy Eris 557 Earth years to complete a single orbit around our sun.", "It’s fun to watch Jupiter’s progress around the sun over the course of some years. Because this planet takes 12 years to orbit the sun, and because there are 12 constellations of the Zodiac, Jupiter is in a different zodiacal constellation every year. Thus this giant planet is like a literal giant, stepping around the sky—one Zodiac constellation after another—year by year.", "All of the planets (and most other objects) also orbit with the Sun's rotation; in a counter-clockwise direction as viewed from a point above the Sun's north pole. There is a direct relationship between how far away a planet is from the Sun and how quickly it orbits. Mercury, the closest to the sun, travels the fastest, while Neptune, being much farther from the Sun, travels more slowly. Objects orbit in an ellipse around the Sun, so an orbiting object's distance from the Sun varies in the course of its year. Its closest approach to the Sun is known as its perihelion while its farthest point from the Sun is called its aphelion. Although the orbits of the planets are nearly circular (with perihelions roughly equal to their aphelions), many comets, asteroids and objects of the Kuiper belt follow highly elliptical orbits with large differences between perihelion and aphelion. The paths of objects around the Sun travel according to a law of planetary motion discovered by German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 1600's. The sun is slightly off to the side of the center of each ellipse at a point called a focus. The focus is actually a point just outside the centre of the Sun called the barycenter of the solar system.", "Eris takes about 560 years to orbit the sun, and it is now very close to aphelion (the point on its orbit that is farthest from the sun). Brown next plans to use Hubble and other telescopes to study other recently discovered Kuiper Belt objects that are almost as large as Pluto and Eris. The Kuiper Belt is a vast ring of primordial icy comets and larger bodies encircling Neptune’s orbit. ", "Eris is virtually the same size as Pluto, but it's about 25 percent more massive, suggesting that Eris contains considerably more rock (and less ice) than its Kuiper Belt neighbor. Like Pluto, Eris has a highly elliptical orbit. But Eris is even more far-flung, orbiting the sun at an average distance of about 6.3 billion miles (10.1 billion km). It takes Eris 557 years to complete one lap around the sun.", "UB313 was eventually renamed \"Eris\" (the goddess of warfare and strife. \"She stirs up jealousy and envy to cause fighting and anger among men\"), and it takes 560 years to orbit the Sun! Its orbit is very eccentric, sometimes it is as close as Pluto (perihelion occurs at 38 AU), while sometimes it is more than twice as far away (aphelion occurs at 97 AU). Here is the next 1000 yrs for Pluto and Eris:", "In astronomy, the Earth's orbit is the motion of the Earth around the Sun, at an average distance of about 149.6 million kilometers (1 AU), every 365.256363 mean solar days (1 sidereal year). This motion gives an apparent movement of the Sun with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward, as seen from Earth. On average it takes 24 hours a solar day for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis relative to the Sun so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter (about 12,700 km) in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon of 384,000 km in four hours. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and the Earth, the Earth appears to revolve in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. From the same vantage point both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.", "What about Mercury?  In a similar way, Mercury is also an evening and a morning star.    Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and because it has the most elliptical orbit, its distance from the Sun ranges from 29 million Km. to 47 million Km.  Because the circumference of its orbit is comparatively small, it gains 3o on the Earth per day and overtakes it on average every 120 days.  For 60 of these days it will be a morning star and for the other 60 it will be an evening star.  Its maximum angular distance left or right of the Sun is roughly 24o.", "Earth is one of the planets in the solar system and takes exactly 365.25 days to revolve around the sun. Earth also rotates around its own axis in 24 hours or 1 day. Just like Earth every planet rotates on its own axis and revolves around the Sun.", "If a planet is further from the Sun, then it takes longer for that planet to orbit once around the Sun. A far-away planet takes longer to orbit the Sun because that planet has a greater distance to travel around the Sun, and also because that planet travels slower along its orbit. A far-away planet travels slower than a closer-by planet because the force of gravity between a planet and the Sun gets weaker when the planet and the Sun are further apart.", "According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Earth gravitationally interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon. During one orbit around the Sun, Earth rotates about its own axis 366.26 times, creating 365.26 solar days or one sidereal year. Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface within a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). The Moon, Earth's only permanent natural satellite, by its gravitational relationship with Earth, causes ocean tides, stabilizes the orientation of Earth's rotational axis, and gradually slows Earth's rotational rate.", "The time it takes a planet to revolve around the sun. The length of the earth's year is about 365.25 days.", "Astronomers previously thought 55 Cancri e took about 2.8 days to orbit its parent star. But the new study reveals that the exoplanet is so close to its host star that it completes a stellar lap in less than 18 hours.", "The time taken to complete one orbit grows more than in direct proportion to orbital size. The orbital period is the circumference of the orbit divided by the planet's mean velocity. Since the circumference of an orbit increases in direct proportion to its semi-major axis, the Third Law implies that the velocities of planets in larger orbits are slower than for planets nearer the Sun. A planet with an orbital diameter 5 times the Earth's will require 11 Earth years to complete an orbit.", "A year usually has 365 days The extra day is needed to keep the calendar \"in synch\" with the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The Earth takes about 365 and a quarter days to orbit the Sun once.", "This is approximately 30 times the distance between the Sun and Earth. It may be easier to understand if you compare it with something else.", "3. What is the name of the planet that has its day longer than its year?", "the largest of the planets and the fifth from the sun. It has 16 satellites and is surrounded by a transient planar ring system consisting of dust particles. Mean distance from sun: 778 million km; period of revolution around sun: 11.86 years; period of axial rotation: 9.83 hours; diameter and mass: 11.2 and 317.9 times that of earth respectively", "The differences could be related with the different assumptions made. For example, using an average distance Sun-Earth of 150 million kilometers (93.2 million miles), we can obtain the lenght of the circunference multiplying by 2 Pi, which gives 585.6 million miles for the circumference. Dividing this by 365.25 days/year gives 1.603 million miles per day (in average, since the orbit is silghtly elliptical).", "So why 3 days? A few reasons. If the planet is closer to the star, the gravitational pull will be faster, and it's radial velocity must be higher. In addition, it's physical path is shorter at this point. As you mention, this may decrease the time (perhaps 88 days, as you mention), but not 3 days. The other (bigger) factor is the mass of the star. Our sun is relatively small. A star with higher mass will have a much larger gravitational pull, therefore requiring the planets to orbit at a much faster rate to stay in orbit." ]

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[ "The most distant object visible to the naked eye is M31, the Andromeda Galaxy , at about 2 million light-years. This is the nearest large galaxy to us, and a very bright one at that. I can't say for certain the most distant object that you can see with an amateur telescope because the size of such telescopes can vary a lot, and because it depends on the detector that you have attached to it (like your eye, film, or an electronic CCD). But you can definitely see galaxies beyond the Local Group, even with your eyes.", "The most distant object easily visible to the unaided eye is M31, the great Andromeda Galaxy some two and a half million light-years away. But without a telescope, even this immense spiral galaxy - spanning over 200,000 light years - appears as a faint, nebulous cloud in the constellation Andromeda. In contrast, a bright yellow nucleus, dark winding dust lanes, gorgeous blue spiral arms and star clusters are recorded in this stunning telescopic digital mosaic. While even casual skygazers are now inspired by the knowledge that there are many distant galaxies like M31, astronomers seriously debated this fundamental concept less than 90 years ago. Were these \"spiral nebulae\" simply outlying components of our own Milky Way Galaxy or were they instead \"island universes\" -- distant systems of stars comparable to the Milky Way itself? This question was central to the famous Shapley-Curtis debate of 1920, which was later resolved by observations of M31 in favor of Andromeda, island universe.", "One mostly hears that the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), at 2.25 million (2,250,000) light years is the most distant naked eye object. I've seen it, and it is the farthest naked eye object I've seen. Oh, alright, I was wearing contacts. But without them, or glasses, the most distant object I can see is the Sun. For that, I have to wait until morning. M31 is the largest galaxy in the local group.", "2008 – The gamma-ray burst GRB 080319B, the farthest object visible to the naked eye, was discovered.", "The closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way that is visible in the northern hemisphere, and the most distant object that can be seen with the unaided eye. The Andromeda Galaxy is 2 million light-years away and is located in the constellation Andromeda, the Chained Maiden.", "A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which gained proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. However, most of the stars in the Universe, including all stars outside our galaxy, the Milky Way, are invisible to the naked eye from Earth. Indeed, most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes.", "Since super novas can outshine their host galaxies, it seems possible that one could push the farthest object out a bit, if only for a few days. Say there is a galaxy, oh, about 15 million (15,000,000) light years away. It isn't a naked eye object now. But what if it hosts a bright super nova? That object would be the same distance, and could be naked eye visible for a few days.", "Maximum distance at which a given object can just be seen by an observer with normal vision.", "The apparent magnitudes of stars on the chart are shown as they would appear to the naked eye at a distance of about 190 trillion miles from earth. In reality, the distance to most of the stars is more than 950 trillion miles.", "The greatest distance toward the horizon at which prominent objects can be identified with the naked eye.", "From my perspective, the Sun is over there. It's as large as a dime held at arm's length. For me it's really, really far away. In fact, at this exact time it's further away than any object I you can see with the naked eye.I'm about 150 million kilometers away from the Sun, and so are you.", "A source of wonder, romance, and reflection since man stood up and then looked up. The brightest object in the night sky is easily visible with the naked eye, but with a pair of binoculars, much detail is revealed.", "The stars are distant objects. Their distances vary, but they are all very far away. Excluding our Sun, the nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is more than 4 light years away. As Earth spins on its axis, we, as Earth-bound observers, spin past this background of distant stars. As Earth spins, the stars appear to move across our night sky from east to west, for the same reason that our Sun appears to “rise” in the east and “set” in the west.", "The farthest object in the Universe yet detected has been seen by scientists using the Hubble and Keck telescopes. It is so distant its light must have set out when the Universe was just 750m years old to reach the Earth now.", "CLICK IMAGE ABOVE FOR LARGER SIZE.   Astronomers using ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) have now measured the distance to the most remote galaxy so far, UDFy-38135539 (the faint object shown in the excerpt on the left), which we see as it was when the Universe was only about 600 million years old (a redshift of 8.6). These are the first confirmed observations of a galaxy whose light is clearing the opaque hydrogen fog that filled the cosmos at this early time.", "But how far away can we perceive that an object is more than just a twinkle of light? For something to appear spatially extended rather than point-like, light from it must stimulate at least two adjacent cone cells — the elements in our eyes that produce color vision . Under ideal conditions, an object must subtend an angle of at least 1 arcminute, or one sixtieth of a degree, in order to excite adjacent cones. (This angular measure stays the same regardless of whether an object is nearby or far away; distant objects must be much larger to subtend the same angle as near objects). The full moon is 30 arcminutes across, whereas Venus is barely resolvable as an extended object at around 1 arcminute across.", "The nebula is one of the brightest ones in the sky and can be seen without binoculars. It has a visual magnitude of 4.0 and is 1,344 light years distant from Earth.", "Explanation: What are those bright objects hovering over the horizon? Planets -- and the Moon. First out, the horizon featured is a shoreline of the Atlantic Ocean that occurs at the Galicia National Park in northern Spain . Next furthest out, on the left, is the Moon . Easily the brightest object on the night sky, the Moon here was in only a crescent phase . The next furthest out, on the right, is the planet Venus, while planet Jupiter is seen at the top of the triangle. The long exposure from our rapidly rotating Earth made all of celestial objects -- including the far distant stars -- appear as slight arcs . The featured image was taken last Sunday night. Although the Moon's orbit has now taken it away from this part of the sky , the planets Venus and Jupiter can be seen superposed just after sunset until mid-August. The closest apparent separation of Venus and Jupiter will occur in one week, when the two planets will appear separated by less than the angular diameter of the Moon.", "With an apparent magnitude of −1.46, Sirius is the brightest star system in the night sky, almost twice the brightness of the second brightest star, Canopus. However, it is not as bright as the Moon, Venus, or Jupiter; at times, Mercury and Mars are also brighter than Sirius. Sirius can be seen from almost everywhere on the Earth's surface, with only observers north of 73 degrees latitude unable to see it, and it does not rise very high when viewed from some northern cities, reaching only 13° above the horizon from Saint Petersburg. Sirius, along with Procyon and Betelgeuse, forms one of the three vertices of the Winter Triangle to observers in the Northern Hemisphere. Due to its declination of roughly −17°, Sirius is a circumpolar star from latitudes south of 73° S. From the Southern Hemisphere in early July, Sirius can be seen in both the evening where it sets after the Sun, and in the morning where it rises before the Sun. Due to precession (and slight proper motion), Sirius will move further south in the future. Starting in the year 9000, Sirius will not be visible any more from northern and central Europe, and in 14000 its declination will be -67° and thus it will be circumpolar throughout South Africa and in most parts of Australia.", "How far away from Earth can we be, to see it still with our own eyes?", "to the unaided eye. Credit: Conrad JungVery often, the term “naked eye” is used to describe what can be seen with human eyes alone, unaided by tools like telescopes, microscopes, infrared cameras, ultraviolet detectors, and so on. Back in the mid 20th Century, then director of Chabot Observatory, Earl Linsley, coined what he felt was a more accurate (and maybe less provocative?) term to describe what can be seen in the night sky with unaugmented human vision: the unaided eye.", "Telescopes back then lacked the color definition and clarity of even the most inexpensive instruments available today. So, both Messier and Herschel would most likely be astonished had they lived to enjoy our current view of this planetary nebula. Today, we know Messier's 27th catalog designation as the Dumbbell nebula. Located about 1,200 light years from Earth. At that distance, our sun would appear 100 times fainter than the nebula. We happen to view the Dumbbell along its equator. If our line of site were more to its poles, our impression of the Dumbbell might be that of a ring. The Dumbbell is approximately half a light year in diameter but even at this great distance, the nebula appears quite large- equivalent to about half the diameter of the full Moon.", "Delta Pavonis is one of the nearest bright stars to the Sun. It is only 19.92 light years distant and has an apparent visual magnitude of 3.56. The star can be seen without binoculars from the southern hemisphere.", "The distance between the lens or mirror to the image formed of a distance light source, such as a star.", "The widely photographed and heavily studied Orion Nebula is nearly 300 light-years closer to Earth than previously thought, according to a new study. The new measurements were made using the National Science Foundation's Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA). The scientists determined the distance to a star called GMR A, one of a cluster of stars in the Orion Nebula, by measuring the slight shift in the star's apparent position while the Earth was on opposite sides of its annual orbit around the sun.", "This red supergiant has a visual binary that just might be visible, depending on local conditions and the size of one's scope (see below). The star is estimated to be between 285 sun diameters to about 700 suns. It's 600 light years away.", "Because the Earth has moved, the position of the far away star relative to the blanket of stars behind it also appears to move. This movement is called \"parallax.\"", "telescope - n. a device for making objects that are far away appear closer and larger", "an optical instrument used in navigation and consisting of a telescope through which a sighting of a heavenly body is taken, with protractors for determining its angular distance above the horizon or from another heavenly body", "When an object is traveling away from the Earth, the light from this object is stretched out, making it look redder.", "Appearance: Through binoculars you will just be able to make out this rangle of peaks; with a telescope they start to reveal really good detail, especially if the terminator is close by.", "a large imaginary spehere centered on earth, on which all objects in the night sky appear to be located" ]

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[ "The Earth is the densest planet. Saturn is the least dense planet; it would float on water.", "Earth is the densest planet in our solar system and among the inner planets. Also, Neptune in the densent among the outer planets.", "Earth's density is 5.513 grams per cubic centimeter. Earth is the densest planet in the solar system because of its metallic core and rocky mantle. Jupiter, which is 318 more massive than Earth, is less dense because it is made of gases, such as hydrogen.", "Like Earth, Mercury has a magnetic field created by its iron core and a rocky mantle below its crust. After Earth, Mercury is the densest planet in the solar system, though Earth’s superior gravitational pull makes objects on it heavier than on Mercury. (An object weighing 50 kilograms on Earth would weigh about 19 kilograms on Mercury.)", "PSR J1719-1438 b was, at the time of its August 25, 2011 discovery, the densest planet ever discovered, at nearly 20 times the density of Jupiter (about 23 times the density of water). It is slightly more massive than Jupiter. It is thought to be composed of oxygen and carbon (as opposed to hydrogen and helium, the main components of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn).", "Mercury is the second densest planet after Earth, with a huge metallic core roughly 2,200 to 2,400 miles (3,600 to 3,800 km) wide, or about 75 percent of the planet's diameter. In comparison, Mercury's outer shell is only 300 to 400 miles (500 to 600 km) thick. The combination of its massive core and abundance of volatile elements has left scientists puzzled for years.", "Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, and is a rocky body like the Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of 2,439.7 km.[3] Mercury is even smaller—albeit more massive—than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material.[16] Mercury's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm³, only slightly less than Earth’s density of 5.515 g/cm³.[3] If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm³ versus Earth’s 4.4 g/cm³.[17]", "Venus , otherwise known as “Earth’s Sister Planet”, is so-named because of its similarities in composition, size, and mass to our own. Like Earth, Mercury and Mars, it is a terrestrial planet, and hence quite dense. In fact, with a density of 5.243 g/cm³, it is the third densest planet in the Solar System (behind Earth and Mercury). Its average radius is roughly 6,050 km (3759.3 mi), which is the equivalent of 0.95 Earths.", "Jupiter is the largest and most massive planet in the Solar System. Its mean radius, at 69,911 ± 6 km, makes it 10.97 the times the size of Earth, while its mass (1.8986×1027 kg) is the equivalent of 317.8 Earths. But being a gas giant, Jupiter is naturally less dense than Earth and other terrestrial planets, with a mean density of 1.326 g/cm3.", "Mercury is the smallest planet in the Solar System, measuring just 4879 km across at its equator. However, it is second densest planet in the Solar System, with a density of 5.427 g/cm3 – which is the second only to Earth. Because of this, Mercury experiences a gravitational pull that is roughly 38% that of Earth’s (0.38 g).", "Although Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm³ due to the gaseous atmosphere. Saturn is only 95 Earth masses, compared to Jupiter, which is 318 times the mass of the Earth but only about 20% larger than Saturn.", "Mercury is in many ways similar to the  Moon : its surface is heavily cratered and very old; it has no  plate tectonics . On the other hand, Mercury is much denser than the Moon (5.43 gm/cm3 vs 3.34). Mercury is the second densest major body in the solar system, after Earth. Actually Earth's density is due in part to gravitational compression; if not for this, Mercury would be denser than Earth. This indicates that Mercury's dense iron core is relatively larger than Earth's, probably comprising the majority of the planet. Mercury therefore has only a relatively thin silicate mantle and crust.", "Jupiter is by far the most massive of the planets. It is more than twice as massive as all the other planets put together; even so, it is only about 1/1000 the mass of the Sun.", "Jupiter is composed primarily of gaseous and liquid matter. It is the largest of the four giant planets in the Solar System and hence its largest planet. It has a diameter of 142984 km at its equator. The average density of Jupiter, 1.326 g/cm3, is the second highest of the giant planets, but lower than those of the four terrestrial planets.", "Saturn Saturn is the second largest of the Jovian planets, and has the lowest density of any planet in the solar system. Saturn has a dense core of magnesium, iron, silicon, and various ices. The core is about 13 Earth masses. Saturn also has a layer of metallic hydrogen surrounding its core, producing a large magnetic field (metallic hydrogen: see section on Jupiter, above). The composition of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter, probably with more hydrogen, to account for the lower density. Saturn’s zones and belts are not as pronounced as Jupiter’s. The smeared appearance is due to light scattering from ammonia crystals that form the relatively cold upper atmosphere of the planet. Saturn’s atmosphere, like Jupiter’s, is heated by energy released from the interior of the planet. The source appears to be gravitational potential energy of helium droplets sinking to the interior.", "As a gas giant, Saturn is predominantly composed of hydrogen and helium gas. With a mean density of 0.687 g/cm3, Saturn is the only planet in the Solar System that is less dense than water; which means that it lacks a definite surface, but is believed to have a solid core. This is due to the fact that Saturn’s temperature, pressure, and density all rise steadily toward the core.", "Ad a terrestrial planet, Mercury is composed of metals and silicate material. Mercury’s mean density is the second-highest in the Solar System, which is estimated to be 5.427 g/cm3 – only slightly less than Earth’s density of 5.515 g/cm3.However, if the effects of gravitational compression – in which the effects of gravity reduce the size of an object and increases its density – then Mercury is in fact more dense than Earth, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm³ compared to Earth’s 4.4 g/cm³.", "Saturn, along with Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune, is a gas giant. Together, these four planets are sometimes referred to as the Jovian, meaning \"Jupiter-like\", planets. Saturn has an average radius about 9 times larger than the Earth's. While only 1/8 the average density of Earth, due to its larger volume, Saturn's mass is just over 95 times greater than Earth's.", "Uranus's mass is roughly 14.5 times that of Earth, making it the least massive of the giant planets. Its diameter is slightly larger than Neptune's at roughly four times that of Earth. A resulting density of 1.27 g/cm3 makes Uranus the second least dense planet, after Saturn. This value indicates that it is made primarily of various ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane. The total mass of ice in Uranus's interior is not precisely known, because different figures emerge depending on the model chosen; it must be between 9.3 and 13.5 Earth masses. Hydrogen and helium constitute only a small part of the total, with between 0.5 and 1.5 Earth masses. The remainder of the non-ice mass (0.5 to 3.7 Earth masses) is accounted for by rocky material.", "The four outer planets, or gas giants, (sometimes called Jovian planets) are so large they collectively make up 99 percent of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn are true giants, at 318 and 95 Earth masses, respectively, and composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Uranus and Neptune are both substantially smaller, being only 14 and 17 Earth masses, respectively. Their atmospheres contain a smaller percentage of hydrogen and helium, and a higher percentage of \"ices\", such as water, ammonia and methane. For this reason some astronomers suggested that they belong in their own category, \"Uranian planets,\" or \"ice giants.\" All four of the gas giants exhibit orbital debris rings, although only the ring system of Saturn is easily observable from Earth. The term outer planet should not be confused with superior planet, which designates those planets which lie outside Earth's orbit (thus consisting of the outer planets plus Mars).", "Saturn is classified as a gas giant planet because the exterior is predominantly composed of gas and it lacks a definite surface, although it may have a solid core. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water; about 30% less. Although Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3 due to the gaseous atmosphere. A piece of any of its part will start floating in water. It is 95 times the mass of the Earth despite being 714 times larger in volume.", "Mercury's high density can be used to infer details of its inner structure. While the Earth's high density results partly from compression at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not nearly so compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich in iron. Geologists estimate that Mercury's core occupies about 42% of its volume. (Earth's core occupies about 17% of its volume.)", "Mars is also similar to Earth in many key respects. However, when it comes to size, mass and density, Mars is comparatively small. In fact, its mean radius of 3.389 km is the equivalent of roughly 0.53 Earths, while its mass (6.4171×1023 kg) is just 0.107 Earths. Its density, meanwhile, is about o.71 of Earths, coming in at a relatively modest 3.93 g/cm³. Because of this, Mars has 0.38 times the gravity of Earth, which works out to 3.711 m/s².", "If a planet is detectable by both the radial-velocity and the transit methods, then both its true mass and its radius can be found. The planet's density can then be calculated. Planets with low density are inferred to be composed mainly of hydrogen and helium, while planets of intermediate density are inferred to have water as a major constituent. A planet of high density is believed to be rocky, like Earth and the other terrestrial planets of the Solar System .", "Although approximate diameters and spectroscopic characteristics of the Galilean moons had been determined from Earth-based observations, it was the Voyager missions that indelibly established these four bodies as worlds in their own right. The Galileo mission provided a wealth of additional data. Before Voyager it was known that Callisto and Ganymede are both as large as or larger than the planet Mercury ; that they and Europa have surfaces covered with water ice; that Io’s orbit is surrounded by a torus of atoms and ions that include sodium, potassium, and sulfur; and that the inner two Galilean moons have mean densities much greater than those of the outer two. This density gradient from Io to Callisto resembles that found in the solar system itself and seems to result from the same cause (see below Origin of the Jovian system ). The density values suggest that Io and Europa have a rocky composition similar to that of the Moon, whereas roughly 50 percent of Ganymede and Callisto must be made of a much less dense substance, water ice being the obvious candidate.", "Except for Pluto, the outer planets are gaseous with the outer most layer of gas being hydrogen, they have ring systems, and are much less dense than earth.", "(c) The density of Pluto is about 2 g/cm3--corresponding to about 70% rock and only 30% ice. By comparing the density of Pluto with the densities of Charon and of the moons of Uranus and Neptune, would you judge Pluto to have more or less ice that is typical for small bodies in the outer solar system?", "By contrast, the 4 outer planets are designated as gas giants (and/or ice giants) which are composed primarily of of hydrogen, helium, and water existing in various physical states. While these planets are greater in size and mass, their overall density is much lower. In addition, their density varies considerably between the outer and inner layers, ranging from a liquid state to materials so dense that they become rock-solid.", "Just like the terrestrial planets, the deeper you go, the hotter and denser it gets. An increase in temperature and density means an increase in pressure.", "Which of the following satellites of planets in our Solar System has a significant, dense atmosphere?", "Interesting question. Those are two of the main characteristics of the planet. However, there is also the enormous weight of the atmosphere (about 90 times heavier than the Earth's atmosphere, equivalent to what a submarine experiences at 3000 ft below the surface of the Earth's ocean), which would crush anything alive on the surface of the planet.", "Based solely on mass, which of the following terrestrial planets would you expect to retain a secondary" ]

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[ "Eventually the supply of nuclear fuel runs out, and in a few seconds the star's atmosphere falls rapidly towards the centre under the influence of the powerful gravitational field. The central region is compressed to form an incredibly dense object called a neutron star, and the infalling atmosphere \"bounces\" off this object, and the star explodes; for a brief moment in time, the star can outshine all the other stars in the galaxy put together. The result of such a supernova explosion is the creation of the neutron star, and a rapidly expanding cloud of gas - once the stars atmosphere - called a supernova remnant. This image (taken with the Anglo Australian Telescope) shows the supernova which appeared in the Large Magellanic cloud (visible from the southern hemisphere) in 1987. Comparison of the left hand image with the one on the right showing the same star before the explosion, illustrates just how powerful a supernova event is.", "When stars four to eight times as massive as the sun explode in a violent supernova, their outer layers can blow off in an often-spectacular display, leaving behind a small, dense core that continues to collapse. Gravity presses the material in on itself so tightly that protons and electrons combine to make neutrons, yielding the name \"neutron star.\" [Supernova Photos: Great Images of Star Explosions]", "These supernovae, like those of Type II, are massive stars that undergo core collapse. However the stars which become Types Ib and Ic supernovae have lost most of their outer (hydrogen) envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction with a companion. These stars are known as Wolf-Rayet stars, and they occur at moderate to high metallicity where continuum driven winds cause sufficiently high mass loss rates. Observations of type Ib/c supernova do not match the observed or expected occurrence of Wolf Rayet stars and alternate explanations for this type of core collapse supernova involve stars stripped of their hydrogen by binary interactions. Binary models provide a better match for the observed supernovae, with the proviso that no suitable binary helium stars have ever been observed. Since a supernova explosion can occur whenever the mass of the star at the time of core collapse is low enough not to cause complete fallback to a black hole, any massive star may result in a supernova if it loses enough mass before core collapse occurs.", "All of the stars mentioned here will eventually explode as supernovae. When that happens, what is left of most of these stars will collapse into something known as a neutron star, an extremely dense and tiny object no more than a few miles in diameter. R136a1, meanwhile, will likely collapse into something even smaller, a black hole. The largest stars thus, in time, are reduced to the smaller stars that exist.", "These stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced when a supernova explodes, forcing the protons and electrons to combine to produce a neutron star. Neutron stars are very dense. Typical stars having a mass of three times the Sun but a diameter of only 20 km. If its mass is any greater, its gravity will be so strong that it will shrink further to become a black hole. Pulsars are believed to be neutron stars that are spinning very rapidly.", "The final fate of the star depends on its mass, with stars of mass greater than about eight times the Sun becoming core collapse supernovae ; while smaller stars form planetary nebulae , and evolve into white dwarfs . The remnant of a supernova is a dense neutron star, or, if the stellar mass was at least three times that of the Sun, a black hole . Close binary stars can follow more complex evolutionary paths, such as mass transfer onto a white dwarf companion that can potentially cause a supernova. Planetary nebulae and supernovae are necessary for the distribution of metals to the interstellar medium; without them, all new stars (and their planetary systems) would be formed from hydrogen and helium alone.", "The final fate of the star depends on its mass, with stars of mass greater than about eight times the Sun becoming core collapse supernovae ; [63] while smaller stars form planetary nebulae , and evolve into white dwarfs . [64] The remnant of a supernova is a dense neutron star , or, if the stellar mass was at least three times that of the Sun, a black hole . [65] Close binary stars can follow more complex evolutionary paths, such as mass transfer onto a white dwarf companion that can potentially cause a supernova. [66] Planetary nebulae and supernovae are necessary for the distribution of metals to the interstellar medium; without them, all new stars (and their planetary systems) would be formed from hydrogen and helium alone. [67]", "But massive stars, many times larger than our own sun, may create a supernova when their core's fusion process runs out of fuel. Star fusion provides a constant outward pressure, which exists in balance with the star's own mass-driven, inward gravitational pull. When fusion slows, outbound pressure drops and the star's core begins to condense under gravity—becoming ever denser and hotter.", "Several large stars within the Milky Way have been suggested as possible supernovae within the next few thousand to hundred million years. These include Rho Cassiopeiae,[101] Eta Carinae,[102][103] RS Ophiuchi,[104][105] U Scorpii,[106] the Kitt Peak Downes star KPD1930+2752,[107] HD 179821,[108][109] IRC+10420,[110] VY Canis Majoris,[111] Betelgeuse, Antares, and Spica.[112]", "When a star reaches a mass of more than 1.4 solar masses, electron pressure cannot support the core against further collapse, according to NASA. The result is a supernova. Gravity causes the core to collapse, making the core temperature rise to nearly 18 billion degrees F (10 billion degrees C), breaking the iron down into neutrons and neutrinos. In about one second, the core shrinks to about six miles (10 km) wide and rebounds just like a rubber ball that has been squeezed, sending a shock wave through the star that causes fusion to occur in the outlying layers. The star then explodes in a so-called Type II supernova. If the remaining stellar core was less than roughly three solar masses large, it becomes a neutron star made up nearly entirely of neutrons, and rotating neutron stars that beam out detectable radio pulses are known as pulsars. If the stellar core was larger than about three solar masses, no known force can support it against its own gravitational pull, and it collapses to form a black hole .", "One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve off the main sequence, and it expands to form a red giant.[42] The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion. At this point it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen.[43][44] Eventually the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass.", "Stars > 8MSun: Supernovae If a star is very massive, it will not only evolve faster but will also manufacture heavier elements than lower mass stars do (Fig. 8-5). These stars will go through a mass-losing phase, and then finally explode as supernovae. There are two types of supernovae: Type I and Type II. A Type II supernova is the end of a star’s life, and happens to isolated massive stars. A Type I supernova occurs in a binary system, and is not a part of the star’s evolution, but is caused by the interaction of the pair of stars. Depending on the spectral details, we have Type Ia, Ib, and Ic supernovae. Observable supernovae should happen about once each century in our galaxy. We have not seen any in our galaxy in modern times. This is because of interstellar extinction due to dust in the Galaxy (see Chapter 10), which prevents us from observing the entire Galaxy.", "A gigantic stellar explosion in which the star's luminosity suddenly increases by as much as a billion times. Most of the star's substance is blown off, leaving behind, at least in some cases, an extremely dense core which (as in the Crab Nebula) may be a neutron star. Supernovae are of two main types: Type I (Mv = - 14 to - 17) have a nonhydrogen spectrum, lower mass, and high velocity (about 10.000 km s-1), and may be produced by the thermonuclear detonation of a highly degenerate core. Type I supernovae are found in both spiral and elliptical galaxies. Type II (Mv = - 12 to - 13.5) have a hydrogen spectrum, higher mass, and lower velocity (about 5.000 km s-1), and occur in young, massive stars near the edge of spiral arms. Type II supernovae are more common: Tammann (1974) finds that Type II supernovae occur in our Galaxy at the rate of 0.01 to 0.05 per year. (Type III supernovae are similar to Type II but are probably of much higher mass.) Novae release about 1044 ergs of energy; supernovae, about 1049 to 1051 ergs. [H76] Supernova Remnant", "If core collapse occurs during a supergiant phase when the star still has a hydrogen envelope, the result is a Type II supernova. The rate of mass loss for luminous stars depends on the metallicity and luminosity. Extremely luminous stars at near solar metallicity will lose all their hydrogen before they reach core collapse and so will not form a type II supernova. At low metallicity, all stars will reach core collapse with a hydrogen envelope but sufficiently massive stars collapse directly to a black hole without producing a visible supernova.", "Type IIn supernovae are not listed in the table. They can potentially be produced by various types of core collapse in different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will be from iron core collapse in luminous supergiants or hypergiants (including LBVs). The narrow spectral lines for which they are named occur because the supernova is expanding into a small dense cloud of circumstellar material. It appears that a significant proportion of supposed type IIn supernovae are actually supernova imposters, massive eruptions of LBV-like stars similar to the Great Eruption Eta Carinae. In these events, material previously ejected from the star creates the narrow absorption lines and causes a shock wave through interaction with the newly ejected material. ", "A star which, from natural causes, experiences a sudden increase in brightness Stars experiencing an explosive increase are called supernovas", "Type IIn supernovae are characterised by additional narrow spectral lines produced in a dense shell of circumstellar material. Their light curves are generally very broad and extended, occasionally also extremely luminous and referred to as a hypernova. These light curves are produced by the highly efficient conversion of kinetic energy of the ejecta into electromagnetic radiation by interaction with the dense shell of material. This only occurs when the material is sufficiently dense and compact, indicating that it has been produced by the progenitor star itself only shortly before the supernova occurs.", "One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve off the main sequence , and it expands to form a red giant . [53] The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion . At this point it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen. [54] [55] Eventually the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass.", "A very massive star (>25Mo) perhaps (>40Mo) ends its life as a supernova Type II explosion. The implosion force is so great that the core is squeezed to ever-greater density than that of a neutron star. The density is so high that it severely distorts the fabric of spacetime. No known force can withstand the collapse. This collapsing core disappears from sight as a black hole.", "Type II-N supernovae are not listed in the table. They can potentially be produced by various types of core collapse in different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will be from iron core collapse in luminous supergiants or hypergiants (including LBVs ). The narrow spectral lines for which they are named occur because the supernova is expanding into a small dense cloud of circumstellar material. [62]", "A type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a supernova event.", "The helium core of a red giant continues to collapse until it is entirely supported by electron degeneracy pressure—a quantum mechanical effect that restricts how closely matter can be compacted. For stars of more than about 0.5 , the core eventually reaches a temperature where it becomes hot enough to burn helium into carbon via the triple alpha process. Stars with more than 5–7.5 can additionally fuse elements with higher atomic numbers. For stars with ten or more solar masses, this process can lead to an increasingly dense core that finally collapses, ejecting the star's overlying layers in a Type II supernova explosion, Type Ib supernova or Type Ic supernova.", "Stars with an initial mass up to about 90 times the sun, or a little less at high metallicity, are expected to result in a type II-P supernova which is the most commonly observed type. At moderate to high metallicity, stars near the upper end of that mass range will have lost most of their hydrogen when core collapse occurs and the result will be a Type II-L supernova. At very low metallicity, stars of around will reach core collapse by pair instability while they still have a hydrogen atmosphere and an oxygen core and the result will be a supernova with Type II characteristics but a very large mass of ejected 56Ni and high luminosity.", "On the other hand, the most massive stars, known as hypergiants, may be 100 or more times more massive than the Sun, and have surface temperatures of more than 30,000 K. Hypergiants emit hundreds of thousands of times more energy than the Sun, but have lifetimes of only a few million years. Although extreme stars such as these are believed to have been common in the early Universe, today they are extremely rare - the entire Milky Way galaxy contains only a handful of hypergiants.", "Twenty-five years later supernova (SN) 1987A, as it has become known, is giving astronomers an unprecedented look at what happens to a massive star before and after it explodes. A careful perusal of star charts prior to the supernova allowed the exact star that exploded – Sanduleak (Sk) –69° 202 – to be identified. Sk –69° 202 had been a luminous blue supergiant located on the edge of the great Tarantula Nebula, a giant star-forming region in the LMC. Here stars are born fast and die hard, the glowing veils of the nebula littered with the whorls of ancient supernova remnants – SN 1987A was merely the latest addition to its collection.", "Theoretical studies of many supernovae indicate that most are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core. In the first instance, a degenerate white dwarf may accumulate sufficient material from a binary companion, either through accretion or via a merger, to raise its core temperature enough to trigger runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. In the second case, the core of a massive star may undergo sudden gravitational collapse, releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova. While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical collapse mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for some time.", "In larger stars, fusion continues until the iron core has grown so large (more than 1.4 ) that it can no longer support its own mass. This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons, forming neutrons, neutrinos, and gamma rays in a burst of electron capture and inverse beta decay. The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova. Supernovae become so bright that they may briefly outshine the star's entire home galaxy. When they occur within the Milky Way, supernovae have historically been observed by naked-eye observers as \"new stars\" where none seemingly existed before. ", "Pair-instability supernovas, if they exist, would be the most energetic thermonuclear explosions in the universe. In stars with masses greater than about 260 suns, the pulsations would be overwhelmed by gravity and the star would collapse to form a black hole without an explosion.", "Type Ia supernovae, that involve one or two previous white dwarfs, have been proposed to be a channel for transformation of this type of stellar remnant. In this scenario, the carbon detonation produced in a Type Ia supernova is too weak to destroy the white dwarf, expelling just a small part of its mass as ejecta, but produces an asymmetric explosion that kicks the star to high speeds of a Hypervelocity star. The matter processed in the failed detonation is re-accreted by the white dwarf with the heaviest elements such as iron falling to its core where it accumulates. ", "In time the core helium is used up resulting in further core collapse and gravitational heating. This then triggers carbon fusion to produce sodium, neon and magnesium. Depending on the mass of the star, as each core fuel is used up further collapse leads to even higher temperatures that can trigger fusion of heavier elements. Through a combination of fusion and photodisintegration a range of heavier nuclei are formed up to iron for the most massive stars. The core region of a supergiant eventually resembles the layers of an onion with a dense iron core surrounding by shells of silicon and sulfur, oxygen and carbon, helium and an outer shell of hydrogen as shown in the diagram below. The final core temperature reaches about 7 × 109 K.", "Also known as the S Doradus variables, the most luminous stars known belong to this class. Examples include the hypergiants Carinae and P Cygni.", "the hot, dense core of a star that is left after a giant star's outer gases escape into space" ]

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[ "The Milky Way is a spiral, or disk-shaped, galaxy with four major arms containing young bright stars, gas, and dust. From the Earth, the Milky Way is seen edge-on as a swath of patchy white glow in the sky. The mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be between 400 billion and one trillion solar masses, and the luminous diameter of the Galaxy is some 80,000 light-years across. The entire Solar System orbits the center of the Milky Way once every 200 million years at a distance of 25,000 light-years from the Galactic center, which is located in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. Sometimes, astronomers refer to the Milky Way as the Galaxy.", "The Milky Way is what’s known as a barred spiral galaxy—it’s shaped like a spiral with a straight bar across its center. About two-thirds of the galaxies in the known universe are spirals, and about two-thirds of the spiral galaxies are barred, making the Milky Way one of the most common types of galaxies. Spirals like the Milky Way have arms that stretch out from the center like wheel spokes and curl back around the hub. Our solar system is perched in the center of one of those spokes—the Orion Arm.", "Like more than two-thirds of the known galaxies, the Milky Way has a spiral shape . At the center of the spiral, a lot of energy and, occasionally, vivid flares  are being generated. Based on the immense gravity that would be required to explain the movement of stars and the energy expelled, the astronomers conclude that the center of the Milky Way is a supermassive black hole .", "Milky Way- Our Galaxy seen as a misty band of light which stretches across the night sky. The Milky Way contains about one hundred million stars. It has the shape of a disk with a diameter of about 100 000 light-years. The Sun lies about two-thirds of the way towards the edge of the disk from the centre.", "As I said before, the Milky Way galaxy is a disc-shaped aggregation of stars, which bulges at the center.", "The disk is a flattened region that surrounds the bulge in a spiral galaxy. The disk is shaped like a pancake. The Milky Way's disk is 100,000 light years across and 1,000 light years thick. It contains mostly young stars, gas and dust, which are concentrated in spiral arms. Some old stars are also present.", "/So it is. But from Milky Way it appears elliptical. (Since Andromeda lost the Wars of Energy, we suffer the additional humiliation of the ellipse. The Milky Way Shield is the fundamental shape, flat across the top, round or partly pointed across the bottom. Other Galaxies have other shapes.) Within this is the band of prints, the little four-point patterns, signifying Sphere Quadpoint. In Milky Way there are two bands, since that Galaxy is organized into segments and Spheres, but it is the same idea. Then the main design, the symbol of Family Metamorphic: a lump of edible rock superimposed on the geologic flowchart of its derivation. A distinctive Achievement—that is what the complete affair is called—recognizable anywhere in the Cluster./", "The Milky Way galaxy is a starwheel about 100 light-years across. Instead of spokes, it has spiral arms. As explained in Starstruck Tonight :", "The Milky Way is the second-largest galaxy in the Local Group, with its stellar disk approximately 100000 ly in diameter, and, on average, approximately 1000 ly thick. As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter (25mm), the Milky Way would be approximately the size of the continental United States. A ring-like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may actually belong to the Milky Way itself, rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane. If so, that would mean a diameter of . ", "out from the central nucleus in a spiral formation. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is a spiral galaxy.", "The Milky Way’s basic structure is believed to involve two main spiral arms emanating from opposite ends of an elongated central bar. Credit: T. Dame", "Not only are there diamonds in the sky, some of them are emerald-cut sparklers, according to astronomers who've found an unusual rectangular galaxy. The cosmic oddball, dubbed LEDA 074886, is a dwarf galaxy 70 million light-years away in the constellation Eridanus, the River. Most galaxies exist in one of three forms: a disk with spiral arms (such as our Milky Way), a football-shaped ellipsoid, or an irregular, lumpy blob. But LEDA 074886 is a remarkably symmetrical rectangle, akin to an emerald-cut gem.", "Our own Milky Way is generally classed as SBb, making it a barred spiral with well-defined arms. However, this classification is somewhat uncertain since we can only infer how our galaxy would appear to an outside observer.", "Galaxies and Clusters The Milky Way The Milky Way is our own galaxy. Since we are a part of the Milky Way, it is difficult to construct an external view. Many parts of the Galaxy are not observable. However, through various methods, we have determined the size and shape of our Galaxy, and our place in it.", "It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns: an inner one, formed by the Sagittarius arm, that rotates fast and an outer one, formed by the Carina and Perseus arms, whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound. In this scenario, suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms, the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm.", "Our Milky Way galaxy is part of the 'Local Group' that contains lots of galaxies. Ours is a spiral, along with the grand design Triangulum Galaxy (M33) and the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), which has two companion elliptical galaxies, M32 and NGC 205. The rest of the local group are either elliptical or irregular like the Magellanic Clouds. Some are dwarf galaxies, including the Phoenix Dwarf which measures just a few thousand light years across, and lies 1½ million light years from the Milky Way.", "Boötes I orbits the Milky Way Galaxy and, because of its distorted shape, it is believed to be tidally disrupted by the Milky Way. The galaxy is approximately 720 light years across.", "The Kaguya-go Journey Board Game The Milky Way The Milky Way is more clearly visible in the summer because the center of the galaxy is in the direction of Sagittarius, which is the summer constellation. Since Earth is located approximately 28,000 lightyears from the center of the galactic disc (which has a diameter of approximately 100,000 light-years), the stars in Milky Way appear as a luminous glow in the sky when we view them with the naked eye.", "A galactic quadrant, or quadrant of the Milky Way, refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way. In actual astronomical practice, the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system, which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system. ", "NGC 3628 hides its spiral structure because it is seen perfectly edge-on, exactly as we observe the Milky Way on a clear night. Its most distinctive feature is a dark band of dust that lies across the plane of the disc and which is visibly distorted outwards, as a consequence of the gravitational interaction between NGC 3628 and its bullying companions. This boxy or “peanut-shaped” bulge, seen as a faint X-shape, is formed mainly of young stars and gas and dust, which create the bulge away from the plane of the rest of the galaxy through their powerful motions. Because of its appearance, NGC 3628 was catalogued as Arp 317 in the Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies, published in 1966, which aimed to characterise a large sample of odd objects that fell outside the standard Hubble classification, to aid understanding of how galaxies evolve. Image: ESO", "The solid line labeled B is a schematic rotation curve similar to what is measured for the Milky Way. The dashed line labeled A is the predicted rotation curve displaying Keplerian rotation. What the rotation curve B tells us is that our model of the Milky Way so far is missing something. In order for objects far from the center of the Galaxy to be moving faster than predicted, there must be significant additional mass far from the Galactic Center exerting gravitational pulls on those stars. This means that the Milky Way must include a component that is very massive and much larger than the visible disk of the Galaxy. We do not see any component in visible light or any other part of the electromagnetic spectrum, so this massive halo must be dark. Today, we refer to this as the \"dark matter halo\" of the Galaxy, and we will discuss dark matter more in our lesson on cosmology.", "Most of the mass of the Milky Way appears to be dark matter, an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter. A dark matter halo is spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs from the Galactic Center. Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that its total mass is 1–1.5 . More-recent studies indicate a mass as large as 4.5  and as small as 0.8 . ", "Galactic Bulge – A somewhat flattened distribution of stars, about 6 kiloparsecs (kpc) in diameter, surrounding the nucleus of the Milky Way", "The Rotation Curve of the Milky Way | Astronomy 801: Planets, Stars, Galaxies, and the Universe", "Elliptical galaxies are shaped as their name suggests. They are generally round but stretch longer along one axis than along the other. They may be nearly circular or so elongated that they take on a cigarlike appearance.", "WE ARE SURROUNDED! Rotation curve of the Milky Way Escape velocity argument (halo stars) Objective prism reveals halo stars Proper motions reveal halo stars Looking for halo stars in the halo Timing argument The Magellanic Clouds and Galactic dark matter Dark matter in the Large Magellanic Cloud", "Illustration of the Canis Dwarf Dwarf Galaxy and its associated tidal (shown in red) in relation to our Milky Way. Credit: R. Ibata (Strasbourg Observatory, ULP) et al./2MASS/NASA", "This is one of those questions that readers can directly answer for themselves. Set out on a clear, dark evening. First, trace out the constellations of the ecliptic (zodiac); any decent star chart will enable you to do so. Then look for the faint glow of the Milky Way . What is the angle between the two?", "Companion stars may also be affecting the shapes and may explain why some, like Hourglass Nebula, have the central white dwarf not centered. Complex ones like the Cat's Eye Nebula seem to show that the star ejected its layers in a series of spherical pulses separated by about 1500 years. There are also jets of high-speed gas and shockwaves of gases of different speeds running into each other. While we have just some rough ideas of the causes of their shapes, we certainly can marvel at their beauty!", "This photo illustration depicts a view of the night sky just before the predicted merger between our Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy. Image released May 31, 2012.", "By IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg) [CC-BY-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons", "This accurately describes what we see in the region of space around us, but how does galaxy morphology change as we look further back in time, to when the Universe was very young?" ]

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[ "Pioneer I launched 54 years ago on October 11, 1958, the first spacecraft launched by the 11-day-old National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Although the spacecraft failed to reach the Moon, it did transmit 43 hours of data.", "Launched in 1972, the aptly named Pioneer was the first spacecraft to visit the outer solar system. After completing its study of Jupiter, Pioneer 10's trajectory carried it outside of the solar system and into interstellar space, the first craft to do so. Pioneer 10 continued transmitting data back to Earth until 23 January 2003 when its power source became too weak. At that time, the space probe was over 7.6 billion miles from Earth. In about 2 million years, Pioneer 10 should reach the closest star on its trajectory, the red giant Aldebaran, which lies some 71 light years away ( learn more ).", "PIONEER. \"Pioneer\" was chosen as the name for the first U.S. space probe, Pioneer 1, launched 11 October 1958, as well as for the following series of lunar and deep space probes. The Pioneer series had been initiated for the International Geophysical Year by the Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), which assigned execution variously to the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division (AFBMD) and to the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA). Upon its formation in October 1958, NASA inherited responsibility for-and the name of-the probes. 1", "* The US spacecraft Pioneer 10 crosses the orbit of Neptune and thus becomes the first man-made vehicle ever to travel beyond the solar system. The space probe was launched in 1972 at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and the following year Pioneer 10 completed a fly-by of the planet Jupiter, one of its principal missions.", "Approved by NASA in February 1969, the twin spacecraft were designated Pioneer F and Pioneer G before launch; later they were named Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. They formed part of the Pioneer program, a series of United States unmanned space missions launched between 1958 and 1978. This model was the first in the series to be designed for exploring the outer Solar System. Based on multiple proposals issued throughout the 1960s, the early mission objectives were to explore the interplanetary medium past the orbit of Mars, study the asteroid belt and assess the possible hazard to spacecraft traveling through the belt, and explore Jupiter and its environment. Later development-stage objectives included the probe closely approaching Jupiter to provide data on the effect the environmental radiation surrounding Jupiter would have on the spacecraft instruments.", "The first spacecraft ever to make it as far as Jupiter was NASA's Pioneer 10 probe, launched in March 1972 on a mission to study the asteroid belt, the atmosphere of Jupiter and the outer solar system. About a year-and-a-half later, in December 1973, Pioneer 10 encountered Jupiter.", "Pioneer 10 was the first probe to travel through the Asteroid Belt and the first craft to explore Jupiter. On June 13, 1983, it became the first space probe ever to travel further than the Sun's most distant planet.", "With the beginning of the space age in the mid-20th century, the opportunity to observe the Sun with robotic space probes became possible for the first time. The first missions to the Sun were NASA’s Pioneer 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 and 9 satellites, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field.", "Pioneer 0 was launched on 17 August 1958. A booster explosion shortly after liftoff destroyed the spacecraft.", "Mar. 11: The U.S. launches Pioneer 5 , the first deep-space probe, which returns data from a distance of 36.2 million kilometers.", "Launched from Cape Kennedy on March 2, 1972, aboard an Atlas Centaur rocket for what had been planned as a two-year mission to Jupiter, Pioneer 10 is now so far away that its radio signal, traveling at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second), takes nine hours and ten minutes to reach the Earth. Currently twice as far from the Sun as Pluto, Pioneer is returning data about the farthest reaches of the Sun's atmosphere.", "When the interplanetary probe Pioneer 10 left Earth on March 2, 1972, it was indeed off on a pioneering mission. In fact, the spacecraft led the way to all exploration of deep space.", "By the late seventies, NASA commenced the Pioneer Venus Project , which consisted of two separate missions. The first was the Pioneer Venus Orbiter , which inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus (Dec. 4th, 1978) to study its atmosphere and map the surface. The second, the Pioneer Venus Multiprobe , released four probes which entered the atmosphere on Dec. 9th, 1978, returning data on its composition, winds and heat fluxes.", "While passing through interplanetary medium, Pioneer 10 became the first mission to detect interplanetary atoms of helium. It also observed high-energy ions of aluminum and sodium in the solar wind. On July 15, 1972, Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to enter the asteroid belt, located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The project planners expected a safe passage through the belt, and the closest the trajectory would take the spacecraft to any of the known asteroids was . One of the nearest approaches was to the asteroid 307 Nike on December 2, 1972.", "            2003 – Au revoir Pioneer 10 as  the last successful contact with the spacecraft Pioneer 10  was to this  most distant man-made objects. The very weak message from the craft was “Wait!  I have to come back! I forgot my wallet”. Pioneer 10 was launched March 2, 1972, on a three-stage Atlas-Centaur rocket.", "   An attempt to launch a Pioneer space probe ended with an explosion which destroyed the Atlas-Able rocket vehicle 70 seconds after liftoff at an altitude of about 12 km. Purpose of the experiment was to probe the environment between Earth and Moon and to develop technology for controlling and maneuvering spacecraft from the Earth. This Pioneer was a 1-metre sphere weighing 176 kg. Cause of the explosion is under study. (USASA, 1961)", "Intermittant tracking for Pioneers 6, 7 and 8, in Earth-like solar orbits, will also cease on Mar. 31. The briefing will include a brief summary of the entire Pioneer program, United State's longest running spacecraft program, which began in 1958. Speakers are: Dr. Larry Lasher, Pioneer Project Manager, \"Overview of Pioneer Program\"; Charles Hall, Pioneer Project Manager (1969-80) \"Interplanetary, Planetary, Outer Solar System Pioneer Missions\"; Dr. David Morrison, Director of Space, NASA Ames, \"Pioneer's Relevance to the Future of Space Exploration\"; Scott Hubbard, Assoc. Director of Space, Lunar Prospector Mission Manager, NASA Ames, \"Transition to Lunar Prospector\".", "Pioneers 6-9 were launched into Solar orbit between 1965 and 1968. Their prime mission completed years ago, the spacecraft were then tracked only occasionally.", "The U.S. launches Pioneer 5, the first deep-space probe, which returns data from a distance of 36.2 million kilometers.", "Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to pass through the thick belt of asteroids that orbit the sun, and in 1973 it was the first to obtain close-up images of Jupiter. In 1983, it became the first man-made object to leave the solar system when it passed the orbit of distant Pluto.", "The American public first met the seven men chosen to be this country's first human space voyagers on April 9, 1959, at a press conference in Washington. The men were dubbed \"astronauts.\" The term was a cross between \"aeronauts,\" as ballooning pioneers were called, and \"Argonauts,\" the legendary Greeks in search of the Golden Fleece. These new explorers were being prepared to sail into the new, uncharted vastness of space.", "the name of the Soviet lunar research program and of the series of unmanned spacecraft launched by the USSR to the moon beginning in 1959. The first-generation probes made the flight from the earth to the moon without preliminary insertion into earth orbit, without trajectory corrections, and without braking in the space near the moon (Luna 1, Luna 2, Luna 3). More advanced methods involving preliminary insertion into an orbit about the earth and translunar launching from this orbit, midcourse corrections, and active maneuvers (braking) in the space near the moon (Luna 4 through Luna 14) were used with the second-generation probes.", "The battery powered Pioneer 3 and 4 probes were equipped with geiger counters to provide radiation data from trans-lunar space. Pioneer 3 and 4 were launched on Juno 2 rockets (right).", "Mar 2: Pioneer 10 launches, carrying a plaque featuring the nude figures of a human male and female along with several symbols that are designed to provide information about the origin of the spacecraft", "On August 20, 1977, a NASA rocket launched Voyager II, an unmanned 1,820-pound spacecraft, from Cape Canaveral, Florida. It was the first of two such crafts to be launched that year on a �Grand Tour� of the outer planets, organized to coincide with a rare alignment of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Aboard Voyager II was a 12-inch copper phonograph record called �Sounds of Earth.� Intended as a kind of introductory time capsule, the record included greetings in 60 languages and scientific information about Earth and the human race, along with classical, jazz and rock �n� roll music, nature sounds like thunder and surf, and recorded messages from President Jimmy Carter and other world leaders.", "After the high-gain antenna was contacted, several of the instruments were activated for testing while the spacecraft was moving through the Earth's radiation belts. Ninety minutes after launch, the spacecraft reached interplanetary space. Pioneer 10 passed by the Moon in 11 hours and became the fastest human-made object at that time. Two days after launch, the scientific instruments were turned on, beginning with the cosmic ray telescope. After ten days, all of the instruments were active.", "The Pioneer 10 spacecraft is launched from Cape Kennedy, to be the first man-made satellite to leave the solar system", "Explorer 1, the first successful U.S. satellite, is launched on January 31. An instrument package provides evidence of high altitude radiation surrounding Earth - the first major scientific discovery of the space age.", "Many scientists rank the first crossing of the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter as one of Pioneer 10's major achievements. Before the crossing, no one knew how many rocks, as well as grains of sand, speeding through space at thousands of miles per hour would impact and possibly disable the spacecraft. Pioneer 10 made the crossing nearly unscathed, thus opening the way for other spacecraft to explore beyond Mars, including its sister Pioneer 11, the twin Voyager spacecraft, the Galileo mission to Jupiter and, later this year, the Cassini mission to Saturn.", "The Ranger program was a series of American missions flown between 1961 and 1965. Objectives included testing equipment and procedures for lunar missions, landing instrument packages on the lunar surface, and returning television images of the lunar surface. Nine Ranger probes were launched. After a string of partial and complete failures, the last three missions were successful.", "January 31, 1958 Explorer I is place into space by a modified Jupiter-C and becomes the first U.S. satellite. Its payload discovers the \"Van Allen\" radiation belt.", "We've grown used to wonders in this century. It's hard to dazzle us. But for 25 years the United States space program has been doing just that. We've grown used to the idea of space, and perhaps we forget that we've only just begun. We're still pioneers. They, the members of the Challenger crew, were pioneers." ]

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[ "Uranus The father of the Titans, he was the sky god responsible for the sun and the rain.", "---Crius \"The Ram\" aka the Great Lord: The Titan god of the heavenly constellations and the measure of the year. Presided over the South Pillar that separated Heaven and Earth. Father of the Titans: Pallas (Titan of Warcraft), Perseis (Titan of Destruction), and Astraeus (Titan of the Stars and Planets).", "Also Uranus , father of the Titans, but not in the original language. In Greek, Uranus (or more properly Ouranos ) means \"sky\" or \"heaven\".", "ASTRAEUS (Astraios) The Titan god of the stars. He was father of the planets and the four seasonal winds by Eos the dawn.", "Uranus, also known as Ouranos, was the embodiment of the sky or heavens, and known as the god of the sky. He was the first son of Gaia (the earth) and he also became her husband. According to Hesiod, their children included the Titans: six sons (Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus and Cronus) and six daughters (Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys). There were other offspring: the Cyclopes, (who were named Brontes, Steropes and Arges and were later known as \"one eyed giants\"), and also the three monsters known as the Hecatonchires, who each had one hundred hands and fifty heads. Their names were Briareus, Cottus and Gyes. Other offspring of Uranus and Gaia were the Erinyes, who were spirits of punishment and goddesses of vengeance. The Erinyes avenged wrongs which were done to family, especially murder within a family. After Uranus had been castrated, his blood fell to earth (Gaia) and conceived the Giants. These were of monstrous appearance and had great strength. Similiarly, in some versions Aphrodite is believed to have risen from the foam created by the sex organs of Uranus after they were thrown into the sea by his son Cronus.", "Titan, in Greek mythology , any of the children of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaea (Earth) and their descendants. According to Hesiod’s Theogony , there were 12 original Titans: the brothers Oceanus , Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Cronus and the sisters Thea, Rhea , Themis , Mnemosyne , Phoebe , and Tethys. At the instigation of Gaea the Titans rebelled against their father, who had shut them up in the underworld (Tartarus). Under the leadership of Cronus they deposed Uranus and set up Cronus as their ruler. But one of Cronus’ sons, Zeus , rebelled against his father, and a struggle then ensued between them in which most of the Titans sided with Cronus. Zeus and his brothers and sisters finally defeated the Titans after 10 years of fierce battles (the Titanomachia). The Titans were then hurled down by Zeus and imprisoned in a cavity beneath Tartarus .", "Helios was the Sun God. He was the son of the Titans Theia and Hyperion, and the father of Phaëthon (among others). He was the patriarchy's version of Hemera , when Classical mythology began to replace the Pelasgian cults, Helios and his sister Selene took over the roles of Hemera and Nyx . Helios drove his golden chariot across the sky every day and then circled back around every night on the river Oceanus, which girdled the world.", "Hyperion was the Titan god of light, the father of the three shining gods of heaven - Eos the Light of Dawn and Day, Helios the Sun, and Selene the Moon.", "Cronus Greek Ruler of the Titans and god of the sky and time. He was removed from power by his son, Zeus. Cronus was the father of the first Olympians. Roman Equivalent: Saturn", "Atlas was the son of Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of Prometheus. He was the father of the Hesperides, Maera, the Hyades, Calypso and the Pleiades. Atlas led the Titans in a war against the gods of Mount Olympus. When the Titans were defeated, Zeus punished him with the burden of carrying the heavens upon his shoulders. Atlas was turned to stone by Perseus using Medusa's head in the place where the Atlas mountains now stand, after he threatened Perseus when wanting to speak to his father Zeus about the punishment that had fallen upon him. He is also known as one of the founding kings of Atlantis.", "Atlas - Titan; father of Electra, punished by Jupiter to hold the heavens on his shoulders", "In Greek mythology, Iapetus, also Iapetos or Japetus (Greek: Ιαπετός), was a Titan, the son of Uranus and Gaia, and father (by an Oceanid named Clymene or Asia) of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius and through Prometheus, Epimetheus and Atlas an ancestor of the human race.", "Zeus is a son of Titans. The Titans are twelve children born to of Ouranos and Gaia. They were the first Immortals to assume the guise of human beings but they were not humane or in any way human-like. Their reign as the dominate force on earth was one of impropriety and deplorable excesses. Ouranos saw the outrageous behavior of his children and gave them the name Titans, which means Strainers or Stretchers. Ouranos foresaw that they would eventually pay a heavy price for their indulgences because they strained and stretched the bounds of propriety and abused their seemingly limitless powers. Not all of their deeds are recorded but it is clear that the most outrageous of the Titan gods was the youngest, Kronos.", "Titans were a primeval race of powerful deities, descendants of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Heaven), that ruled during the legendary Golden Age. They were immortal huge beings of incredible strength and stamina and were also the first pantheon of Greco-Roman gods and goddesses.In the first generation of twelve Titans, the males were Oceanus, Hyperion had son Helios personification of sun, Coeus, Cronus, Crius and Iapetus and the females - the Titanesses - were Mnemosyne, Tethys, Theia, Phoebe, Rhea and Themis. The second generation of Titans consisted of Hyperion's children Eos goddess of the dawn, Helios, and Selene; Coeus's daughters Leto and Asteria; Iapetus's children Atlas, Prometheus stole fire from the gods, Epimetheus, and Menoetius; Oceanus' daughter Metis; and Crius's sons Astraeus, Pallas, and Perses. The Titans were overthrown by a race of younger gods, the Olympians, in the Titanomachy (\"War of the Titans\"). This represented a mythological paradigm shift that the Greeks may have borrowed from the Ancient Near East.", "Atlas - Son of the Titan Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of Prometheus. Atlas fought with the Titans in the war against the deities of Mount Olympus. Atlas stormed the heavens and Zeus punished him for this deed by condemning him to forever bear the earth and the heavens upon his shoulders. He was the father of the Hesperides, the nymphs who guarded the tree of golden apples, and Heracles (Hercules).", "Atlas is a scion of the Titans, the Greek race of giants, and the son of Iapetus and the nymph Clymene. He is the father of the Hesperides, the Hyades and the Pleiades. He was also thought to be the king of legendary Atlantis (\"Land of Atlas\").", "The Titans later gave birth to other Titans, notably the children of Hyperion (Helios, Eos, and Selene), the daughters of Coeus (Leto and Asteria), and the sons of Iapetus – Prometheus, Epimetheus, Atlas, and Menoetius; all of these descendants in the second generation are also known as “Titans”. The Titans preceded the Twelve Olympians, who, led by Zeus, eventually overthrew them in the Titanomachy (‘War of the Titans’). The Titans were then imprisoned in Tartarus, the depths of the underworld, with the exception of a few.", "Son of the Titan Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of Prometheus. Atlas fought with the Titans in the war against the deities of Mount Olympus. Atlas stormed the heavens and Zeus punished him for this deed by condemning him to forever bear the earth and the heavens upon his shoulders. He was the father of the Hesperides, the nymphs who guarded the tree of golden apples,", "\"Ouranos (Uranus, Sky) was the first to rule over the entire world. He married Ge (Gaea, Earth) and sired first the Hekatonkheires (Hecatoncheires), who were names Briareos (Briareus), Gyes and Kottos (Cottus). They were unsurpassed in both size and power, and each had a hundred hands and fifty heads. After these he sired the Kyklopes (Cyclopes), by name Arges, Steropes, and Brontes, each of whom had one eye in his forehead. But Ouranos (Sky) bound these and threw them into Tartaros (a place in Haides' realm as dark as Erebos, and as far away from the earth as the earth is from the sky), and fathered other sons on Ge (Gaea, Earth), namely the Titanes (Titans) : Okeanos (Oceanus), Koios (Coeus), Hyperion, Kreios (Crius), Iapetos (Iapetus), and Kronos (Cronus) the youngest; also daughters called Titanides (Titanesses) : Tethys, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoibe (Phoebe), Dione, Theia.", "In Greek mythology Iapetus, or Iapetos, was a Titan, the son of Uranus and Gaia, and father (by an Oceanid named Clymene or Asia) of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius and through Prometheus and Epimetheus and Atlas an ancestor of the human race. Iapetus is the one Titan mentioned by Homer in the Iliad (8.47881) as being in Tartarus with Cronus.", "In Greek mythology Iapetus, or Iapetos, was a Titan, the son of Uranus and Gaia, and father (by an Oceanid named Clymene or Asia) of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius and through Prometheus and Epimetheus and Atlas an ancestor of the human race. Iapetus is the one Titan mentioned by Homer in the Iliad (8.478�81) as being in Tartarus with Cronus.", "Hyperion : The father of Helios , Eos , and Selene. He is the Titan of Light.", "---Astraeus \"Starry\": Son of Crius and Eurybia (Daughter of Pontus and Gaia), Titan of the stars and planets, and the art of astrology. By Eos (the Dawn) he was the father of the seasonal Winds (Boreas-North, Notus-South, Euros-East, Zephyros-West) and the Stars.", "In Greek mythology, Atlas (; ) was the Titan god of endurance and astronomy, condemned to hold up the sky for eternity after the Titanomachy. Although associated with various places, he became commonly identified with the Atlas Mountains in northwest Africa (modern-day Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). Atlas was the son of the Titan Iapetus and the Oceanid Asia or Clymene. He had many children, mostly daughters, the Hesperides, the Hyades, the ", "[From Caelum (Ouranos) and Terra (Gaia) were born ?] Oceanus, Themis, Tartarus, Pontus; the Titanes : Briareus, Gyes, Steropes, Atlas, Hyperion, and Polus [Koios (Coeus)], Saturnus [Kronos (Cronus)], Ops [Rhea], Moneta [Mnemosyne], Dione.\"", "\"Sky\". The Roman personified god of the heavens who is identified with the Greek Uranus. His wife is Terra.", "        Zeus, the god of the sky, is the ruler of the Olympian gods according to Greek Mythology. He is the son of Cronus and Rhea and is the father of many children, including Apollo, Athena, Hermes, Ares, Aphrodite, and Artemis.", "In Greek mythology, Astraeus is an astrological deity. His original Greek name, Astraios, translates to \"Starry\". In Hesiod's Theogony and in the Bibliotheca , Astraeus is a second-generation Titan, descended from Crius and Eurybia. However, Hyginus wrote that he was descended directly from Tartarus and Gaia, and referred to him as one of the Gigantes.", "-was the primordial Titan who held up the celestial spheres(punishment from zeus) He is also the titan of astronomy and navigation.", "Zeus was the god of the sky and ruler of the Olympian gods. Who was his father?", "Which Titan attacked his father with a sickle and replaced him as king of the sky?", "The principal god of the Greek pantheon, ruler of the heavens, and father of other gods and mortal heroes." ]

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[ "In the last few decades, we've started to understand the forces behind sunspots, but we've known for over a 150 years that sunspots appear in cycles. The average number of visible sunspots varies over time, increasing and decreasing on a regular cycle of between 9.5 to 11 years, on average about 10.8 years. An amateur astronomer named Heinrich Schwabe, was the first to note this cycle, in 1843. The part of the cycle with low sunspot activity is referred to as \" solar minimum \" while the portion of the cycle with high activity is known as \" solar maximum .\"", "Sunspot cycle -- The number of sunspots increases and decreases in a predictable cycle that lasts about 11 years.", "Sunspot Cycle. A cycle averaging 11 years in which the number of sunspots increases and decreases.", "The number of sunspots on the Sun varies fairly regularly with a period of about 11 years which is called the sunspot cycle . When the number of sunspots is smallest (zero or close to it) then the Sun is in the sunspot minimum. When the number of sunspots is greatest, then the Sun is in the sunspot maximum. The strength of other phenomenons changes with the number of sunspots, for example the number of solar flares and the number of coronal mass ejections. The sunspot cycle is therefore also called the solar activity cycle.", "That first crack in the theory of the sun's immutable nature would soon fracture completely as the number of sunspots were shown to increase and decrease over time in a regular, approximately 11-year cycle, called the sunspot cycle. The exact length of the cycle can vary. It has been as short as eight years and as long as fourteen, but the number of sunspots always increases over time, and then returns to low again.", "The latitudes at which sunspots appear vary as the sunspot cycle progresses. Individual sunspots do not move up or down in latitude, but new spots appear closer to the equator as older ones at higher latitudes fade away over the course of the 11-year cycle. Figure 16.21 is a plot of observed sunspot latitude as a function of time. At the start of each cycle, at the time of solar minimum , only a few spots are seen. They are generally confined to two narrow zones about 25° to 30° north and south of the solar equator. Approximately 4 years into the cycle, around the time of solar maximum , the number of spots has increased markedly. They are found within about 15° to 20° of the equator. Finally, by the end of the cycle, at solar minimum again, the total number has fallen again, and most sunspots lie within about 10° of the solar equator. The beginning of each new cycle appears to overlap the end of the last.", "The number of sunspots over time since the year 1600.  On average the number of spots varies with an 11-year period", "Sunspot Cycle – The regular waxing and waning of the number of spots on the Sun. The amount of time between one sunspot maximum and the next is about 11 years", "The magnetic field also varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11-year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes. ", "The periodic changing of the Sun’s magnetic field, which determines the number of sunspots and the amount of particles emitted in the solar wind. The period of the cycle is about 11 years.", "Sunspots are dark, highly magnetized features which appear, develop and then disappear, near the mid-latitude and equatorial regions of the Sun�s surface or photosphere. Sunspot cycles occur in nearly regular intervals of 11 years and appear dark in relation to the rest of the sun because they are nearly 1500 degrees (K) cooler than surrounding regions. Rare and incomplete records of sunspot observations date as far back as 467 BCE, while regular record keeping began in the 17th century and has developed exponentially ever since. Sunspot cycles, which occur approximately every 11 years, are found within a larger solar cycle which refers to a 22-year solar magnetic polar reversal. Thus, two 11-year sunspot cycles occur within one solar cycle.", "The change in strength of the Sun’s magnetic field, which determines the number of sunspots and the amount of particles emitted in the solar wind. The period of the cycle is about 11 years.", "Disruptions in the regular 11-year sunspot cycle have occurred during Earth�s history with the best example being that of the Maunder Minimum. During this time, which lasted from approximately 1645 to 1715, extremely low sunspot activity occurred. This event coincided with what scientists refer to as the Little Ice Age, which led to ice age-like conditions for much of the North Atlantic and large portions of Europe. The Maunder Minimum has been a topic of much research and debate in various academic disciplines. While a correlation has been shown to exist between a decrease in sunspot activity and a resurgence of ice-age conditions for portions of the Earth in the past, research is on-going and in many cases speculative. In 2008 the 24th sunspot cycle began and with it came the usual predictions for spot numbers. Predictive methods have become increasingly complex, varied and more reliable with each passing cycle. The current cycle is predicted to peak with approximately 89 sunspots in May of 2013, though changes in solar activity may change this number as the cycle progresses.", "Sunspot activity goes through an 11-year cycle. The last maximum was in 2000, and they are expected to peak again in 2011.", "To monitor the solar activity, the scientists use a fundamental indicator: sunspots. Noticed by the Chinese more than 2.000 years ago, particularly observed by Galileo around 1610, these black spots lying between 10� and 40� latitude. Their diameter varies between 50 and 50.000 km for largest ones. They result from the confinement of solar plasma by magnetic field lines. Thus insulated, it cools and appears as a darker area. The first to have noticed a periodicity in the appearance of the spots is a German amateur astronomer, a pharmacist, Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, in 1843. He observed the Sun during 17 years. He observed that the spots follow a 11 years cycle with an increase phase (about 4 years), during which their number grows, while they migrate towards the equatorial areas, then a maximum and a decrease phase, generally longer (about 7 years). The peaks of the cycle of the spots correspond to an increase in the magnetic energy of the Sun. The cause is still poorly understood. But it can be noted that the more spots, the more frequently the Sun's violent phenomena - flares and CME - do occur. We are currently, for the astronomers, in the decrease phase of the 23rd cycle, the next minimum being expected in 2007 followed by a maximum in 2010-2011.", "The 22-year period that is needed for both the average number of spots and the Sun's magnetic polarity to repeat themselves. The Sun's polarity reverses on each new 11-year sunspot cycle.", "Complicating this picture further, the 11-year sunspot cycle is actually only half of a longer 22-year solar cycle . During any given sunspot cycle, the leading spots of all the pairs in the northern hemisphere have the same polarity, while spots in the southern hemisphere have the opposite polarity (see Figure 16.18b). However, these polarities reverse their signs on successive 11-year cycles. The full cycle takes 22 years to repeat, when we take the Sun's magnetism into account. In fact, it has been found that between one 11-year segment and the next, the entire solar magnetic field reverses itself.", "Figure 12. The changing polarity of the sunspots. During each cycle, the polarity of the spots in each hemisphere stays fixed. When the next cycle starts (11 years later), the polarity is switched. It isn't until 22 years after the first cycle that the Sun is back to where it started from.", "At solar minimum there can be many days in a row with absolutely no sunspots visible, while at solar maximum hundreds of spots may be visible at any time. Solar cycles are numbered with solar cycle 1 beginning in 1755 and the most recent solar cycle, cycle 24, began in December, 2008. Counting of sunspot numbers is a bit tricky, because not only does each sunspot count as 1, but each active region counts as 10. Because a lone sunspot is also considered an active region, it is counted as 11, so on a given day, the sunspot number can be 0, 11, or any number greater than 11.", "The most active 11-year solar cycle on record is cycle 19, which reached a monthly averaged sunspot number of over 250 in the end of 1957 (note that groups enter this number with a multiplicator of 10). Compare this with this cycle, which just went a little over 150.", "Particularly interesting is a lack of sunspots between 1640 and 1700. This is called the Maunder Minimum, and coincided with a time of very cold climate in North America and Western Europe, known as the Little Ice Age. It is not clear that the two things are related, but it is a possibility. Not only the number but also the location of sunspots varies over the cycle. Sunspots appear about 30 N or S of the solar equator at the beginning of the cycle, and gradually migrate toward the equator near the end of the cycle. This pattern yields the famous ‘‘butterfly diagram,’’ shown in Fig. 7-8.", "Figure 16.22 This graph plots the number of sunspots occurring each year. Note the approximate 11-year \"periodicity\" and the absence of spots during the late seventeenth century.", "As the sunspot is \"breaking up\", the Sun is rotating about its axis, taking about 27 days to spin completely around. So even before a sunspot fades away, it might seem to disappear from view as it rotates around to the far side of the Sun. Other sunspots will come into view as they rotate onto the near side from the far side. If sunspots never changed, then in one month we would see all the sunspots there were, and then each month after that we would just see the same ones over and over again. But they do change, so each month we see different sunspot numbers each month.", "In peak years of the cycle, he found, there were spots visible on the sun most days, and hundreds of spots and groups of spots during the course of a year.", "Figure 16.17 The evolution of some sunspots and lower chromospheric activity over a period of 12 days. The sequence runs from left to right. An H", "A list of historical Grand minima of solar activity came around 690 AD, 360 BC, 770 BC, 1390 BC, 2860 BC, 3340 BC, 3500 BC, 3630 BC, 3940 BC, 4230 BC, 4330 BC, 5260 BC, 5460 BC, 5620 BC, 5710 BC, 5990 BC, 6220 BC, 6400 BC, 7040 BC, 7310 BC, 7520 BC, 8220 BC and 9170 BC. Since observations began, cycles have ranged from 9–14 years. Significant amplitude variations also occur.", "Detailed observations of sunspots have been obtained by the Royal Greenwich Observatory since 1874. These observations include information on the sizes and positions of sunspots as well as their numbers. These data show that sunspots do not appear at random over the surface of the sun but are concentrated in two latitude bands on either side of the equator. A butterfly diagram (142 kb GIF image) (184 kb pdf-file) (updated monthly) showing the positions of the spots for each rotation of the sun since May 1874 shows that these bands first form at mid-latitudes, widen, and then move toward the equator as each cycle progresses.", "So the number of sunspots on the Sun at any time depends on how many have been born lately and have not faded away yet. Looking at a map of the Sun made on Saturday, October 18, I see 17 different sunspots clustered into three close groups. One group is just about to disappear onto the far side. It is likely that these sunspots will fade away before they make it back onto our side again, about the date of November 3. From what I have said above, you probably guessed that making maps of the Sun is sort of like making maps of clouds: the maps change and you will need to make a new map very soon. And a new map of the Sun is made every day, for the special purpose of counting the number of sunspots. (These maps are made at special telescopes because it is dangerous to look at the Sun with your eyes.)", "As each cycle begins, sunspots appear at mid-latitudes, and then closer and closer to the equator until solar minimum is reached. This pattern is best visualized in the form of the so-called butterfly diagram. Images of the Sun are divided into latitudinal strips, and the monthly-averaged fractional surface of sunspots calculated. This is plotted vertically as a color-coded bar, and the process is repeated month after month to produce this time-series diagram.", "These two pictures of the Sun show how the number of sunspots changes. The picture on the left was taken near solar max in March 2001. It shows many sunspots. The picture on the right was taken near solar min in January 2005. It doesn't have any sunspots in it at all!", "The solar “Butterfly Diagram”, which shows the solar latitude of new sunspot groups over time in a number of solar cycles", "The sun raises and sets everyday, but the path the sun takes across the sky can differ between seasons." ]

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[ "Pluto is usually the furthest planet in the Solar System, but its orbit is so oval that it sometimes gets closer to the Sun than Neptune. Between 1979 and February 1999 Neptune was the furthest planet from the Sun. Pluto�s orbit is also very unusual because it is at a steeper angle than the other planets.", "If you include dwarf planets as well, the planets in order becomes Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Ceres, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris being the furthest from the Sun.", "Usually, Pluto is the planet farthest from the sun. This great distance from the sun makes Pluto very inhospitable; it's surface is expected to be made up of mostly ice and rock and it takes Pluto 248 years just to make one orbit around the sun.", "We can also say that the Earth is 1 AU from the Sun. Astronomers (people who study the planets and stars) use a measurement called an Astronomical Unit, AU.  Earth’s measurements are taken as the standard for this system, so Earth is 1 AU from the Sun, Venus is 0.72 AU from the Sun and Mars is 1.52 AU from the Sun.  Pluto, furthest out, is 39.5 AU from the Sun.  How many million miles from the Sun is Pluto?", "Because Pluto 's orbit is so eccentric, it sometimes crosses the orbit of Neptune making Neptune the most distant planet from the Sun for a few years.", "*\"Superior planet\" is used in reference to Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, (and later additions Uranus and Neptune), which are farther from the Sun than the Earth is.", "The point in the orbit of the Earth (or other planet, etc.) farthest from the Sun.", "Uranus, the second furthest planet from the Sun, has five large moons. Umbriel, discovered centuries ago, stood out in stark contrast from the others when NASA sent the Voyager 2 probe to explore the outer solar system.", "At times Pluto is the 8th planet from the Sun, and other times it is the 9th planet from the Sun. (See this image for an illustration of why this happens) Because of Pluto's great distance from the Sun, it takes a very long time to orbit the Sun. (The further a planet is away from the Sun, the slower it orbits the Sun) Pluto takes 249 years to orbit the Sun!", "There are exoplanets that are much closer to their parent star than any planet in the Solar System is to the Sun, and there are also exoplanets that are much farther from their star. Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun at 0.4 AU, takes 88-days for an orbit, but the shortest known orbits for exoplanets take only a few hours, e.g. Kepler-70b. The Kepler-11 system has five of its planets in shorter orbits than Mercury's, all of them much more massive than Mercury. Neptune is 30 AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit, but there are exoplanets that are hundreds of AU from their star and take more than a thousand years to orbit, e.g. 1RXS1609 b.", "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. At its closest, it is 28,600,000 miles from the sun. At its farthest, it is 43.4 million miles away. When Mercury and Earth are on the same side of the sun, the two planets may come within 57,000,000 miles of each other. When they are on opposite sides of the sun, they may be as far as 129,000,000 miles apart.", "Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. The next closest planet is Venus, followed by Earth.", "Neptune was the most distant planet of the solar system during the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989. It is also the most distant planet today but for a different reason. Most schoolchildren in the 20th century learned that Pluto was the most distant planet. However, the elliptical orbit of Pluto occasionally overlaps that of Neptune such that Pluto is closer to the sun than Neptune for certain periods of time. This was the case between 1979 and 1999. Today, Pluto is more distant than Neptune but has not been considered a planet since its reclassification in 2006.", "In our solar system, the time it takes each planet to complete an orbit around the Sun varies greatly. Inner planets have much shorter orbits - in distance and in time -- than outer planets. For example, Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun, completes an orbit around the Sun in 88 days, while Earth takes one year to make a complete orbit. Pluto, whose average distance from the Sun is about 40 times greater than Earth's, takes 248 years to complete its orbit.", "The dwarf planet is the most distant object ever seen in orbit around the sun, even more distant than Sedna , the planetoid discovered almost 2 years ago. It is almost 10 billion miles from the sun and more than 3 times more distant than the next closest planet, Pluto and takes more than twice as long to orbit the sun as Pluto.", "The point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid, or comet at which it is furthest from the sun", "Pluto is very far away from the Sun. It's distance from the Sun changes a lot though, due to the difference in it's orbit .", "the point in its orbit where a planet or other solar system body is farthest from the sun", "For superior planets (like Mars), shown as the red circle in the diagram above, the planet is closest to Earth at about the time of opposition, and it is farthest from Earth at about the time of conjunction. However, since the planets' orbits are  ellipses  (not perfect circles), and they are not in exactly the same plane, the planet's minimum or maximum distance from Earth may not occur at exactly the same time as opposition or conjunction.", "We get lots of emails asking this, but it's actually a difficult question to answer because the planets are moving in their orbits all the time, and so the distance from each planet to Earth is constantly changing. When both planets are on the same side of the Sun, and form a line with the Sun, then they are closest to each other. When two planets are on opposite sides of the Sun, and form a line with the Sun, then they are farthest away.", "The point in an object's orbit around the Sun when it is furthest from the Sun.", "\"A dwarf planet is a body orbiting the Sun that is big enough to form itself into a sphere by its own gravity but has not cleared its orbital path of other rival bodies\". ", "The point in the orbit of the Earth (or other planet, etc.) nearest to the Sun.", "The ninth planet of the Solar System, the smallest (5700 km radius) and most distant from the sun. The suggestion has been made that it more closely resembles a large close comet than a planet. Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.248, larger than that of any other planet; it varies from 4.44 to 7.37 billion km distance from the sun.", "The terrestrial planets in our solar system orbit relatively close to the Sun, this gives them their other name; the “Inner Planets”", "If a planet is further from the Sun, then it takes longer for that planet to orbit once around the Sun. A far-away planet takes longer to orbit the Sun because that planet has a greater distance to travel around the Sun, and also because that planet travels slower along its orbit. A far-away planet travels slower than a closer-by planet because the force of gravity between a planet and the Sun gets weaker when the planet and the Sun are further apart.", "#The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.", "Point in planet's orbit that's closest to sun / WED 9-22-10 / Sanctuary fixture / Kansas canine / Turn of millennium explorer", "Superior conjunction – Constitution of an inferior planet when it lies on the far side of the sun.", "\"Solar analogs not meeting the stricter solar twin criteria include, within 50 light years and in order of increasing distance :\" [2]", "When a planet appears to come close to another planet or star. It only appears to come close because it moves in between the other object and the Earth.", "the point in the orbit of a planet or other body where it is closest to the Sun." ]

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[ "The Apollo program was a series of human spaceflight missions undertaken by the United States , during the years 1961–1974, using the Apollo spacecraft and Saturn space launch vehicle . [1] It was conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and was devoted to the goal, expressed in a 1961 address to the U.S. Congress by U.S. President John F. Kennedy , of \"... landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth ...\" within the decade of the 1960s. [2] That goal was successfully achieved by the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.", "The Apollo program was the spaceflight effort carried out by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), that landed the first humans on Earth's Moon . Conceived during the Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower , Apollo began in earnest after President John F. Kennedy proposed the national goal of \"landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\" by the end of the 1960s in a May 25, 1961 address to Congress . [1] [2]", "In July 1969, after three years of preparation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) accomplished President John F. Kennedy’s goal of putting a man on the moon and safely returning him to Earth with Apollo 11. From 1969 to 1972, there were six successful lunar landing missions, and one aborted mission, Apollo 13. During the Apollo 17 mission, astronauts Eugene A. Cernan and Harrison H. Schmitt stayed for a record 75 hours on the surface of the moon, conducting three separate surface excursions in the Lunar Rover vehicle and collecting 243 pounds of rock and soil samples.", "The Sixties also bought the space race to new heights and ended the race to land a man on the moon and bring him back when America through the Apollo 11 mission on July 20,1969 put Neil Alden Armstrong and Edwin Eugene 'Buzz' Aldrin, Jr. became the first humans to land on the Moon fulfilling the American Dream to place a man on the moon before the Russians ( Space Race ). The words spoken by Neil Armstrong \"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind\" going into the history books for now and future generations to come.", "Between NASA's Project Mercury, which launched the first American astronauts into space, and Project Apollo, which landed men on the moon , there was Project Gemini. On May 5, 1961, Alan B. Shepard Jr. became the first American in space. Twenty days later, President John F. Kennedy addressed Congress and announced the goal of landing a man on the moon before the end of the decade.", "This NASA file image shows the July 16, 1969 launching of Apollo 11, the first manned mission to land on the moon, at the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex in Florida.", "In 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy had a challenge for NASA. The challenge was to land a man on the moon before the end of the decade (before 1970). The race to meet his goal would require the greatest technological achievement the world has ever seen. The first Apollo missions were spent getting ready for the moon landing. Apollo 8 and Apollo 10 even flew all the way to the moon, around it, and back to Earth. Finally, everything was ready. On July 16, 1969, Apollo 11 launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. They traveled to the moon and arrived in lunar orbit on July 19.", "Kennedy announced that the United States should \"commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.\" Kennedy added that, \"in a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the Moon � it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there.\" Thus, Project Apollo was born, and the American nation embraced it. NASA was handed its greatest mission, along with the money with which to accomplish it.", "That May, after Alan Shepard become the first American man in space, President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) made the bold public claim that the U.S. would land a man on the moon by the end of the decade. His prediction came true on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong of NASA’s Apollo 11 mission, became the first man to set food on the moon, effectively winning the Space Race for the Americans. U.S. astronauts came to be seen as the ultimate American heroes, and earth-bound men and women seemed to enjoy living vicariously through them. Soviets, in turn, were pictured as the ultimate villains, with their massive, relentless efforts to surpass America and prove the power of the communist system.", "Kennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Lunar Module (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Command/Service Module (CSM), and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon.", "In 1961, President John F. Kennedy had announced his vision of a US lunar landing by the end of the decade (1969). Since then, the Moon had been the ultimate goal in the Space Race. Now with the success of Mercury behind them, the US got serious in making this a reality. It was soon realized that there would be a lot of complex tasks involved when it came to landing men on the Moon; there were questions of orbital docking and navigation, flights with multiple crew, extravehicular activities (EVAs, otherwise known as \"spacewalks\") etc., and so NASA embarked on the Gemini program to explore these areas. Gemini involved a larger, two-man capsule (although it was very small and uncomfortable for the astronauts) put into orbit on top of a Titan booster. There were 10 manned Gemini missions in 1965 and 1966, gaining valuable experience. This ultimately would lead to the Apollo program, with the sole intent of putting men on the Moon. Apollo would also require a new three-man capsule, a lunar-landing craft and construction of the largest rocket ever built to launch them, the famous Saturn V.", "At 9:32 a.m. on July 16, with the world watching, Apollo 11 took off from Kennedy Space Center with astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin Jr., and Michael Collins aboard. Armstrong, a 38-year-old civilian research pilot, was the commander of the mission. After traveling 240,000 miles in 76 hours, Apollo 11 entered into a lunar orbit on July 19. The next day, at 1:46 p.m., the lunar module Eagle, manned by Armstrong and Aldrin, separated from the command module, where Collins remained. Two hours later, the Eagle began its descent to the lunar surface, and at 4:18 p.m. the craft touched down on the southwestern edge of the Sea of Tranquility. Armstrong immediately radioed to Mission Control in Houston, Texas, a famous message: �The Eagle has landed.�", "Dr. Wernher von Braun, director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, relaxes after the successful launch of Apollo 11 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins and Edwin Aldrin Jr. Their historic lunar landing mission began at 9:32 a.m. EDT, July 16, 1969, when an Apollo/Saturn V space vehicle lifted off from the spaceport's Launch Complex 39A.", "Later that May, President John F. Kennedy made the bold, public claim that the U.S. would land a man on the moon before the end of the decade. In February 1962, John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth, and by the end of that year, the foundations of NASA’s lunar landing program–dubbed Project Apollo–were in place.", "Project Apollo took new form when the goal of a manned lunar landing was proposed to the Congress by President John F. Kennedy 25 May 1961 and was subsequently approved by the Congress. It was a program of three-man flights, leading to the landing of men on the moon. Rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit of Apollo spacecraft components were vital techniques for the intricate flight to and return from the moon.", "When Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on the moon on July 20, 1969, millions watched on television as they climbed from their spacecraft, bounded across the lunar surface, and planted an American flag. They also saw the Apollo 11 astronauts take a long-distance call–a very long distance call–from the president.", "was the spaceflight which landed the first humans, Neil Armstrong and Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin, Jr, on Earth's Moon on July 20, 1969, at 20:17:39 UTC. The United States mission is considered a major accomplishment in the history of space exploration.Launched from the Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 in Merritt Island, Florida on July 16, Apollo 11 was the fifth manned mission, and the third lunar mission, of NASA's Apollo program. The crew consisted of Armstrong as Commander and Aldrin as Lunar Module Pilot, with Command Module Pilot Michael Collins. Armstrong and Aldrin landed in the Sea of Tranquillity and became the first humans to walk on the Moon on July 21. Their Lunar Module, Eagle, spent 21 hours 31 minutes on the lunar surface, while Collins remained in orbit in the Command/Service Module, Columbia. The three astronauts returned to Earth on July 24, landing in the Pacific Ocean. They brought back 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar rocks.", "Apollo 17 was the sixth Apollo lunar landing, the first night launch of a U.S. human spaceflight and the final manned launch of a Saturn V rocket. It was a “J-type mission”, missions including three-day lunar surface stays, extended scientific capability, and the third Lunar Roving Vehicle. While Evans remained in lunar orbit above in the Command/Service Module, Cernan and Schmitt spent just over three days on the lunar surface in the Taurus-Littrow valley, conducting three periods of extra-vehicular activity, or moonwalks, during which they collected lunar samples and deployed scientific instruments. Cernan, Evans, and Schmitt returned to Earth on December 19 after an approximately 12-day mission.", "16-27 Apr. 1972 During Apollo 16 astronauts John Young, Thomas Mattingly II, and Charles Duke make the fifth American landing on the Moon. Young and Duke spend 3 days with the lunar rover near the Descartes crater", "16-27 Apr. 1972 During Apollo 16 astronauts John Young, Thomas Mattingly II, and Charles Duke make the fifth American landing on the Moon. Young and Duke spend 3 days with the lunar rover near the Descartes crater", "The second manned lunar landing took place on November 19, 1969. The lunar module of Apollo 12, crewed by Commander Charles Conrad and pilot Alan Bean, separated from the orbiting command module piloted by Richard Gordon. The two astronauts landed in the area called Oceanus Procellarum near Surveyor crater, and close to Surveyor 3, an unmanned spacecraft which had landed two and a half years earlier. The two men conducted experiments, took photographs and collected samples. Parts of Surveyor 3 were taken for later examination as well. After 31 hours and 31 minutes, they took off. After docking with the command module, the lunar module was jettisoned and crashed onto the Moon, causing the first recorded artificial moonquake. The astronauts splashed down safely near American Samoa and were recovered by the U.S.S. Hornet.", "Apollo 17's clumsy-looking Challenger lunar module returns to its command module, America, after its trip to the moon in December 1972. The mission was the sixth and last lunar landing in the Apollo program, and Commander Eugene Cernan remains the last person to leave a footprint on the moon.", "On 20th July 1969, NASA met President Kennedy's challenge, and Neil Armstrong (left) and Buzz Aldrin (right) became the first and second men to walk on the moon. Listen to a sound clip of the landing by clicking here .", "After 1961, under President Kennedy, American efforts intensified while the Soviet programme suffered from infighting after Korolev’s death at 59 in 1966, following an operation that went wrong. The Luna programme continued and in 1966, the year of Korolev’s death, Luna 9 made the first soft landing on the Moon.  ", "After the flight of the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin in May 1961, Kennedy had committed the United States to landing a man on the moon by the end of the decade. Glenn later said he wondered at the time how NASA would pull it off.", "The moon landing was a major victory for the United States, which at the height of the Cold War in 1961 committed itself to landing a man on the moon and returning him safely before the decade was out.", "In September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the manned lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The A missions were unmanned Saturn V validation; B was unmanned LM validation using the Saturn IB; C was manned CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; D was the first manned CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); E would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; F would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a \"dress rehearsal\"); and G would be the first manned landing. The list of types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include H lunar landings, I for lunar orbital survey missions, and J for extended-stay lunar landings. ", "Armstrong flew the LEM while Aldrin manned the primitive flight computer. As Buzz Aldrin explained, \"At 500 feet the commander [Armstrong] took over manual control to get a feel for what the spacecraft was like before going for the landing.\" Armstrong made a few last-second maneuvers to avoid some dangerous rocks and successfully landed on the moon on July 20, 1969. All the hard years of training, education, and experience had paid off; Armstrong had made it look easy.", "When the United States made the decision in 1961 to undertake a manned lunar landing effort as the focal point of a broad new space exploration program. there was no rocket in the country even approaching the needed capability. There was a sort of \"test bed\" in the making, a multi-engine vehicle now known as Saturn I. It had never flown. And it was much too small to offer any real hope of sending a trio to the moon, except possibly through as many as a half dozen separate launchings from earth and the perfection of rendezvous and docking techniques, which had never been tried.", "The story lifts off in 1961 with Russia firing Yuri Gagarin into space, leaving a panicked America trailing in the space race. At an emergency meeting of Congress, President Kennedy proposed the ultimate face saver, put a man on the Moon. With an impassioned speech he secured the plan an unbelievable 40 billion dollars.", "The story lifts off in 1961 with Russia firing Yuri Gagarin into space, leaving a panicked America trailing in the space race. At an emergency meeting of Congress, President Kennedy proposed the ultimate face saver, put a man on the Moon. With an impassioned speech he secured the plan an unbelievable 40 billion dollars.", "The American effort to send astronauts to the moon had its origins in an appeal President John Kennedy made to a special joint session of Congress on May 25, 1961: “I believe this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth.” At the time, the United States was still trailing the Soviet Union in space developments, and Cold War-era America welcomed Kennedy’s bold proposal.In 1966, after five years of work by an international team of scientists and engineers, the National" ]

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[ "Call it \"China's Skylab,\" said Gregory Kulacki, senior analyst and China project manager for the global security program at the Union of Concerned Scientists. Skylab was the name of the first American space station launched by NASA.", "The first U.S. space station, Skylab, launched into orbit in May 1973. Adapted from the third stage of a Saturn V rocket, Skylab served as a temporary residence and workspace for three successive crews of three astronauts. The longest mission, which ended in February 1974, lasted almost three months.", "Skylab, the first US space station, was launched into orbit on May 14, 1973 as part of the Apollo program. This 91 metric ton structure was 36 meters (four stories) high, 6.7 meters in diameter and flew at an altitude of 435 km (270 miles). Three different Apollo crews manned Skylab during its 9 month mission: Charles Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul Weitz from May 25 to June 21, 1973; Alan Bean, Owen Garriott, and Jack Lousma from July 28 to September 24, 1973; and Gerald Carr, Edward Gibson, and William Pogue from November 16, 1973 to February 8, 1974.", "* Skylab was the first and only United States Space Station to date. The ISS involves many countries.", "Skylab, the United States' first space station, orbited Earth from 1973 to 1979. The Soviet program had launched their first space station, Salyut, in 1971, and it stayed in space for 15 years.", "NASA will celebrate the 40th anniversary of the launch of Skylab, America's first space station, on Tuesday (May 14), but you might be surprised where this icon of U.S. human spaceflight ended up.", "May 14, 1973 Two-stage Saturn V places Skylab, the first United States experimental space station, into Earth orbit. Skylab was conceived and designed during Wernher von Braun's tenure at MSFC. Three consecutive crews of American Astronauts had lived and worked in space for 171 days, collecting a wealth of information about the Sun, the value of Earth observations from space, and the feasibility of manufacturing products in zero-gravity.", "After the geophysical exploration of the moon via the Apollo program was completed, the United States continued human space exploration with Skylab, an earth-orbiting space station that served as workshop and living quarters for three astronauts. The main capsule was launched by a booster; the crews arrived later in an Apollo-type craft that docked to the main capsule. Skylab had an operational lifetime of eight months, during which three three-astronaut crews remained in the space station for periods of about one month, two months, and three months. The first crew reached Skylab in May, 1972.", "Skylab, America’s first crewed space station, was built at Marshall using the third stage of the Saturn V rocket. Three crews of astronauts lived onboard Skylab during 1973 and 1974 in rotations as long as 84 days. Important elements of the space shuttle were designed and developed at Marshall, including the main engines, external fuel tank and solid rocket boosters. The external tank and solid boosters are integral to the design of the new Ares crew launch vehicle. During the 1980s and 1990s, Marshall was also responsible for several shuttle payloads, including Spacelab.", "In 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle-Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the International Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.", "By 1993, NASA began collaborating with the Russians, the ESA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to create the International Space Station (ISS). Combining NASA’s Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibo laboratory module , the project also built on the Russian-American Shuttle-Mir missions (1995-1998).", "Pieces of the ninth inhabited space port, the International Space Station , or ISS, were first launched in 1998. A joint project between five space agencies — the United States, Japan, Canada, Russia, and the European Space Agency — the port has been visited by astronauts from more than 15 countries. At almost 240 feet (72.8 meters) long and 356 feet (108.5 meters) wide, the ISS weighs just under twice the mass of Mir. In 2010, it broke Mir's record of days in flight, and remains there today, serving as a laboratory and observatory in space. [ Infographic: The International Space Station Inside and Out ]", "The construction of the International Space Station (ISS) began on 20 November 1998. The Zarya Module, which was American-funded but built by Russians, was launched into orbit around the earth.� An international partnership of space agencies, from the US, Russia, Europe, Japan, Canada came together to assist in the construction of the ISS. The ISS has been the most politically complex space exploration program ever undertaken. At the moment the ISS has a permanent crew of six astronauts, who carry out research in diverse areas such as life, earth and space sciences. The International Space Station was the result of joint efforts by space agencies from sixteen different countries. The project brought together international flights crews, thereby using science as a vehicle for Cultural Diplomacy to strengthen international relations.", "The Skylab space station was launched May 14, 1973, from the NASA Kennedy Space Center by a huge Saturn V launch vehicle, the moon rocket of the Apollo Space Program. Sixty-three seconds after liftoff, the meteoroid shield--designed also to shade Skylab's workshop--deployed inadvertently. It was torn from the space station by atmospheric drag. This event and its effects started a ten-day period in which Skylab was beset with problems that had to be conquered before the space station would be safe and habitable for the three manned periods of its planned eight-month mission.", "Mar. Constant financial difficulties led the old Freedom Space Station Program being refurbished by NASA and NPO Energia into the Space Station Alpha Project, over the Mir-2 . This one, will later be named the International Space Station ( ISS ).", "The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.", "In 1984 President Ronald Reagan committed the nation to develop a permanently staffed space station within a decade, and in 1988 a formal international agreement was reached among Japan, Canada, and nine European Space Agency members to participate in the Space Station Freedom program. Space Station Freedom experienced several budget cuts, cost overruns, and redesigns in the ensuing years. In 1993, to achieve cost savings, President William J. Clinton ordered the station redesigned and management streamlined. Johnson Space Center became the host center for the new Space Station Program Office, and Boeing Defense and Space Group was selected as the single prime contractor. A cooperative agreement was reached for joint United States-Russian space activities, including participation in the international space-station program.", "On February 24, 2011, Discovery launched its final mission and docked with the International Space Station. The crew consisted of six American astronauts, all of whom had been on prior spaceflights, including Commander Steven Lindsey. The crew joined the long-duration six person crew of Expedition 26, who were already aboard the space station. The mission transported several items to the space station, including the Permanent Multipurpose Module Leonardo, which was left permanently docked to one of the station's ports.", "The International Space Station seen from the space shuttle Atlantis as it flew away on Tuesday. Credit NASA, via Associated Press", "Originally the spent third stage of a Saturn 5 moon rocket, the cylinder space station was 118 feet tall, weighed 77 tons, and carried the most varied assortment of experimental equipment ever assembled in a single spacecraft to that date. The crews of Skylab spent more than 700 hours observing the sun and brought home more than 175,000 solar pictures. They also provided important information about the biological effects of living in space for prolonged periods of time. Five years after the last Skylab mission, the space station’s orbit began to deteriorate faster than expected, owing to unexpectedly high sunspot activity. On July 11, 1979, the parts of the space station that did not burn up in the atmosphere came crashing down on Australia and into the Indian Ocean. No one was injured.", "The next space station was a secret one called Cosmos 557. Its main job was to provide spy photos of the ground as it flew overhead. But before a crew got there, it too went out of control. It burned up in May of 1973. [Ref. 1] The Soviets then designed more reliable engines.", "Mir (,; lit. peace/pax/peaceful (or world, but not in this case) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, run by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station after Mir's orbit decayed. The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space.", "During the first mission to the station, Expedition 1, NASA astronaut Bill Shepherd used the call sign \"Alpha\" to refer to the facility. The name has been used informally off and on over subsequent missions.", "Salyut 1 (DOS-1) ( Russian : Салют-1; English translation: Salute 1) was the first space station of any kind, launched by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. More stations followed in the Salyut program , and heritage of that space station program is still in use on the ISS .", "Salyut 1 (DOS-1) (; ) was launched on 19 April 1971. It was the first space station to orbit the Earth.", "space station or space platform, artificial earth satellite, usually manned, that is placed in a fixed orbit and can serve as a base for astronomical observations; zero-gravity materials processing; satellite assembly, refueling, and repair; or, possibly, as weapons platforms. The first space station was the Soviet Salyut 1, launched in Apr., 1971. The Soyuz 10 spacecraft docked with this station, but the crew did not enter it; two months later the cosmonauts aboard the Soyuz 11 spacecraft docked and entered Salyut 1, remaining aboard for 22 days. By 1982 five more Salyut space stations had been orbited successfully, two of them for military purposes. By rotating the crews regularly, the Soviets were able to staff the stations for extended periods. All the Salyut space stations have decayed and are no longer in orbit.", "The first piece of the International Space Station - named Zarya for sunrise in Russian - was launched unmanned from Kazakstan in November, 1998. A few weeks later, the crew of space shuttle flight STS-88 arrived to connect the second piece, Unity.", "1992 - The U.S. and Russia agreed to a joint venture to build a space station.", "Salyut 1, launched April 19, 1971, was the world’s first space station. It was derived from the Almaz reconnaissance platform designed in the 1960s by Soviet aerospace engineer Vladimir Chelomey and adapted for use with the Soyuz manned spacecraft originally developed by his rival Sergey Korolyov for the Soviet Moon-landing program. It weighed 20 metric tons, had a single docking port, and took the form of a stepped cylinder 14.6 metres (48 feet) long, with its widest, rearmost section 4.25 metres (13.9 feet) in diameter. After a record-breaking 23 days aboard Salyut 1 in June 1971, the inaugural three-man crew died while returning to Earth when their Soyuz, which at that time carried no support system for individual pressure suits, inadvertently lost its air.", "Space Race: Alan B. Shepard becomes the first American in space; Gus Grissom is launched in a sub-orbital flight.", "Salyut, any of a series of Soviet space station s (of two designs), launched between 1971 and 1982, that served as living quarters and scientific laboratories or military reconnaissance platforms. The program name Salyut (Russian: “Salute”) was chosen to honour cosmonaut Yury Gagarin ’s historic first orbit of Earth in 1961.", "Around the front of the museum, a large model of the space station sits at a sharp angle atop a pedestal. A plaque on the side describes the space station and what happened along this lonely coastline a few decades ago." ]

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[ "Wernher Magnus Maximilian Freiherr von Braun (March 23, 1912 – June 16, 1977) was a German, later American, aerospace engineer and space architect credited with inventing the V-2 rocket for Nazi Germany and the Saturn V for the United States. He was one of the leading figures in the development of rocket technology in Nazi Germany, where he was a member of the Nazi Party and the SS. Following World War II, he was moved to the United States, along with about 1,500 other scientists, technicians, and engineers, as part of Operation Paperclip, where he developed the rockets that launched the United States' first space satellite Explorer 1, and the Apollo program manned lunar landings.", "The origins of the Saturn V rocket begin with the US government bringing Wernher von Braun along with about seven hundred German rocket engineers and technicians to the United States in Operation Paperclip, a program authorized by President Truman in August 1946 with the purpose of harvesting Germany's rocket expertise, to give the US an edge in the Cold War through development of intermediate-range (IRBM) and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM). It was known that America's rival, the Soviet Union, would also try to secure some of the Germans.", "The largest production model of the Saturn family of rockets, the Saturn V was designed under the direction of Wernher von Braun and Arthur Rudolph at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, with Boeing, North American Aviation, Douglas Aircraft Company, and IBM as the lead contractors. Von Braun's design was based in part on his work on the Aggregate series of rockets, especially the A-10, A-11, and A-12, in Germany during World War II. ", "The V-2 (German: Vergeltungswaffe 2, \"Retribution Weapon 2\"), technical name Aggregat-4 (A-4), was the world's first long-range[4] guided ballistic missile. The missile with a liquid-propellant rocket engine was developed during the Second World War in Germany as a \"vengeance weapon\", designed to attack Allied cities as retaliation for the Allied bombings against German cities. The V-2 rocket also became the first artificial object to cross the boundary of space with the vertical launch of V-177 on 20 June 1944.[5]", "The 1960s became the decade of rapid development of rocket technology particularly in the Soviet Union (Vostok, Soyuz, Proton) and in the United States (e.g. the X-15). Rockets were now used for space exploration, with the American manned programs Project Mercury, Project Gemini and later the Apollo programme culminated in 1969 with the first manned landing on the moon via the Saturn V.", "The Saturn V (spoken as \"Saturn five\") was an American human-rated expendable rocket used by NASA between 1966 and 1973. The three-stage liquid-fueled launch vehicle was developed to support the Apollo program for human exploration of the Moon, and was later used to launch Skylab, the first American space station. The Saturn V was launched 13 times from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida with no loss of crew or payload. , the Saturn V remains the tallest, heaviest, and most powerful (highest total impulse) rocket ever brought to operational status, and holds records for the heaviest payload launched and largest payload capacity to low Earth orbit (LEO) of 140000 kg, which included the third stage and unburned propellant needed to send the Apollo Command/Service Module and Lunar Module to the Moon.", "The Saturn V program is the biggest rocket effort undertaken in this country. Its total cost, including the production of 15 vehicles between now and early 1970 will be above $7 billion.", "On Oct. 25, 1961, following President Kennedy’s moon landing proposal, NASA decided to build a testing complex specifically for the Saturn V moon rocket on the 13,500-acre site in rural Mississippi. At the time, the test facility was the largest construction project ever carried out in Mississippi history, and the second largest in the nation. Site selection was driven by the availability of access to canals and waterways that would allow NASA to move rockets from the assembly site in New Orleans to the test site and then onward to their launching base at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The first static test firing of a Saturn V S-II second-stage research engine took place on April 23, 1966. Regular testing of S-IC first and S-II second stages began in 1967.", "On January 25, 1962, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) formally assigned the task of developing the Saturn V Launch Vehicle, a three-stage rocket designed for a lunar landing mission, to the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama, with launch responsibility committed to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Dr. Werner von Braun headed a nationwide team drawn from industry, government and the educational community, which provided the expertise to produce the Saturn V. During a seven year period a total of 13 Saturn V Space Vehicles were launched, including two unmanned test flights, 10 Apollo flights and one flight which carried the Skylab space station to earth's orbit.", "* The Saturn family of rockets were developed by a team of mostly German rocket scientists led by Wernher von Braun to launch heavy payloads to Earth orbit and beyond. Originally proposed as a military satellite launcher, they were adopted as the launch vehicles for the Apollo program.", "The Saturn V carrying Apollo 17 was launched from NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center at 05:33:00 UT on December 7, 1972 (11:33:00 p.m. CST on December 6, 1972).", "The brainchild of von Braun’s rocket team operating at a secret laboratory at Peenemünde on the Baltic coast, the V–2 rocket was the immediate antecedent of those used in space exploration programs in the United States and the Soviet Union. A liquid propellant missile extending some 46 feet in length and weighing 27,000 pounds, the V-2 flew at speeds in excess of 3,500 miles per hour and delivered a 2,200-pound warhead to a target 500 miles away. First flown in October 1942, it was employed against targets in Europe beginning in September 1944. By the beginning of 1945, it was obvious to von Braun that Germany would not achieve victory against the Allies, and he began planning for the postwar era.", "In 1945, Korolev was sent to Germany to learn about the V-2 rocket, which had been used to devastating effect by the Nazis against the British. The Americans had captured the rocket’s designer, Wernher von Braun, who later became head of the U.S. space program, but the Soviets acquired a fair amount of V-2 resources, including rockets, launch facilities, blueprints, and a few German V-2 technicians. By employing this technology and his own considerable engineering talents, by 1954 Korolev had built a rocket that could carry a five-ton nuclear warhead and in 1957 launched the first intercontinental ballistic missile.", "A two-stage version of the Saturn V rocket launched Skylab to orbit on May 14, 1973 from the NASA Kennedy Space Center, Florida.", "USSR starts ion engine development - . Nation: Russia . Related Persons: Feoktistov , Korolev . Spacecraft Bus: TMK . Spacecraft: TMK-E .", "One anecdote illustrates this point. The Saturn second stage was built by North American Aviation at its plant at Seal Beach, California, shipped to NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, and there tested to ensure that it met contract specifications. Problems developed on this piece of the Saturn effort and Wernher von Braun began intensive investigations. Essentially his engineers completely disassembled and examined every part of every stage delivered by North American to ensure no defects. This was an enormously expensive and time-consuming process, grinding the stage's production schedule almost to a standstill and jeopardizing the Presidential timetable.", "The start of the Space Race actually dates back to the 1930s . The Versailles Treaty having banned them from research on cannons, the German Army instead began experimenting with the use of rocket-propelled artillery. Many prominent scientists (most eminently Wernher von Braun) were accordingly recruited into large-scale rocket development in 1932. It was the work of these scientists during World War II which eventually led to the creation of the V1 \"buzz bomb\" (a precursor to the modern cruise missile), and later the infamous V2 rocket . The V2, first successfully launched in 1942, became the first man-made object to make it out of Earth's atmosphere. Soon after, it was fitted with a payload of high-explosives and fired at London and other Allied targets, becoming the world's first practical ballistic missile as well.", "Eighteen Saturn V rockets were built. They were the most powerful machines ever built by man.", "The Saturn series of launch vehicles are large-scale rockets developed for NASA's Apollo lunar landing program. This type of rocket was originally proposed by Wernher Von Braun in 1957, who at that time was assigned to the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA). Following its establishment in 1958, Von Braun and other U.S. Army scientists were transferred to NASA, with the Saturn rocket development program subsequently becoming a NASA endeavor.", "Image above: On Oct. 14, 1966, the towering Saturn V rocket rolls out of the Vehicle Assembly Building and heads for Launch Pad 39A. Image credit: NASA › View larger image", "The Saturn V third stage was designated S-IVB. It was built by Douglas Aircraft Company at Huntington Beach, California. The S-IVB was 58 feet, 7 inches (17.86 meters) tall with a diameter of 21 feet, 8 inches (6.604 meters). It had a dry weight of 23,000 pounds (10,000 kilograms) and fully fueled weighed 262,000 pounds. The third stage had one J-2 engine and also used liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen for propellant. The S-IVB wou place the Command and Service Module into Low Earth Orbit, then, when all was ready, the J-2 would be restarted for the Trans Lunar Injection.", "During the 1960s, Marshall engineers developed and tested the stages and engines that powered the Saturn V launch vehicle to the moon. Test firings of the giant Saturn stages and rocket engines sometimes could be heard from as far as 100 miles away. Marshall provided NASA with a total of 32 Saturn rockets, including the six vehicles that lifted astronauts to the lunar surface.", "As the head of the Marshall Space Flight Center during the 1960s, Von Braun became concerned that his employees would not have work beyond developing the Saturn rockets intended for the Apollo program . As a result, he began advocating for the creation of a space station using modified Apollo hardware – which included the S-II second stage of a Saturn V rocket .", "1 Jul. 1960 On this date the Army Ballistic Missile Agency of the Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama, formally became a part of NASA and was renamed the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center. This organization included the German \"rocket team\" led by Wernher von Braun that came to the United States at the conclusion of World War II. This group had been instrumental in building the V-2 rocket, the world's first operational long-range ballistic missile.", "A V2 rocket is towed to the launch pad at White Sands Proving Ground on May 10, 1946. V2 rockets like this one were the progenitor of the rocket race that developed during the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union.", "The Saturn IB launch vehicle was conceived in 1962 at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center as the quickest, most reliable, and most economical means of providing a booster with greater payload capability than the Saturn I. The new launch vehicle would be used for earth orbital missions with the Apollo spacecraft before the Saturn V lunar launch vehicle would be available.", "The Saturn rockets, which first took men to the moon in 1969, were the direct descendants of the V2 and were engineered by Wernher von Braun and many members of the same rocket team.", "*N.B.: This post has been corrected from an earlier version, which incorrectly named the iconic Saturn V rocket. Our thanks to commenter ss2134 .", "Built in 1957 by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Propulsion and Structural Test Facility, in Huntsville, Alabama, became the primary center responsible for the development of large vehicles and rocket propulsion systems. During the 1960s, under the direction of Dr. Werner von Braun, the Saturn family of launch vehicles was developed here. This facility has supported testing of the Army Redstone Rocket, the Saturn S-1B vehicle and the F-1 engine of the Saturn 1-C vehicle employed in the Apollo program. One position of the test stand was later modified to accommodate static testing for the Solid Rocket booster currently used in the Space Shuttle program.", "NASA inherited the effort to develop the Saturn family of boosters used to launch Apollo to the Moon in 1960 when it acquired the Army Ballistic Missile Agency under Wernher von Braun. 68 By that time von Braun's engineers were hard at work on the first generation Saturn launch vehicle, a cluster of eight Redstone boosters around a Jupiter fuel tank. Fueled by a combination of liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-1 (a version of kerosene), the Saturn I could generate a thrust of 205,000 pounds. This group also worked on a second stage, known in its own right as the Centaur, that used a revolutionary fuel mixture of LOX and liquid hydrogen that could generate a greater ratio of thrust to weight. The fuel choice made this second stage a difficult development effort, because the mixture was highly volatile and could not be readily handled. But the stage could produce an additional 90,000 pounds of thrust. The Saturn I was solely a research and development vehicle that would lead toward the accomplishment of Apollo, making ten flights between October 1961 and July 1965. The first four flights tested the first stage, but beginning with the fifth launch the second stage was active and these missions were used to place scientific payloads and Apollo test capsules into orbit. 69", "Development started in the 1980s. Its design includes a Saturn orbiter (Cassini) and a lander (Huygens) for the moon Titan. The two spacecraft are named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christiaan Huygens. The spacecraft launched on October 15, 1997 aboard a Titan IVB/Centaur and entered orbit around Saturn on July 1, 2004, after an interplanetary voyage that included flybys of Earth, Venus, and Jupiter. On December 25, 2004, Huygens separated from the orbiter and landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005. It successfully returned data to Earth, using the orbiter as a relay. This was the first landing ever accomplished in the outer Solar System.", "Development started in the 1980s. Its design includes a Saturn orbiter (Cassini) and a lander (Huygens) for the moon Titan. The two spacecraft are named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christiaan Huygens. The spacecraft launched on October 15, 1997 aboard a Titan IVB/Centaur and entered orbit around Saturn on July 1, 2004, after an interplanetary voyage that included flybys of Earth, Venus, and Jupiter. On December 25, 2004, Huygens separated from the orbiter and landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005. It successfully returned data to Earth, using the orbiter as a relay. This was the first landing ever accomplished in the outer Solar System." ]

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[ "From the field of astrophysics and astronomy, one of several hundred known celestial objects believed to be rapidly rotating neutron stars that emit pulses of radiation, especially radio waves (gamma rays), with a high degree of regularity.", "They are what is known as the “lighthouses” of the universe – rotating neutron stars that emit a focused beam of electromagnetic radiation that is only visible if you’re standing in it’s path. Known as pulsars, these stellar relics get their name because of the way their emissions appear to be “pulsating” out into space.", "But this discovery suggests that the opposite is true. In fact, that most likely explanation for the repeating FRBs is that they come from an exotic object such as a young neutron star rotating with enough power to regular emit the extremely bright pulses. These stars might not even belong to a galaxy, the researchers suggest.", "Many things in space emit X-rays, among them are black holes, neutron stars, binary star systems, supernova remnants, stars, the Sun, and even some comets!", "Object that emits radiation in the form of rapid pulses with a characteristic pulse period and duration. Charged particles, accelerated by the magnetic field of a rapidly rotating neutron star, flow along the magnetic field lines, producing radiation that beams outward as the star spins on its axis.", "The intense magnetic field and plasma that are believed to surround a neutron star provide an effective source of radio waves. The high-energy electrons of the plasma spiral around the magnetic field and emit radio waves and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. This synchrotron radiation is highly directional, like a flashlight beam. If the neutron star is rotating, it will act like a revolving beacon and produce the observed pulses. The pulses recur at precise intervals, but successive pulses differ considerably in strength. Since 1968 more than 700 pulsars have been observed, with pulse rates from 4 seconds to 1.5 milliseconds; the very rapid ones are called millisecond pulsars. The interval between pulses decreases ever so slightly with the passage of time, and it is believed that the slower pulsers are the older stars while the rapid pulsers are the younger. Pulsars in the Crab Nebula and at the site of the Vela supernova can be detected optically as well as at X-ray and gamma-ray frequencies.", "Astronomers have used the telescope to carry out a detailed investigation of pulsars (pulsating stars). These are thought to be extremely dense remnants of stars left over from supernova explosions. They rotate and emit a beam of radio waves, rather like a lighthouse.", "Cherenkov radiation also occurs in nature: it comes from the sky. Cosmic rays of TeV energies (1012 eV) produce showers of fast particles in the atmosphere, and beneath these showers there is a nanosecond burst of Cherenkov radiation a hundred yards or so in diameter. The chief problem is separating the Cherenkov radiation from the background. TeV gamma rays are not influenced by electric fields, so they preserve their direction of approach. Cherenkov radiation from gamma showers can locate the direction to within a degree or so. One source was found to be the Crab Nebula pulsar, a neutron star with a rotational period of 33 ms that emits energetic gamma rays. Cherenkov counters are useful in nuclear and particle physics.", "In the radiation zone, atoms absorb and reradiate electromagnetic energy generated in the core, moving it toward the Sun?s surface and start the thermonuclear fusion. The process is slow, taking perhaps a million years, because the X rays and gamma rays from the core undergo countless collisions with atoms as they trace an indirect route through the radiation zone. The convection zone is a turbulent layer consisting of low-density gases that are stirred by convection, a mode of heat transfer. At the bottom of the convection zone, atoms of gas are heated by radiation from the radiation zone. As the gases warm and become less dense, they rise to the Sun?s surface. The gases emit energy into space from the surface in the form of visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared radiation. The atoms of gas in the convection zone, having lost some of their energy as radiation, lose volume, become denser, and sink back to the radiation zone. There, they become heated again as they absorb radiation from the Sun?s core. The heated gas atoms rise again, carrying energy from the bottom to the top of the convection zone, then losing it at the surface by radiation, and sinking again.", "The nuclear fusion occuring within the sun produces a massive flow of radiation into space. Scientists describe this radiation both as cycles or waves in an electromagnetic field and as tiny quantum packets of energy (photons).", "\"Energetic photons, ions and electrons from the solar wind, together with galactic and extragalactic cosmic rays, constantly bombard surfaces of planets, planetary satellites, dust particles, comets and asteroids.\" [20]", "Fast particles emitted from a nonequilibrium plasma as a result of the development of various types of instabilities are called corpuscular plasma radiation. Characteristic oscillations whose energy is then imparted to a small group of resonant particles are preferentially built up in the plasma. This mechanism apparently explains the acceleration of relatively low-energy cosmic-ray particles in the solar atmosphere and in the nebulas formed during explosions of supernovas of the pulsar type in the Crab nebula.", "Thus, as the radiation slowly makes its way to the surface through ever-cooler layers, its wavelength decreases. Eventually, the electromagnetic energy leaves the surface in the form of visible light. The neutrinos escape unhindered into space. The helium stays put in the core. Alternative reactions leading to the same final result exist (see the More Precisely feature on p. 420), but they are relatively rare in stars like the Sun.", "Supernovae may also send small proton, alpha (helium nuclei), and electron particles through space (these are all called cosmic rays or cosmic ray particles). It is said that the beaming of these high-energy, high-momentum particles on Earth contributed to genetic mutation, and therefore, biological evolution on Earth.", "A celestial object (most likely a neutron star) that spins rapidly, sending out short, precisely timed bursts of electromagnetic radiation.", "The most powerful form of radiation, and gives information about neutron stars and black holes. Some elements (such as uranium) emit gamma rays.", "The Hubble Space Telescope has been following the progress of the expanding cloud of debris since the early 1990s. It has watched as light emitted from the radioactive decay of elements expelled by the supernova – particularly nickel-56 and cobalt-56 – slowly faded. Meanwhile, shock waves were witnessed beginning to buffet a ring of debris a light year wide that had been expelled by tempestuous convulsions within the star thousands of years before it blew up. Fainter, more distant rings have also been detected by Hubble. The shock waves have caused clumps of denser gas within the main ring to light up, a ‘string of pearls’ numbering in their dozens progressing in intensity until, in 2011, Hubble observed the debris from SN 1987A reaching a transition point; the fading was reversed as a new power source took over.", "The energy from these nuclear reactions is emitted in various forms of radiation such as ultraviolet light, X-rays , visible light, infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves . In addition, energised particles such as neutrinos and protons are released, and it is these that make up the solar wind .", "There are other sources of energy input, but they are all small: stellar light, the solar wind plasma, gamma rays from astrophysical objects, etc.", "The questions don’t stop there. Outer space is awash with deadly radiation that emanates from solar flares firing out from the sun. Standard astronauts orbiting earth in near space, like those who recently fixed the Hubble telescope, are protected by the earth’s Van Allen belt. But the Moon is 240,000 miles distant, way outside this safe band. And, during the Apollo flights, astronomical data shows there were no less than 1,485 such flares.", "About 1911 the Austrian-American physicist Victor Franz Hess discovered that cosmic radiation, consisting of rays originating outside the earth's atmosphere, arrived in a pattern determined by the earth's magnetic field (see Cosmic Rays). The rays were found to be positively charged and to consist mostly of protons with energies ranging from about 1 GeV to 1011 GeV (compared to about 30 GeV for the fastest particles produced by artificial accelerators). Cosmic rays trapped into orbits around the earth account for the Van Allen radiation belts discovered during an artificial-satellite flight in 1959 (see Radiation Belts).", "Energetic particles traveling at the speed of light impact the Earth's atmosphere. They don't hit the ground directly, but create a \"shower\" of secondary particles. They can directly interfere with electronics in space (or in highflying aircraft over the poles) by flipping a \"bit\" in the computer memories. This can cause a \"phantom command\" that can cause the loss of a spacecraft (by turning on a steering jet, for example).", "Some gamma radiation comes from space as cosmic rays. Other radiation comes from sources in the atmosphere, such as radon gas and some of its decay products.", "The energy radiated away from the core is mostly in the form of photons, though some of it is radiated", "It has been discovered in the past 15 years that among the processes of lightning is some mechanism capable of generating gamma rays, which escape the atmosphere and are observed by orbiting spacecraft. Brought to light by NASA's Gerald Fishman in 1994 in an article in Nature, these so-called Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes (TGFs) were observed by accident, while he was documenting instances of extraterrestrial gamma ray bursts observed by the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO). TGFs are much shorter in duration, however, lasting only ~1 ms.", "Typically the aurora appears either as a diffuse glow or as \"curtains\" that approximately extend in the east-west direction. At some times, they form \"quiet arcs\"; at others (\"active aurora\"), they evolve and change constantly. Each curtain consists of many parallel rays, each lined up with the local direction of the magnetic field lines, suggesting that aurora is shaped by Earth's magnetic field. Indeed, satellites show electrons to be guided by magnetic field lines, spiraling around them while moving towards Earth.", "I still enjoy looking up into the sky on a clear night. Countless satellites now circle the globe continuously, placed in space for communications, for photographing weather, or photographing us. And with the aid of the internet, you can find the ideal time to look up and view the space station passing overhead - sometimes for five minutes as it glides across the sky from one horizon to the other, and another time for 30 seconds. And until the space shuttle program died off recently, the object was twice as bright when the shuttle was docked with the space station. The most fantastic sight I ever witnessed was the night the shuttle had undocked, and as the two passed above, the shuttle appeared to be chasing the space station - but maintained a short, constant distance behind. Cool!", "Goddard Space Flight Center - a fun and easy tutorial about the high energy portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.", "radiation zones of charged particles that surround the Earth. The shape of the Van Allen belts is determined", "radiation consisting of waves of energy associated with electric and magnetic fields resulting from the acceleration of an electric charge", "    Now, let’s try another thought experiment. Imagine yourself again in a room inside the rocket ship  And from the one end of the room, you are shining a flashlight toward the other end of the room. And when the rocket engine is turned off and the room is not in acceleration, then the beam of light will travel straight across and strike the position of the wall exactly opposite.", "I have also read that different astronauts have claimed to have seen what they believe are cosmic rays when they closed their eyes. These were as brief bursts of light. Is this true?" ]

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[ "\"The earth moves round the sun in an oval track, that has an average radius of 93 million miles, at a speed of 18½ miles a second.\"", "\"Earth's average speed of revolution about the sun is 29.8 kilometers per second, while Mercury, which is the closest planet to the sun and therefore the fastest, travels at an average speed of 47.9 kilometers per second.\"", "Next, the speed of light is important to understand. Light travels about 186,000 miles (300,000 km) per second.[4] Light takes a little more than eight minutes to travel from the sun to Earth. Something traveling at light speed could race all the way around Earth, which is about 25,000 miles or 40,000 km in circumference, about 7.5 times in one second.", "Mercury travels at an average rate of 47.36 kilometers per second 29.42 or miles per second in it's orbit around the Sun.", "To some ancient observers the slower the object the potentially the more powerful the object. Fast moving objects might have been interpreted as flighty and less serious, slow were ponderious and powerful. Let us consider the speeds at which the Sun, Moon and five visible planets move across the sky against the background of stars. Naturally we will consider their motion as seen from the Earth. The Sun takes a year to pass completely around the celestial sphere, 365 days. The Moon moves along almost the same path, the ecliptic, in just over 27 days. Mercury is always quite close to the Sun and darts from one side of the Sun to the other completing a full cycle around the Sun in 116 days. Venus can wander a bit farther from the Sun and takes about 584 days to cycle back and forth in its dance about the Sun. Mars takes about 780 days to move around the celestial sphere. Jupiter takes longer than Mars and Saturn longer than Jupiter. Thus in order of slowest, a most powerful, to the fastest, we have Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. Well, that is still not the order of the days of the week. But we are on the right track.", "The Sun is about 93 million miles from the earth. The star nearest to the Sun is Proxima Centauri. Astronomers measure the distance between stars in units called light-years. A light-year equals 5.88 million million miles (9.46 million million kilometers). This is the distance light travels in one year at a speed of 186,282 miles per second (299,792 kilometers per second). Proxima Centauri is 4.3 light-years from the Sun. It is a dim red star in the constellation of Centaurus that lies at a distance of over 40 million million kilometers, some 270,000 times greater than the distance between the earth and the sun.", "The Earth completes a full orbit (approximately 940 million km) around the sun in about 365 days (a year). Considering that each day has 24 hrs, it follows that the translational speed of our planet around the Sun is about 107 305.9 km/h or 1 788 432.2 m/s.", "The earth turns over noiselessly every 24 hours, carrying on its bosom, at the rate of 1000 miles an hour, at dizzy heights, a most tenuous atmosphere, without a rustle, without the loss of a second in 1000 years. The earth with its satellite, is traveling around the sun at the rate of 18.5 mi. per second--75 times as fast as a cannon ball--bearing a load of 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons, and arriving at a given point in its orbit, on exact time every tropical year. It has arrived so promptly on time following its elliptical course, at such a rate that the radius vector, a line from the sun to the earth, passes over equal areas in equal times, furnishing every moment an abstruse problem difficult for a scholar to solve. The orbit is so vast that it varies from a straight line, but 4 in. in 666 miles, the distance from Philadelphia to Chicago.", "In astronomy, the Earth's orbit is the motion of the Earth around the Sun, at an average distance of about 149.6 million kilometers (1 AU), every 365.256363 mean solar days (1 sidereal year). This motion gives an apparent movement of the Sun with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward, as seen from Earth. On average it takes 24 hours a solar day for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis relative to the Sun so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter (about 12,700 km) in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon of 384,000 km in four hours. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and the Earth, the Earth appears to revolve in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. From the same vantage point both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.", "The Sun is orbiting the center of the Milky Way, going in the direction of Cygnus. The Sun's orbit around the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. It has been argued that the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events. It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit through the Milky Way (a galactic year), so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km/s (156 mi/s). At this speed, it takes around 1,190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 7 days to travel 1 AU. ", "Do you mean solar wind? If so, here's an answer: the solar wind blows past the Earth at speeds of 200 to 800 kilometers per second. Normal solar wind (maybe 200 to 400 kilometers per second speed) blows outward from the Sun in all directions, throughout the solar system. \"Gusts\" in the solar wind, caused by explosions (flares, coronal mass ejections) in the Sun's atmosphere and from \"holes\" in the Sun's magnetic field) can make the solar wind blow faster (up to and sometimes greater than) 800 kilometers per second; these gusts happen in whichever direction from the Sun the explosion or hole was pointing.", "It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way (a galactic year), so the Sun is thought to have completed 18–20 orbits during its lifetime and 1/1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km/s or 0.073% of the speed of light. The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 52000 mi/h. At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU (astronomical unit). The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius, which follows the ecliptic. ", "The motion of the sun with respect to distant globular star clusters has been measured. The Doppler Effect in the Spectra tells us that the sun has a roughly circular Galactic orbit with velocity of about 220 Km/sec. (toward Cygnus)", "speed around the Sun: This is a measure of how fast a planet moves through space, in kilometers per hour.", "Imagine a large planetesimal, about 100 km in diameter, orbiting the early Sun at a distance of 1 AU. How fast is this planetesimal traveling? Using Kepler’s third law, which states that PðyearsÞ2 ¼ aðAUÞ3 We find that the period of the planetesimal is 1 year, during which period it travels once around the Sun, or a total distance of 2 r. Since the radius of the orbit is 1 AU (1:5 1011 m), the total distance covered in 1 year is 9:4 1011 m. One year is 3:16 107 seconds, so the velocity is v ¼ d=t 9:4 1011 m 3:16 107 s v ¼ 2:98 104 m=s v¼", "The velocity of the Sun through space, relative to the Local Standard of Rest. The solar motion is U = -9 kilometers per second, V = +12 kilometers per second, and W = +7 kilometers per second. [C95] Solar Neutrinos", "Apr. 17: The U.S./German spacecraft Helios 2 becomes the fastest man-made object, reaching 247,500 km/h at 0.29 AU from the Sun .", "The solar system is located within the Milky Way Galaxy , close to its equatorial plane and about 7.9 kiloparsecs from the galactic centre. The galactic diameter is about 30 kiloparsecs, as indicated by luminous matter. There is evidence, however, for nonluminous matter—so-called dark matter —extending out nearly twice this distance. The entire system is rotating such that, at the position of the Sun, the orbital speed is about 220 km per second (almost 500,000 miles per hour) and a complete circuit takes roughly 240 million years. Application of Kepler’s third law leads to an estimate for the galactic mass of about 100 billion solar masses. The rotational velocity can be measured from the Doppler shifts (see Doppler effect ) observed in the 21-cm emission line of neutral hydrogen and the lines of millimetre wavelengths from various molecules, especially carbon monoxide. At great distances from the galactic centre, the rotational velocity does not drop off as expected but rather increases slightly. This behaviour appears to require a much larger galactic mass than can be accounted for by the known (luminous) matter. Additional evidence for the presence of dark matter comes from a variety of other observations. The nature and extent of the dark matter (or missing mass) constitutes one of today’s major astronomical puzzles.", "             This law describes the speed at which any given planet will move while orbiting the sun. The speed at which any planet moves through space is constantly changing. A planet moves fastest when it is closest to the sun and slowest when it is furthest from the sun. Yet, if an imaginary line were drawn from the center of the planet to the center of the sun, that line would sweep out the same area in equal periods of time.", "0); Vorb about 250-300 km s-1. Motion with respect to nearby stars 20 km s-1 toward R.A. 18h4m, declination + 30° (in Hercules). It is about 10 kpc from the galactic center and about 10-15 pc above the galactic plane. Mv = +4.85; Mbol = +4.67. It takes about 1-10 million years for photons to diffuse from the Sun's interior to its surface. About 3% of the energy radiated is in the form of neutrinos. Every second about 655 million tons of H are being converted into 650 million tons of He. A grazing light ray is deflected 1\".7 by the Sun. Magnetic fields about 1-2 gauss over most of its surface; as high as 10-1000 gauss in active regions. If the total angular momentum of the solar system were concentrated in the Sun, its equatorial rotation speed would be about 100 km s-1. [H76] Sunrise/Sunset", "A rough, general figure for the Earth's mean orbital speed is 30 kilometers per second (km/s), or 18½ miles per second (mi/s).", "0); Vorb about 250-300 km s-1. Motion with respect to nearby stars 20 km s-1 toward R.A. 18h4m, declination + 30� (in Hercules). It is about 10 kpc from the galactic center and about 10-15 pc above the galactic plane. Mv = +4.85; Mbol = +4.67. It takes about 1-10 million years for photons to diffuse from the Sun's interior to its surface. About 3% of the energy radiated is in the form of neutrinos. Every second about 655 million tons of H are being converted into 650 million tons of He. A grazing light ray is deflected 1\".7 by the Sun. Magnetic fields about 1-2 gauss over most of its surface; as high as 10-1000 gauss in active regions. If the total angular momentum of the solar system were concentrated in the Sun, its equatorial rotation speed would be about 100 km s-1.", "The Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels relative to other nearby stars. This motion is towards a point in the constellation Hercules, near the star Vega. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being the red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light-years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass. ", "At 18,000 miles (29,000 km) an hour, the Space Shuttle crosses the Unites States in 10 minutes and circles the Earth in an hour and a half. In 13 hours it covers the distance to the Moon, but even so would take two months to cover the distance to Venus and seven to cover the distance to the Sun. Pluto is still over two years away. The nearest star is still 160,000 years away.", "A light beam takes 8 minutes to travel the 93 million miles (150 million km) from the sun to the Earth. Image via Brews OHare on Wikimedia Commons .", "# As the planet moves in its orbit, the line from the Sun to planet sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane for a given period of time, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as \"equal areas in equal time.\"", "Sun is like a ball of fire. The sunlight from the sun takes about 8.5 minutes to reach the surface of the earth.", "Proxima Centauri has been the nearest star for about 32,000 years, and it will hold this record for another 33,000 years. It will make its closest approach to the Sun in about 26,700 years, getting to within 3.11 light-years of Earth. After 33,000 years from now, the nearest star will be Ross 248.", "10.4. Suppose that you observe a star moving at high velocity relative to the Sun in the solar neighborhood. What is the orbit of this star? Where does it spend most of its time? Which direction(s) is it most likely traveling? The orbit of this star is highly elliptical, and it spends most of its time in the halo. The star is probably traveling into or out of the disk.", "It would take 29 million years for a car travelling 100 miles per hour to reach the nearest star", "The sun does not appear to be as massive as it actually is because it is about 150 million kilometres from Earth. It would take about 200 years to ‘drive’ there!", "Radiant : 20:28 -10.2° - ZHR : 5 - Velocity: 15 miles/sec (slow - 24km/sec) - Parent Object: 169P/NEAT" ]

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[ "Helium is the second lightest element in the known universe. It is also the second most abundant. According to some estimates helium accounts for as much as 24 percent of the Universe’s mass. This element is also plentiful since it is a prime product of fusion nuclear reactions involving hydrogen. So if it is so plentiful where is Helium found?", "Helium is the second lightest element and is also the second most plentiful element in the universe although it's not found in large quantities on Earth. Helium, denoted by the atomic symbol He and the atomic number two, has an atomic weight of 4.0026. Helium is created underground as a byproduct of radioactive decomposition. It is used to make things, like balloons or blimps, float; it's also used as a displacement medium for gas in deep-sea diving and as a super coolant.", "Helium is colorless and odorless. Of all the elements in the periodic table, it has the lowest boiling and melting points. It only exists in gas form at extreme environmental conditions. Pierre Janssen and Norman Lockyer first observed this element in 1868 when they found there existed a yellow line of light in a solar eclipse. Helium is the second lightest element and second most abundant element in the universe. This is due to the high binding energy of helium to lithium, beryllium, and boron. Helium has two electrons in the orbital around the nucleus with two protons.", "Helium – Second lightest element, consists of two protons, two neutrons and two electrons. Eight percent of the atoms in the universe are helium.", "The Big Bang also churned out helium, the next lightest element. You don't have any helium in you, unless you just sucked the gas out of a birthday balloon. But helium is the second most common element after hydrogen. Together they make up more than 98 percent of the matter in the universe. (Luminous matter, that is; dark matter is a whole other story.) A smattering of lithium (element 3) and one or two other of the lightest elements also formed in the Bang, but these were negligible.", "Helium - The second lightest and second most abundant element. The typical helium atom consists of a nucleus of two protons and two neutrons surrounded by two electrons. Helium was first discovered in our Sun. Roughly 25 percent of our Sun is helium.", "Helium is the lightest noble gas with two electrons filling the 1s state to close the first shell. It is the second most abundant element in the universe, following hydrogen. The hydrogen-helium abundance ratio is an important clue to the cosmological process.", "the second lightest and second most abundant element. The typical helium atom consists of a nucleus of two protons and two neutrons surrounded by two electrons. Helium was first discovered in our Sun. Roughly 25 percent of our Sun is helium.", "Hydrogen is the lightest and the most plentiful element in the universe. Hydrogen, denoted by the symbol H, has an atomic number of one and joins with many other elements to produce water, ammonia, hydrocarbons, acids and bases. Hydrogen has an atomic weight of 1.008. It can act as a halogen and is also similar to alkali metals. Hydrogen is one of the cornerstone elements of the make up of the universe.", "During the formation of the universe some 14 billion years ago in the so-called ‘ Big Bang ’, only the lightest elements were formed – hydrogen and helium along with trace amounts of lithium and beryllium. As the cloud of cosmic dust and gases from the Big Bang cooled, stars formed, and these then grouped together to form galaxies.", "Hydrogen. The simplest and lightest element; usually consists of just a single proton and electron; about 90 percent of the atoms in the universe are hydrogen.", "According to the Big Bang theory, stable isotopes of the lightest five elements (H, He, and traces of Li, Be, and B) were produced very shortly after the emergence of the universe, in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. These lightest stable nuclides (including deuterium) survive to today, but any radioactive isotopes of the light elements produced in the Big Bang (such as tritium) have long since decayed. Isotopes of elements heavier than boron were not produced at all in the Big Bang, and these first five elements do not have any long-lived radioisotopes. Thus, all radioactive nuclei are, therefore, relatively young with respect to the birth of the universe, having formed later in various other types of nucleosynthesis in stars (in particular, supernovae), and also during ongoing interactions between stable isotopes and energetic particles. For example, carbon-14, a radioactive nuclide with a half-life of only 5,730 years, is constantly produced in Earth's upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen.", "The lightest chemical elements, including hydrogen, helium and smaller amounts of lithium, beryllium and boron, are thought to have been produced by various cosmic processes during the Big Bang and cosmic-ray spallation. ", "Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen. Helium makes up about 24% of the mass of the elements in the universe. Neon is the fifth most abundant and argon is the eleventh.", "Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe (23% by mass); hydrogen and helium together make up 99% of the \"normal\" matter of the universe.  (Of course, there's also \"dark matter\" and \"dark energy\" to worry about, but that's another story.)  Hydrogen, helium, and trace amounts of lithium were produced at the beginning of the Universe in the Big Bang, and became concentrated into stars by the force of gravity.  The fusion of hydrogen atoms in stars to produce helium produces huge amounts of energy; the energy in sunlight is captured by plants in photosynthesis, and drives most of the chemistry of living organisms.", "Helium, the second most abundant element in the universe , was discovered on the sun before it was found on the earth. Pierre-Jules-César Janssen, a French astronomer, noticed a yellow line in the sun's spectrum while studying a total solar eclipse in 1868. Sir Norman Lockyer, an English astronomer, realized that this line, with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers, could not be produced by any element known at the time. It was hypothesized that a new element on the sun was responsible for this mysterious yellow emission. This unknown element was named helium by Lockyer.", "Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen. α-particles are doubly ionised helium atoms, He2+.", "Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe after hydrogen. Helium makes up about 24% of the mass of the elements in the universe . Neon is the fifth most abundant and argon is the eleventh.On Earth , the noble gases are fairly rare with the exception of argon. Argon makes up just under 1% of the Earth’s atmosphere, making it the third most abundant gas in the atmosphere after nitrogen and oxygen.", "Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe. It is very common in the hotter stars. It is an important component in the proton-proton reaction and the carbon cycle in stars.", "Lithium, element 3, is named after the Greek word for stone - lithos. Lithium is one of only three elements to have existed since the beginning of the Universe, having been synthesized during the Big Bang (the other two are hydrogen and helium). It is the lightest metal, both by density and by atomic weight. It was discovered in 1817 by Johan August Arfvedson in the mineral petalite. The first isolation of elemental lithium was achieved later by W.T. Brande and Sir Humphrey Davy by the electrolysis of lithium oxide. In 1855, Bunsen and Mattiessen isolated larger quantities of the metal by electrolysis of lithium chloride. In 1923 the first commercial production of lithium metal was achieved by Metallgesellschaft AG in Germany using the electrolysis of a molten mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.", "Helium was sited by a French astronomer Pierre Janssen while observing the solar eclipse in 1868 ad. Helium wasn't isolated til 1895 by Sir William Ramsay. Ramsay treated mineral cleveite with mineral acids, when he analysed the mixture, Ramsay discovered a yellow line in the emission spectrum (a band of colours).This yellow line was Helium. Helium is lighter than air and is the second most abundant element in the universe.", "To a very good extent, the abundance of cosmic rays is the same as the abundance in the universe as a whole. So the 10 most abundant elements (in order from most abundant down) are hydrogen, helium, oxygen, carbon, neon, nitrogen, magnesium, silicon, iron, and sulfur.", "The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.", "atomic number 2 ; He ; helium (a very light colorless element that is one of the six inert gasses; the most difficult gas to liquefy; occurs in economically extractable amounts in certain natural gases (as those found in Texas and Kansas))", "The chemical element of atomic number 2, an inert gas that is the lightest member of the noble gas series.", "The only other truly simultaneous discovery of two elements in recent times came in 1952, when einsteinium (99) and fermium (100) were discovered in the fallout from the hydrogen bomb explosion at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific Ocean. The most recent successful discovery of an element -- one that has received a name -- came in 1994. That element, No. 110, is called Darmstadtium for the city in Germany where it was discovered.", "atomic number 38 ; Sr ; strontium (a soft silver-white or yellowish metallic element of the alkali metal group; turns yellow in air; occurs in celestite and strontianite)", "About 2% of our solar nebula consisted of elements besides hydrogen and helium. However Which of the following statements is most likely to have been true about these first-generation star systems?", "Einsteinium is a synthetic element with symbol Es and atomic number 99 and is named after Albert Einstein. It was first detected in the debris from a nuclear explosion at Eniwetok (now Enewetak) in the Pacific after tons of radioactive coral from atolls in the blast area were sifted and examined. It is a silvery-white radioactive metal with isotopes having half-lives ranging from 20 to 472 days.", "By what appears to have been pure coincidence, it was on the day of Einstein's death - the 18 April 1955 - that the American Physical Society received a paper from Seaborg and his colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley, announcing the discovery of a new radioactive element that was to become known as mendelevium. At its most stable atomic weight of 258, it is considered one of the 'superheavy'-weights of the periodic table. Like most of the heavier elements, it's so large that it has trouble sticking itself together and usually decays after just a couple of hours - which is why Seaborg and his colleagues had to create it synthetically.", "Einsteinium is a synthetic element with symbol Es and atomic number 99. It is the seventh transuranic element, and an actinide.", "The discovery, announced today, means one of the most crucial elements for life as we know it can exist around planets orbiting other stars." ]

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[ "Asteroids are any of thousands of smaller bodies or planetoids that orbit around the Sun. they range in size from 1.6 miles to 480 miles.", "Uncountable number of small heavenly bodies also orbit the Sun. These are called meteoroids. A meteoroid is a piece of rock or metal that orbits the Sun. Meteoroids are scattered in different orbits in space. Most of them are too small to be seen from the Earth.", "The Solar System or solar system[1] comprises the Sun and the retinue of celestial objects gravitationally bound to it: the eight planets, their 162 known moons,[2] three currently identified dwarf planets and their four known moons, and thousands of small bodies. This last category includes asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and interplanetary dust.", "All other objects ... orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as \"Small Solar System Bodies\" .... These currently include most of the Solar System asteroids, most Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs), comets, and other small bodies.[6]", "Meteoroid -- Small bodies in orbit about the sun which are candidates for falling to Earth or to another planet.", "Any other object in orbit around the Sun is simply a small celestial body. These include asteroids, meteors and satellites.", "Asteroid=One of the many small celestial bodies in orbit around the Sun. Most asteroids orbit between Mars and Jupiter.", "In broad terms, the charted regions of the Solar System consist of the Sun, four rocky bodies close to it called the terrestrial planets, an inner belt of rocky asteroids, four gas giant planets, and an outer belt of small, icy bodies known as the Kuiper belt. In order of their distances from the Sun, the planets are Mercury (?), Venus (?}}), Earth (?), Mars (?), Jupiter (?), Saturn (?), Uranus (?), and Neptune (?). All planets but two are in turn orbited by natural satellites (usually termed \"moons\" after Earth's Moon), and every planet past the asteroid belt is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other particles. The planets, with the exception of Earth, are named after gods and goddesses from Greco-Roman mythology.", "Most of the mass of the solar system is concentrated in the Sun, with its 1.99 × 1033 grams. Together, all of the planets amount to 2.7 × 1030 grams (i.e., about one-thousandth of the Sun’s mass), with Jupiter alone accounting for 71 percent of this amount. The solar system also contains a few known objects of intermediate size classified as dwarf planets and a very large number of much smaller objects collectively called small bodies . The small bodies, roughly in order of decreasing size, are the asteroids , or minor planets; comets , including Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects; meteoroids (see meteor and meteoroid ); and interplanetary dust particles . Because of their starlike appearance when discovered, the largest of these bodies were termed asteroids, and that name is widely used, but, now that the rocky nature of these bodies is understood, their more descriptive name is minor planets.", "The Sun, and all the planets that orbit the Sun-Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. This can also include the minor objects, such as meteoroids, asteroids and comets.", "The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity . These objects are the eight planets and their 166 known moons, four dwarf planets and billions of small bodies, including asteroids , icy Kuiper belt objects, comets , meteoroids , and interplanetary dust.", "Solar system – System that includes the sun and the smaller bodies (planets, moons, etc…) that orbit the sun.", "Our Solar system consists of the Sun, eight official planets, at least three dwarf planets, natural satellites of the planets, as well as man-made satellites and a large number of small bodies like comets and asteroids.", "✶✶ An asteroid is a small planetary body revolving around the sun, sometimes called a minor planet or a planetoid. Most lie in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. ✶✶ A comet is an icy body that releases gas or dust as it travels around the sun in a long, oval orbit. Most comets are too small or too faint to be seen without a telescope. However, some become visible as they pass close to the sun. ✶✶ A meteoroid is a piece of stony or metallic debris travelling around the sun. A meteor is a bright streak of light that appears briefly in the sky when a meteoroid enters the Earth’s atmosphere from outer space. Most meteors disintegrate before reaching the Earth’s surface. Those that reach Earth are called meteorites. Millions of meteors burn up in the Earth’s atmosphere every day.", "Whereas meteoroids are small size, sometimes in millimetres, bodies in space in orbit around the sun.", "A small solar system object composed mostly of rock. Many of these objects orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter. Their sizes range anywhere from 33 feet (10 meters) in diameter to less than 620 miles (1,000 kilometers). The largest known asteroid, Ceres, has a diameter of 579 miles (926 kilometers).", "In addition to thousands of small bodies in those two regions, various other small body populations, such as comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust, freely travel between regions. Six of the planets and three of the dwarf planets are orbited by natural satellites, usually termed \"moons\" after Earth's Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other particles.", "If you think of the eight planets as members of Earth’s family—friendly cousins who swing by regularly and never cause any grief—then asteroids are the total strangers lurking in the neighborhood. And like strangers, their visits aren’t always welcome. Asteroids are the rubble left over from the solar system’s formation roughly 4.6 billion years ago. Scientists estimate that more than a million of these itty-bitty worlds orbit the sun in the Asteroid Belt, a stretch of space between Mars and Jupiter . They range in size from dwarf planets nearly 600 miles (950 kilometers) across to chunky rocks less than half a mile (1 kilometer) wide. Some asteroids even have their own moons!", "Our Solar System consists of our star, the Sun, and its orbiting planets (including Earth), along with numerous moons, asteroids, comet material, rocks, and dust. Our Sun is just one star among the hundreds of billions of stars in our Milky Way Galaxy. If we shrink the Sun down to smaller than a grain of sand, we can imagine our Solar System to be small enough to fit onto the palm of your hand.  Pluto would orbit about an inch from the middle of your palm.", "The eight planets in our solar system each occupy their own orbits around the Sun. They orbit the star in ellipses, which means their distance to the sun varies depending on where they are in their orbits. When they get closest to the Sun, it’s called perihelion, and when it’s farthest away, it’s called aphelion.", "The solar system is an entity that has in its vicinity eight planets (including ours), gravitating around the Sun (which gave the solar system its name) and asteroids, moons or satellites, comets, dust, gas, dwarf planets and others.", "Within the last decade, for example, astronomers discovered leftover clumps, called planetesimals, in a region beyond Neptune, although no large planets formed beyond that planet. These bodies form an outer asteroid belt at the edge of the solar system called the Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt, named for the scientists who proposed its existence in the 1950s. Calculations show that this asteroid-rich Kuiper Belt (as it is now known) is probably the source of most of the short-period comets, such as Halley's Comet, which orbits the Sun every 76 years.", "There are presently nine known objects orbiting between Jupiter and Neptune (including 2060 Chiron (aka 95 P/Chiron) and 5145 Pholus; see the MPC's list). The IAU has designated this class of objects as Centaurs. These orbits are not stable. These objects are almost certainly \"refugees\" from the Kuiper Belt. Their future fate is not known. Some of these show some cometary activity (ie, their images are a little fuzzy indicating the presence of a diffuse coma ). The largest of these is Chiron which is about 170 km in diameter, 20 times larger than Halley . If it ever is perturbed into an orbit that approaches the Sun it will be a truly spectacular comet.", "The Solar System consists of the Sun and its planetary system of eight planets, their moons, and other objects including asteroids and meteors. Our planet Earth is one among the eight planets that revolve around the Sun.", "The Solar System also contains smaller objects. The asteroid belt , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc , which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, and beyond them a newly discovered population of . Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity.", "Some asteroids orbit close in to the Sun among the inner planets. Some even approach the orbit of the Earth. These are called Near Earth Asteroids (NE Asteroids).", "A small body, composed mainly of ice and dust, in an elliptical orbit about the Sun. As it comes close to the Sun, some of its material is vaporized to form a gaseous head and extended tail.", "To break it down, small bodies are ejected  from the Solar System all the time due to encounters with larger objects that perturb their orbits. In order to avoid being ejected, smaller bodies need to be protected by orbital resonances. While the smaller and larger objects may pass within each others’ orbital path, they are never close enough that they would able to exert a significant influence on each other.", "refers to any body orbiting around the sun that is not a planet or dwarf planent", "usually termed \"moons\" after the Moon . Each of the outer planets is encircled by of dust and other small objects.", "The asteroid Chariklo has been confirmed as the smallest object in the Solar System to display a ring system. Encircling bands of material are more usually associated with the giant planets, such as Saturn and Uranus.", "Most objects in the solar system are in orbits shaped like an ______ and is referred to as an ______ _______" ]

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[ "A general model of star formation and evolution has been developed, and the major features seem to be established. A large cloud of gas and dust can contract under its own gravitational attraction if its temperature is sufficiently low. As gravitational energy is released, the contracting central material heats up until a point is reached at which the outward radiation pressure balances the inward gravitational pressure, and contraction ceases. Fusion reactions take over as the star’s primary source of energy, and the star is then on the main sequence. The time to pass through these formative stages and onto the main sequence is less than 100 million years for a star with as much mass as the Sun. It takes longer for less massive stars and a much shorter time for those much more massive.", "A general model of star formation and evolution has been developed, and the major features seem to be established. A large cloud of gas and dust can contract under its own gravitational attraction if its temperature is sufficiently low. As gravitational energy is released, the contracting central material heats up until a point is reached at which the outward radiation pressure balances the inward gravitational pressure, and contraction ceases. Fusion reactions take over as the star's primary source of energy, and the star is then on the main sequence. The time to pass through these formative stages and onto the main sequence is less than 100 million years for a star with as much mass as the Sun. It takes longer for less massive stars and a much shorter time for those much more massive.", "This cloud/nebula began to contract, collapsing in on itself. The atoms, once separated, began to jostle each other, generating heat. In the rising heat, the atoms collided more frequently and more violently. Eventually, they reached a temperature at which the protons at the centers of the atoms began to fuse, in a process called nuclear fusion. As they did, a tiny bit of matter transformed into a whole lot of energy, and a star was born. In this way, our Sun came into being.", "A neutron star is the product of the explosive transformation of a massive star. Any star's life is a careful balancing act: the gravity of its own material pulls inward, while pressure from the heat and light produced by the burning of hydrogen into helium in the star's core pushes outward. For a massive star, this delicate dance goes on for millions of years, until the hydrogen supply in the core runs low. Gravity begins to take over and the core contracts and heats up. This increase in temperature allows the star to fuse helium into even heavier elements, temporarily staving off gravitational collapse.", "According to this theory, the helium core contracts, raising the temperature to the point where the helium nuclei can fuse to form carbon, releasing new energy. As it heats, it contracts still further. At this stage, the life of the star draws rapidly to a close, for the energy produced by helium fusion is far less than that produced by hydrogen fusion. At a given point, the energy required to keep the stars expansion against the pull of its own gravitational field begins to fail. The star contracts rapidly, collapsing in on itself to become a white dwarf, surrounded by a halo of gas, the remnant of the outer layers blown out by the heat of contraction. These are the basis of planetary nebulae. Stars may remain in this state for a long time, slowly cooling, until they no longer possess enough heat to glow. They then end up as black dwarves.", "A star's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous w:nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen, along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements. Once the stellar core is sufficiently dense, hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion, releasing energy in the process. [1] The remainder of the star's interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective processes. The star's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity. Once the hydrogen fuel at the core is exhausted, a star with at least 0.4 times the mass of the Sun [2] expands to become a red giant , in some cases fusing heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core. The star then evolves into a degenerate form, recycling a portion of its matter into the interstellar environment, where it will contribute to the formation of a new generation of stars with a higher proportion of heavy elements. [3] Meanwhile, the core becomes a stellar remnant : a white dwarf , a neutron star , or (if it is sufficiently massive) a black hole .", "As learned by star formation astronomers, stars are born in molecular clouds, large regions of slightly higher density of matter (though still less dense than the inside of an Earthly vacuum chamber), and form by gravitational instability inside those clouds triggered by shockwaves from supernovae.", "The core contracts until the temperature and pressure are sufficient to fuse carbon (see carbon burning process ). This process continues, with the successive stages being fueled by neon (see neon burning process ), oxygen (see oxygen burning process ), and silicon (see silicon burning process ). Near the end of the star's life, fusion continues along a series of onion-layer shells within the star. Each shell fuses a different element, with the outermost shell fusing hydrogen; the next shell fusing helium, and so forth. [37]", "A star, like our Sun, begins its life as a vast cloud of gas and dust drifting among the apparently empty spaces between the stars. These clouds of sparse material are truly immense and often span hundreds or thousands of light years in all directions. Even though they contain fewer atoms than the best vacuum on Earth, the total amount of material in an interstellar cloud, also known as its mass, is truly astronomical. Most of the stuff in one of these clouds is hydrogen, the simplest and most abundant element in the Universe, but they also contain other, more complex, elements, too.", "Stars are born in clusters and often pass by one another. It is during these encounters that a star can \"steal\" one or more planets in orbit around another star. This is probably what happened when our own sun captured Planet 9.", "These injected elements ultimately enrich the molecular clouds that are the sites of star formation. [105] Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life, and may decisively influence the possibility of having planets orbiting it.", "STAR BIRTHS are started when the interstellar matter in gas clouds, such as the Eagle Nebula shown here, compresses and fuses.", "Most of this material gets packed into a single body that becomes so dense that it ignites: atoms (especially hydrogen atoms) get smashed into each other and transformed into other atoms (such as helium) and light. This process is called fusion and it is the process by which the star produces the light we see. The star does not collapse any more because the fusion process creates a reverse force that balances the gravitation. A star similar in size to our Sun continues to fuse its hydrogen atoms for about 10 billion years.", "Stars are not born in isolation. Usually they form as a group within a cloud of gas and dust. For instance, such a star cluster is forming in the Orion Nebula , where the newly born stars and the nebula from which they form are visible simultaneously. Later in a star cluster's history, the gas and dust has dissipated, leaving a naked cloud of newborn stars.", "A star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in its core releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then radiates into outer space. Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium were created by stars, either via stellar nucleosynthesis during their lifetimes or by supernova nucleosynthesis when stars explode.", "Star – Sphere of hot gas held together by gravity and emanates brightness by itself; common stars utilize nuclear fusion from its core to generate energy.", "process of a star to create different elements through : hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, and boron.", "     The fusion chain cannot continue so its fuel is reduced. Some stars keep shrinking until they become a cooling ember made up of iron. However, if a star is sufficiently massive, a tremendous, violent, brilliant explosion can happen. A star will suddenly expand and produce, in a very short time, more energy than our Sun will produce in a lifetime. When this happens, we say that a star has become a supernova.", "The more massive star will enter the main sequence with a higher temperature (typically over 10,000K for a star of over 4 times the mass of our Sun) and greater luminosity than the Sun like star. The central core regions of these stars are also far hotter than in the previous class, and this causes the star to \"age\" more rapidly since, although the larger star has more fuel, it uses this fuel much quicker. For example, a star with five times as much mass as the Sun will evolve into a red giant one hundred times quicker ! The star completes its hydrogen and helium burning stages in the same way as the Sun-sized star described above. However, because the star is hotter, it can burn carbon when the helium supply becomes scarce. At this point, helium is burned around a carbon core, sending the star into a red giant stage. Carbon is then burned, then neon, and each successive element is burned to exhaustion. At each stage when the star switches from burning one element to another, it again goes through the red giant phase, before returning to the main sequence for another period. However, when the star gets so far into this process that it develops a core of iron, no further reactions are possible because iron cannot be converted into the next element without huge amounts of energy being consumed.", "Stars have one of two ways to produce these heavier-than-iron elements—and, not incidentally, to get them and all the other elements forged in their nuclear furnaces out into space so they can be incorporated into new stars, planets, and people.", "Vast clouds of gas and dust are swirling throughout our Milky Way galaxy. Some of these clouds are stellar nurseries, places where thousands of stars like our Sun are being born right now. These clouds are huge, about 100,000 times the size of our solar system and many thousands of times the mass of our Sun.", "As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region (ionized atomic hydrogen) of glowing gas and plasma. The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually cause the cloud to disperse, often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way. ", "As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region of glowing gas and plasma. The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually serve to disperse the cloud, often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way. [69]", "A system of two stars orbiting around a common center of mass that are bound together by their mutual gravitational attraction.", "As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region of glowing gas and plasma. The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually serve to disperse the cloud, often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.", "a large grouping of stars, from a few dozen to a few hundred thousand, that are bound together by their mutual gravitational attraction.", "Feasibility rating: 4/10. This is listed under natural methods because there is absolutely no way you can move a star. Well, there are ways and means, but if you can move a star, why not move the Earth into that star? And the chances of this happening - even considering that in two billion years' time the Milky Way is going to collide with Andromeda - are very, very slim. Calculations suggest that the number of actual stellar collisions that are likely to occur in that exchange will be SIX. Six chances in about a hundred billion.", "perhaps around 15-17 times that of the Sun. At such a mass, the star will (after", "\"Its down and glittering wings figured by stars. Accordingly he who at its rising leaves his mother's womb and beholds the light of day shall make the denizens of the air and the race of birds that is dedicated to heaven the source of his pleasure and profit.", "Binary system where one star lies within its Roche lobe but the other fills its Roche lobe and is transferring matter onto the first star.", "garlict: There are stars called lumans. (Illuminated humans) a space princess with one eye covered (symbolic) a special one being taken (jesus)", "The interactions between the two stars in this very violent stellar event will cause more fusion to occur inside the Sun than normally does in 100,000,000 years. The result is not unlike a supernova explosion, though slower - a staggering amount of matter and energy is released outwards, burning the Earth to a crisp and firing it into interstellar space at best, completely incinerating it at worst." ]

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[ "The study of the universe in its totality, and especially its origin and structure, is called cosmology. The cornerstone of modern cosmology is the theory of the Big Bang, the idea that the physical universe began in a primordial explosion 13.7 billion years ago. The Big Bang marks the beginning of both space and time for our universe. Since its violent beginning, cosmologists argue, the universe has developed in a steady progression of physical processes governed by physical laws. Evidence that the universe began as a primordial explosion?the Big Bang?is the expansion of the universe. It is thought that, at the start, all space existed as one point that contained all the matter that exists today. Since the Big Bang, the Universe has continued to expand outward from this point. The present expansion of the universe is evident in a Doppler red shift in the ligh that we receive from galaxies. The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the Universe and from theoretical considerations. It is the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe. Cosmologists use the term Big Bang to refer to the idea that the universe was originally extremely hot and dense at some finite time in the past and has since cooled by expanding to the present diluted state and continues to expand today. The theory is supported by the most comprehensive and accurate explanations from current scientific evidence and observation.", "totality of matter and energy in existence. The study of the origin of the universe, or cosmos, is known as cosmogony, and that of its structure and evolution, cosmology. The age of the universe depends on which theory of cosmology one accepts.", "Scientific cosmology examines the large-scale structure of the universe on the basis of observation made with optical, radio, infrared, ultraviolet, and x-ray telescopes. It analyzes those results on the basis of our understanding of physics, as tested in the laboratory and against data from the solar system. [1]", "True.   Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that studies the origin, structure and evolution of the universe as a whole.", "Cosmology (from the Greek î�ÏÏî�î¿Ï \"world, universe\" and î»Ïî�î¿Ï \"word, study\") could be considered the study of the universe as a whole.", "Cosmology (from the Greek κοσμος \"world, universe\" and λογος \"word, study\") could be considered the study of the universe as a whole.", "The study of the origin, structure, and evolution of the Universe on the largest possible scale. In present usage, it frequently includes cosmogony. [H76] Coster-Kronig Transition", "Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος \"world, universe\" and λόγος \"word, study\") could be considered the study of the universe as a whole.", "*** History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.", "Cosmology is the science that deals with the structure and evolution of our universe and the large-scale objects in it. Its models are based on the properties of the known fundamental particles and their interactions as well as the properties of space-time and gravitation. The \"big-bang\" model describes a possible scenario for the early evolution of the universe. One of its predictions was experimentally verified when Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave radiation background in 1960. They shared one-half of the Physics Prize for 1978. This radiation is an afterglow of the violent processes assumed to have occurred in the early stages of the big bang. Its equilibrium temperature is 3 kelvin at the present age of the universe. It is almost uniform when observed in different directions; the small deviations from isotropy are now being investigated and will tell us more about the earliest history of our universe.", "Cosmology is study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity's place in it. Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's Cosmologia Generalis), study of the Universe has a long history involving science, philosophy, esotericism, and religion.", "The study of the physical processes which control matter and energy in the universe is commonly called astrophysics. The investigation of the origin, evolution, and fate of the universe itself is called cosmology.", "Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος (kosmos) \"world, universe\" and λόγος (logos) \"word, study\" or literally \"logic\") could be considered the study of the Universe as a whole.", "a branch of science that deals with studying the origin, structure, and nature of the universe.", " -  WMAP's Introduction to Cosmology (Universe 101 - Big Bang Theory - Cosmology: The Study of the Universe. Cosmology is the scientific study of the large scale properties of the universe as a whole. It endeavors to use the scientific method to understand the origin, evolution and ultimate fate of the entire Universe)", "Cosmology is the scientific study of the universe as a unified whole, from its earliest moments through its evolution to its ultimate fate. The currently accepted cosmological model is the big bang . In this picture, the expansion of the universe started in an intense explosion about 10–20 billion years ago. In this primordial fireball, the temperature exceeded one trillion K, and most of the energy was in the form of radiation. As the expansion proceeded (accompanied by cooling), the role of the radiation diminished, and other physical processes dominated in turn. Thus, after about three minutes, the temperature had dropped to the one-billion-K range, making it possible for nuclear reactions of protons to take place and produce nuclei of deuterium and helium. (At the higher temperatures that prevailed earlier, these nuclei would have been promptly disrupted by high-energy photons.) With further expansion, the time between nuclear collisions had increased and the proportion of deuterium and helium nuclei had stabilized. After a few hundred thousand years, the temperature must have dropped sufficiently for electrons to remain attached to nuclei to constitute atoms. Galaxies are thought to have begun forming after a few million years, but this stage is very poorly understood. Star formation probably started much later, after at least a billion years, and the process continues today.", "\"Cosmos\" is just another word for universe , and \"cosmology\" is the study of the origin, evolution and fate of the universe . Some of the best minds in history - both philosophers and scientists - have applied themselves to an understanding of just what the universe is and where it came from, suggesting in the process a bewildering variety of theories and ideas, from the Cosmic Egg to the Big Bang and beyond. Here are some of the main ones, in approximate chronological order:", "S4. What name is given to the science that studies the nature and origin of the Universe? Cosmology", "Expansion of the universe, techniques for distance estimation. Large-scale structure of universe. Cosmological models: open, closed, flat and accelerating universes. Microwave background: observations, properties and origin. Problems of standard cosmology and preliminary concept of inflation.", "Theory, model, or idea that seeks to understand the origin, structure, and evolution of the cosmos or universe.", "the scientific study of the universe, especially of the motions, positions, sizes, composition, and behaviour of astronomical objects. These objects are studied and interpreted from the radiation they emit and from data gathered by interplanetary probes", "Cosmologists focus on the universe in its entirety, from its violent birth in the Big Bang to its present evolution, all the way to its eventual death. Astronomy is often (not always) about very concrete, observable things, whereas cosmology typically involves large-scale properties of the universe and esoteric, invisible and sometimes purely theoretical things like string theory , dark matter and dark energy ,  and the notion of multiple universes.", "Fundamental to the structure of the Universe is the existence of dark matter and dark energy. These are now thought to be its dominant components, forming 96% of the mass of the Universe. For this reason, much effort is expended in trying to understand the physics of these components.", "The study of objects outside our galaxy is a branch of astronomy concerned with the formation and evolution of Galaxies ; their morphology and classification ; and the examination of active galaxies , and the groups and clusters of galaxies . The latter is important for the understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos .", "A cosmic web of dark matter is now thought to have governed where galaxies formed. Dark matter is the universe's hidden architecture, and gravitational lensing is one of the few practical ways to \"see\" it. An effect Einstein thought insignificant has become a key astronomical tool.", "One of the basic building block of the universe , a galaxy is a massive system of stars , stellar remnants, gas , dust, and possibly a hypothetical substance known as dark matter , bound together by gravity . Galaxies may be anywhere from 1 to 100,000 light years across and are typically separated by millions of light years of intergalactic space. They are grouped into clusters, which in turn can form larger groups called superclusters and sheets or filaments. There are many different kinds of galaxy including spiral (like our own Milky Way galaxy), elliptical, ring, dwarf, lenticular and irregular. There are estimated to be over a hundred billion galaxies in the observable universe .", "It is argued that some of the recent claims for cosmology are grossly overblown. Cosmology rests on a very small database: it suffers from many fundamental difficulties as a science (if it is a science at all) whilst observations of distant phenomena are difficult to make and harder to interpret. It is suggested that cosmological inferences should be tentatively made and sceptically received. ", "Even secular astrophysicists have realized the problems associated with dark matter and energy. The Israeli astrophysicist, Moshe Carmeli, has developed a 5-dimensional cosmology, based on Einstein’s principles, and called Cosmological Special Relativity. Carmeli’s theory is mentioned in our article on Starlight Issues, because it has been adapted by John Hartnett of CMI to make a creationist cosmology based on time dilation.", "One very large problem with the theory is its inability to determine where the singularity came from. Theoretical astrophysicists (obviously working without any experimentation) have divided cosmological history, by their theory, into a number of epochs, when conditions were different. These epochs are shown in the diagram above. The first four epochs are labelled as 10-43s, 10-32s, 10-6s and 3min. Even under their own theory, they cannot work out what happened prior to the first 10-43s. Of course, all their calculations on such issues are theoretical, not experimental, so they do not qualify as observational science. This is notwithstanding the CERN experiments, which I am certain will find some results before the end of 2011. There are two reasons why they will find results. The first is that billions of Euros of cash have been pumped into CERN, and the funding ends in December 2011, so the cynic in me thinks that is good enough reason to get results. The second is that this experiment, unusually, has an actual end in sight. The experimenters already know what conclusion they wish to verify, so whatever results they achieve will be shown to verify the conclusion they require.", "Our fundamental understanding of the universe is flawed in some way. We now have mathematical equations that give bizarre results using our current theories. And too many physicists have been led down this path of creating concepts like Higgs, dark matter, dark energy in order to try and shoehorn our current theories to match the experimental observations. We need to revisit our assumptions.", "Eric Weinstein has a new theory to explain dark matter and dark energy, the generation problem in elementary particle physics, and the unification of quantum mechanics and general relativity. His 14D \"observerse\" has our 4D spacetime continuum embedded in it, has no missing dark matter, has dark energy as a fifth fundamental force, and includes more than 150 new elementary particles.", "Hoyle believed that as new matter forms, the universe expands without end because it is infinite in space and time and the galaxies tend to space themselves more widely apart. As they do so, new galaxies form at such a rate that their average density in space remains unchanged with time. Although the individual clusters evolved, the universe does not." ]

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[ "The light-year is often used to measure distances to stars and other distances on a galactic scale, especially in non-specialist and popular science publications. The preferred unit in astrometry is the parsec , because it can be more easily derived from, and compared with, observational data. The parsec is defined as the distance at which an object will appear to move one arcsecond of parallax when the observer moves one astronomical unit perpendicular to the line of sight to the observer, and is equal to approximately 3.26 light-years. [1]", "Units used to denote distances in the vastness of space, as in astronomy, are much longer than those typically used on Earth and include the astronomical unit, the light-year, and the parsec.", "Units used to denote distances in the vastness of space, as in astronomy , are much longer than those typically used on Earth and include the astronomical unit , the light-year , and the parsec .", "There are three special units of distance used by astronomers. These are the astronomical unit (AU), the light-year and the parsec. The astronomical unit is the average distance of the Earth from the Sun shown above.", "When dealing with the great distances within our Solar System, astronomical units (AU), which are multiples of the distance from the Earth to the Sun, are used. However, that unit of measurement is not large enough when considering the distance to other stars or galaxies. In that case, distance is stated in light years, which is how far light travels in a year.", "The metre is defined to be a unit of proper length , but the SI definition does not specify the metric tensor to be used in determining it. Indeed, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) notes that \"its definition applies only within a spatial extent sufficiently small that the effects of the non-uniformity of the gravitational field can be ignored\". As such, the metre is undefined for the purposes of measuring distances within the Solar System. The 1976 definition of the astronomical unit was incomplete because it did not specify the frame of reference in which time is to be measured, but proved practical for the calculation of ephemerides: a fuller definition that is consistent with general relativity was proposed, [24] and \"vigorous debate\" ensued [25] until in August 2012 the IAU adopted the current definition of 1 astronomical unit = 7011149597870700000♠149597870700 metres .", "The light-year is often used to measure distances to stars. In astronomy, the preferred unit of measurement for such distances is the parsec, which is defined as the distance at which an object will generate one arcsecond of parallax when the observing object moved one astronomical unit perpendicular to the line of sight to the observer. This is equal to approximately 3.26 light-years. The parsec is preferred because it can be more easily derived from, and compared with, observational data. However, outside scientific circles, the term light-year is more widely used.", "Scientists use lightyears to measure the really long distances between stars and galaxies. For example, a spiral galaxy close to our Milky Way galaxy is called the Andromeda galaxy. It is 2,200,000 lightyears away. One advantage of using the lightyear as a unit of distance is that you automatically know how long it took the light from the Andromeda galaxy to reach earth. We know that when we look at the Andromeda galaxy today, we are seeing light that was created 2,200,000 years ago! There are some galaxies that are billions of lightyears away.", "The kilometer, meter, decimeter, centimeter, millimeter, and smaller are common. The micrometer is often referred to by the non-SI term micron . In some fields such as {{wikiamain|chemistry]], the angstrom (equal to 0.1 nm) competes with the nanometer. The femtometer , used mainly in particle physics, is usually called a fermi . For large scales, megameter, gigameter, and larger are rarely used. Often used are astronomical units , light years , and parsecs ; the astronomical unit is mentioned in the SI standards as an accepted non-SI unit.", "In the distances between stars, astronomers measure distances in parsecs, and for the vast gulfs between galaxies it's kiloparsecs, megaparsecs and gigaparsecs.", "Most objects in space are so far away, that using a relatively small unit of distance, such as an astronomical unit, is not practical. Instead, astronomers measure distances to objects which are outside our solar system in light-years. A light-year (ly) is the distance that light can travel in one year in a vacuum (empty space). The speed of light is about 186,000 miles or 300,000 kilometers per second. So, in one year light travels a distance of about 5,880,000,000,000 miles or 9,460,000,000,000 kilometers or 63,240 A.U.. This distance is 1 light-year. For example, the nearest star to us is about 4.3 light-years away. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is about 150,000 light-years across, and the nearest large galaxy, Andromeda, is 2.3 million light-years away.", "An artist's concept of the latest, highly accurate measurement of the universe from the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey. The spheres show the current size of the \"baryon acoustic oscillations\" (BAOs) from the early universe, which have helped to set the distribution of galaxies that we see in the universe today. BAOs can be used as a \"standard ruler\" (white line) to measure the distances to all the galaxies in the universe.", "The most important fundamental distance measurements come from trigonometric parallax. As the Earth orbits the Sun, the position of nearby stars will appear to shift slightly against the more distant background. These shifts are angles in an isosceles triangle, with 2 AU (the distance between the extreme positions of Earth's orbit around the Sun) making the base leg of the triangle and the distance to the star being the long equal length legs. The amount of shift is quite small, measuring 1 arcsecond for an object at the 1 parsec (3.26 light-years) distance of the nearest stars, and thereafter decreasing in angular amount as the distance increases. Astronomers usually express distances in units of parsecs (parallax arcseconds); light-years are used in popular media.", "In 1976, in order to establish a yet more precise measure for the astronomical unit, the IAU formally adopted a new definition . Although directly based on the then-best available observational measurements, the definition was recast in terms of the then-best mathematical derivations from celestial mechanics and planetary ephemerides. It stated that \"the astronomical unit of length is that length (A) for which the Gaussian gravitational constant (k) takes the value 6998172020989500000♠0.01720209895 when the units of measurement are the astronomical units of length, mass and time\". [5] [9] [10] Equivalently, by this definition, one AU is the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with an angular frequency of 6998172020989500000♠0.01720209895 radians per day; or alternatively that length for which the heliocentric gravitational constant (the product GM☉) is equal to (6998172020989500000♠0.01720209895)2 AU3/d2, when the length is used to describe the positions of objects in the Solar System.", "A central undertaking in astronomy is the determination of distances. Without a knowledge of its distance, the size of an observed object in space would remain nothing more than an angular diameter, and the brightness of a star could not be converted into its true radiated power, or luminosity. Astronomical distance measurement began with a knowledge of Earth’s diameter, which provided a base for triangulation. Within the inner solar system, some distances can now be better determined through the timing of radar reflections or, in the case of the Moon, through laser ranging. For the outer planets, triangulation is still used. Beyond the solar system, distances to the closest stars are determined through triangulation, with the diameter of Earth’s orbit serving as the baseline and shifts in stellar parallax being the measured quantities. Stellar distances are commonly expressed by astronomers in parsec s (pc), kiloparsecs, or megaparsecs. (1 pc = 3.086 × 1018 cm, or about 3.26 light-years [1.92 × 1013 miles].) Distances can be measured out to around a kiloparsec by trigonometric parallax (see star: Determining stellar distances ). The accuracy of measurements made from Earth’s surface is limited by atmospheric effects, but measurements made from the Hipparcos satellite in the 1990s have extended the scale to stars as far as 650 parsecs, with an accuracy of about a thousandth of an arc second. Less-direct measurements must be used for more-distant stars and for galaxies.", "A light-year or lightyear, symbol ly, is a unit of length. A lightyear is the distance light travels in vacuum in one Julian year. A light-year is equal to 9,460,730,472,580.8 km (about 9.461 Pm) or about 5,878,625,373,183.61 statute miles or about 63,241.077 AU (often approximated to 63,240 AU) or about 0.306 601 394 parsecs. The actual, exact length of the light-year depends on the length of the reference year used in the calculation, and there is no wide consensus on the reference to be used. The light-year is often used to measure distances to stars. In astronomy, the preferred unit of measurement for such distances is the parsec, which is defined as the distance at which an object will generate one arcsecond of parallax when the observing object moved one astronomical unit perpendicular to the line of sight to the observer. This is equal to approximately 3.26 light years. The parsec is preferred because it can be more easily derived from, and compared with, observational data. However, outside scientific circles, the term light-year is more widely used.", "74. This unit of length is almost equal to ten trillion kilometers, or six trillion miles. While astronomers prefer the parsec, popular science frequently uses this term. Identify this unit for measuring interstellar distances.", "The lightyear is an astronomical measurement used to measure distance, not time. There are approximately 31.5 million seconds in a year. This means that light can travel a distance of 5.60 trillion miles in one year. The metric light year is approximately 9.5 trillion kilometers. The Milky Way is approximately 100,000 lightyears in diameter.", "Units of measurement are generally defined on a scientific basis, overseen by governmental or independent agencies, and established in international treaties, pre-eminent of which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the Treaty of the metre and which oversees the International System of Units (SI) and which has custody of the International Prototype Kilogram. The metre, for example, was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM as the distance traveled by light in free space in 1⁄299,792,458 of a second while in 1960 the international yard was defined by the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa as being exactly 0.9144 metres.", "To measure the distances between stars, astronomers often use light-years (abbreviated ly). A light-year is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one year:", "The figures above are based on a Julian year (not Gregorian year ) of exactly 365.25 days (each of exactly 86,400 SI seconds, totalling 31,557,600 seconds) [4] and a defined speed of light of 299,792,458 m/s, both included in the IAU (1976) System of Astronomical Constants , used since 1984. [5] The DE405 value of the astronomical unit, 149,597,870,691 m, [6] is used for the light-year in astronomical units and parsecs.", "The metric only defines the distance between nearby (so-called \"local\") points. In order to define the distance between arbitrarily distant points, one must specify both the points and a specific curve (known as a \"spacetime interval\") connecting them. The distance between the points can then be found by finding the length of this connecting curve through the three dimensions of space. Comoving distance defines this connecting curve to be a curve of constant cosmological time. Operationally, comoving distances cannot be directly measured by a single Earth-bound observer. To determine the distance of distant objects, astronomers generally measure luminosity of standard candles, or the redshift factor 'z' of distant galaxies, and then convert these measurements into distances based on some particular model of spacetime, such as the Lambda-CDM model. It is, indeed, by making such observations that it was determined that there is no evidence for any 'slowing down' of the expansion in the current epoch.", "Astronomers measure the distance to the Andromeda galaxy using light-years. One light-year equals about 6 trillion miles. This galaxy is over 2 million light-years from Earth. Image credit: Adam Evans via Wikipedia", "Figure 2.1. The redshift±distance diagram, showing how the velocity of recession of galaxies increases with their distance. It is based on observations of Type 1a supernovae, which all have about the same brightness and can be used to measure the distances of their parent galaxy quite accurately. The distances are given in Mpc (1 Mpc = 3 million light-years). The data derive from work by Riess and colleagues in 1996, and the figure is taken from Edward Wright's web page (www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright).", "Defining a unit is often more complex than first appears. For instance, to define a light-year it is necessary to understand exactly what a year is. When referring to a year in the precisely defined astronomical sense, it should be written with the indefinite article “a” as “a year”. Although there are several different kinds of year, the IAU regards a year as a Julian year of 365.25 days (31.5576 million seconds) unless otherwise specified. The IAU also recognises a Julian century of 36,525 days in the fundamental formulas for precession( more info ). Other measurements of time such as sidereal, solar and universal time are not suitable for measuring precise intervals of time, since the rate of rotation of Earth, on which they ultimately depend, is variable with respect to the second.", "Still doesn’t make sense? Check out his episode of Astronomy Cast where we explain various methods astronomers use to measure the Universe. Episode 10: Measuring Distance in the Universe .", "A light-year (also light year or lightyear, ly), is a non-SI unit of length equal to just under 10 trillion kilometers or about 6 trillion miles or 0.306 parsec. It is defined as the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one Julian year.", "The velocities of the receding galaxies are easier to calculate, using the observed redshift in spectral lines, than the distances of the galaxies, which require knowing how bright the celestial object is supposed to be and comparing that with the observed brightness. Astronomers have refined their distance estimations using improved data collection, as well as finding more easily measurable bright objects in the sky. Type Ia supernovae, exploding stars that briefly shine as brightly as 10 billion suns, are rare examples. In 1998 two teams of astronomers studying just such supernovae determined that they were dimmer than expected, leading them to conclude that they were farther than estimated using Hubble's constant... meaning that the expansion of the universe must be speeding up! This completely unexpected result has been further supported with more observations, leading to cosmologists looking for some kind of anti-gravity term that could account for this acceleration... Amazingly they have turned back to Einstein's cosmological constant, which he had called \"his biggest blunder\" after seeing Hubble's results.", "Now for the second part of “parsec”: arcsecond. In this instance, we’re not referring to a measure of time. It’s a part of a measurement of angle. Imagine the horizon around you broken up into 360 slices, or degrees. Each slice is about twice the width of the full moon. An arcminute is 1/60th of a degree, and an arcsecond is 1/60th of an arcminute. So astronomers measure the size of objects, or the parallax movement of stars in degrees, arcminutes and arcseconds.", "The light-year is not a unit of time, but a unit of length about 9 trillion kilometres.", "Further support for this point of view was presented in a paper by Thomas Andrews. He looked at distance estimates derived from the relative brightness of two different classes of objects: supernovae and the brightest galaxies in clusters of galaxies. He showed that the estimates from the supernovae contradicted those from the galaxies if the universe was assumed to be expanding. But when distances were computed assuming that the universe is not expanding the discrepancy between the two sets of distance estimates disappeared.", "Because of the high rate of expansion, it is also possible for a distance between two objects to be greater than the value calculated by multiplying the speed of light by the age of the universe. These details are a frequent source of confusion among amateurs and even professional physicists. " ]

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[ "A bright tail of light caused by a meteoroid during its atmospheric flight, also called a shooting star or falling star.", "Meteor - Brief streak of light seen in the night sky when a speck of dust burns up as it enters the upper atmosphere. Also known as a shooting star or falling star.", "A \"falling star\" or a \"shooting star\" has nothing at all to do with a star! These amazing streaks of light you can sometimes see in the night sky are caused by tiny bits of dust and rock called meteoroids falling into the Earth's atmosphere and burning up. The short-lived trail of light the burning meteoroid produces is called a meteor. Meteors are commonly called falling stars or shooting stars. If any part of the meteoroid survives burning up and actually hits the Earth, that remaining bit is then called a meteorite .", "Another name commonly used for a meteor is a shooting star. A meteor is the flash of light that we see in the night sky when a small chunk of interplanetary debris burns up as it passes through our atmosphere. “Meteor” refers to the flash of light caused by the debris, not the debris itself", "Image:Looking Down on a Shooting Star.JPG|Looking down from the International Space Station at a meteor as it passes through the atmosphere", "In heraldry , the term star may refer to any star -shaped charge with any number of rays, which may appear straight or wavy, and may or may not be pierced. While there has been much confusion between the two due to their similar shape, a star with straight-sided rays is usually called a mullet while one with wavy rays is usually called an estoile. [1]", "Kamuro A long burning stars, usually silver or gold, that fall a substantial distance fromthe centre of the shell burst, which sometimes changing colour towards the end of theirflight.", "A falling star crosses the night sky over Sieversdorf, eastern Germany, on August 11, 2015. The peak of the Perseid meteor shower is expected for the night to Thursday, August 13, 2015. AFP PHOTO / DPA / PATRICK PLEUL +++ GERMANY OUT (Photo credit should read PATRICK PLEUL/AFP/Getty Images)", "A typical shooting star in a meteor shower is caused by a ________ entering Earth's atmosphere.", "This visible star has gone by so many names in its past - The Steering Star, the Lodestar, Stella Mars (aka Star of the Sea), the Ship Star, and Tou Mu in China (a Chinese majesty of the Polaris). The ancient Greeks referred it as Kynosoura (aka Dog's Tail), a presence, which drew strong attention due to its central location. In other cases, Indian astronomers named it as the Pivot of the Planets while the Moguls thought this star held the Universe together as one and called it the Golden Peg.", "Look closely near Deneb for the stars that make up Cygnus.  (Cygnus is also known as the Swan).", "The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three stars in the belt of Orion Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto Tiburon Island.", "The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three stars in the belt of Orion Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto Tiburón Island. ", "In heraldry, the term star may refer to any star-shaped charge with any number of rays, which may appear straight or wavy, and may or may not be pierced. While there has been much confusion between the two due to their similar shape, a star with straight-sided rays is usually called a mullet while one with wavy rays is usually called an estoile. ", "Named for the shape of its break, this shell features heavy long-burning tailed stars that only travel a short distance from the shell burst before free-falling to the ground. Also known as a waterfall shell. Sometimes there is a glittering through the \"waterfall.\"", "The bright red-orange star marking Orion’s shoulder is called Betelguese (“BAY-tell-jewz”).  It’s a massive star that’s burned through most of its fuel, and will explode as a supernova that shines so bright, it will cast shadows by night and and be visible in our daytime for several weeks.  This explosion may happen next year, or in a million years.  No one knows for sure.", "The star nearest to Earth is typically referred to simply as \"the Sun\" or its equivalent in the language being used (for instance, if two astronomers were speaking French, they would call it le Soleil). However, it is sometimes called by its Latin name, Sol, in science fiction.", "Polaris, also known as the North Star, Northern Star or Pole Star, is the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor.", "\"Relax, be patient, and let your eyes adapt to the dark,\" J. Kelly Beatty, a senior editor at Sky & Telescope magazine, said. \"With a little luck, you'll see a shooting star every minute or so on average.\"", "As it turns out, any star greater than 3 solar masses must eventually form such a \"dark star\" after thermonuclear reactions have ceased, since no known source of pressure can support it. These objects are called \"black holes\" and this term was first coined by the physicist John Wheeler.", "The brightest stars, often called Mag Stars, are fueled by aluminium. Magnesium is rarely used in the fireworks industry due to its lack of ability to form a protective oxide layer. Often an alloy of both metals called magnalium is used.", "Or use the familiar Big Dipper asterism to find Gamma Cephei. The two outer stars in the Dipper’s bowl are Merak and Dubhe, sometimes called the Pointers, because a line between them extended northward points to Polaris. Then jump one fist-width – held at arm’s length – beyond Polaris to Gamma Cephei.", "The multiple star theta1 Ori, the northern star of the dagger of the Hunter is also called the Trapezium; it is located in the heart of the Orion nebula. This group of stars has been formed from the gas of the nebula, which now glows in their light. Small telecopes (about 2-inch and higher) show four stars, ranging from 5th mag to 8th mag, which form a rectangular figure. Scopes with an aperture of about 100 mm show two more stars of 11th mag in this group.", "A small pellet of composition that produces a pyrotechnic effect. Stars are used in aerial shells, rockets, roman candles, cakes, and fountains to produce streaks or light, pulses, long golden tails, and other aerial effects. A single shell could contain several hundred stars.", "One of the stars just above the dove's head is Mu Columbae and it is one of three \"runaway\" stars. These stars (the others are AE Aurigae and 53 Arietis) are all fleeing the area of Orion's belt at incredible speeds. Mu Columbae is travelling at 72 miles per second! Astronomers think these three stars were scattered from a common point by a supernova explosion in a multiple star system.", "A dense burst of glittering silver or gold stars which leave a heavy glitter trail and are very shiny in the night's sky.", "Simple shapes composed of a few stars make asterisms easy to identify. Thus they are particularly useful to people who are familiarizing themselves with the night sky.", "a group of celestial bodies, usually stars, which appear to form a pattern in the sky", "There is also a type of firework, of English origin, with the same name. It typically comprises a number of fountains surrounding a single mine. The fountains spray sparks upwards, and to finish the mine sends many small stars skywards.", "A well-rounded amateur needs to know only a tiny fraction of these naming systems. In this article we'll cover those most often encountered for stars, with their meanings and histories. Another article covers nomenclature of deep-sky objects.", "The creation of even ordinary stars requires the release of incredible energy, millions of times more powerful than every warhead and bomb in the world's combined nuclear arsenals. Even after its birth, the fury of a star can only be tamed by the relentless force of gravity. From our perspective, safely sequestered by great distance, the twinkling stars of the nighttime sky seem timeless, conjure thoughts of romance and appear dazzling to our eyes. But, as we have discussed, nothing could be farther from the truth.", "This session is to help you learn to identify bright stars and constellations in the night sky. These resources may be useful in the lab, or for later study." ]

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[ "\"At the present time, the northern pole star, or North Star, is a moderately bright star with an apparent magnitude of 1.97 (variable), the brightest star in the Ursa Minor constellation (at the end of the or \"handle\" of the \"Little Dipper\" asterism). [75] Its current (October 2012) declination is +89°19'8\" (as per epoch J2000 it was +89°15'51.2\"). Therefore it always appears due north in the sky to a precision better than one degree, and the angle it makes with respect to the horizon is equal to the latitude of the observer. It is consequently known as Polaris  (from Latin stella polaris \"pole star\"). It also retains its older name, Cynosura, from a time before it was the pole star, from its Greek name meaning \"dog's tail\" (as the constellation of Ursa Minor was interpreted as a dog, not a bear, in antiquity).\" [76]", "People have always used a group of stars to help them find the North Star. They have called this group of stars many names, depending on how they saw the picture created by the stars. Sometimes people thought the group looked like a Big Bear. In fact, the Latin name for this star group was Ursa Major, or Big Bear.", "Ursa Minor and Ursa Major were related by the Greeks to the myth of Callisto and her son Arcas, both placed in the sky by Zeus. In a variant of the story in which Boötes represents Arcas, Ursa Minor represents a dog. This is the older tradition, which explains both the length of the tail and the obsolete alternate name of Cynosura (the dog's tail) for Polaris, the North Star. Cynosura is also described as a nurse of Zeus, honoured by the god with a place in the sky. An alternate myth tells of two bears that saved Zeus from his murderous father Kronos by hiding him on Mount Ida. Later Zeus set them in the sky, but their tails grew long from being swung by the god. Because Ursa Minor consists of seven stars, the Latin word for \"North\" (i.e., where Polaris points) is septentrio, from septem (seven) and triones (oxen), from seven oxen driving a plough, which the seven stars also resemble. This name has also been attached to the main stars of Ursa Major.", "This unique arrangement of stars contains seven major stars, which derive their names from different origins, including Arabic and Latin. Its two most prominent stars include Alkaid, which forms the tip of its handle and Dubhe, which extends farthest from Alkaid. Dubhe, in Arabic, translates to \"Great Bear.\" Dubhe classifies as a pointer star, along with nearby Merzak. These two stars lead to Polaris, the North Star, and to Regulus, a star in the constellation Leo.", "The North Star, Polaris, is a well known star in many cultures. It is one of the navigational stars, used for orientation at sea because of its brightness and location in the sky. The Bedouin call it \"the billy goat\" and use it as one of the main stars for wandering at night (the other being [1668] Canopus, alpha Carinae).", "The Northern Celestial pole is currently (but not permanently) within a fraction of 1 degree of the bright star Polaris. The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years due to the precession of the equinoxes. Polaris is also known as the North Star, and is generically called a pole star or lodestar. Polaris is only visible during fair weather at night to inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere.", "Also called the Pole Star, the North Star. the brightest star in the constellation Ursa Minor, situated slightly less than 1° from the north celestial pole. It is a Cepheid variable, with a period of four days. Visual magnitude: 2.08–2.17; spectral type: F8Ib", "In 3000 BCE, the faint star Thuban in the constellation Draco was the North Star. At magnitude 3.67 (fourth magnitude) it is only one-fifth as bright as Polaris, and today it is invisible in light-polluted urban skies.", "The North Star or Pole Star – aka Polaris – is famous for holding nearly still in our sky while the entire northern sky moves around it. That’s because it’s located nearly at the north celestial pole, the point around which the entire northern sky turns. Polaris marks the way due north. As you face Polaris and stretch your arms sideways, your right hand points due east, and your left hand points due west. About-face of Polaris steers you due south. Polaris is not the brightest star in the nighttime sky, as is commonly believed. It’s only about 50th brightest. But you can find it easily, and, once you do, you’ll see it shining in the northern sky every night, from N. Hemisphere locations. Follow the links below to learn more about Polaris.", "The North star (pole star) also changes with the precession of the equinoxes. The North star was Thuban (Alpha Draconis) when the Great Pyramid was constructed to align with true North. The descending passage of the Great Pyramid points to Thuban, the most accurately aligned pole star of all the North stars in the 25,800 (26920) -year cycle of our Earth.", "A star located at the end of the handle of the Little Dipper, in the constellation Ursa Minor, approximately 408 light years from Earth, and almost at the north celestial pole. Also called North Star, polar star, polestar.", "The most famous star in Ursa Minor is Polaris , the North Star. This is the star that is nearest to the North Celestial Pole. If you stood at the north pole, Polaris would be almost directly overhead. If you can spot Polaris in the sky, you can always tell which way is north. In addition, the angle of Polaris above the horizon tells you your latitude on the Earth. Because of this, Polaris was the most important star for navigating at sea.", "As a young boy I used to spend my summers at Long Island's Atlantic Beach. On clear nights, my Uncle Bob would point to Vega and tell me that it was \"the North Star, the brightest star in the sky.\" Of course, he was wrong: the North Star is Polaris at the end of the tail of Ursa Minor, the Little Bear. Even today the idea that the North Star is the brightest star in the sky continues to be a popular misconception.  [ Stunning Daily Photos of Stars and Galaxies ]", "According to Hyginus the Romans referred to the Great Bear as Septentrio, meaning ‘seven plough oxen’, although he added the information that in ancient times only two of the stars were considered oxen, the other five forming a wagon. On a star map of 1524 the German astronomer Peter Apian showed Ursa Major as a team of three horses pulling a four-wheeled cart, which he called Plaustrum, harking back to the Roman tradition. The word septentrional was commonly used in Latin as a synonym for ‘north’.", "Only a few of the brightest stars have proper names. Each culture has its own star traditions, and most of our star names were invented by the Arabs. They came into English when Arabic learning came to Europe in the Middle Ages, often with interesting misspellings. For example, the Arabs called a bright red star in Orion Yad-al-Jawza, the Shoulder of Orion, but the Arabic characters for Y and B look much alike. A medieval scholar mistook the Y for a B when transcribing the name into Roman letters, and Betelgeuse it has been to this day. A few star names originated in other ways. Regulus means \"little king\" in Latin. Cor Caroli, Latin for \"heart of Charles\" was named in honor of the deposed and executed Charles I of England.", "Corona Borealis is a small constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for “northern crown”, a name inspired by its shape; its main stars form a semicircular arc.", "[Lat.,=the swan], northern constellation located SE of Draco and NW of Pegasus. It was depicted as a bird by most ancient cultures. It is sometimes called the Northern Cross because five of its brightest stars form a huge Latin cross.", "In professional publications it is still usual to use the proper names of all 1st-magnitude stars – and other bright stars – historically visible from mid-northern latitudes and a few special cases. These star names are: Achernar, Aldebaran, Altair, Antares, Arcturus, Betelgeuse, Canopus, Capella, Castor, Deneb, Fomalhaut, Polaris, Pollux, Procyon, Regulus, Rigel, Sirius, Spica, Vega.", "The constellations revolve round a central point in the northern sky known as the pole star, or heavenly axis (Greek polos). Because of its far northern location, most of the stars are seen to rise in the east and set in the west. Only those few closest to the pole--namely, Ursa Major and Minor (the Bears), and Draco (the Dragon)--appear to travel at night in an eternal circle around the pole.", "Allen in Star Names says the Latins adopted their Canis from the Greeks, sometimes Canicula in the diminutive with the adjectival candens, shining. Varro (p.283) referring to Sirius, says signum candens, ‘scorching sign' properly ‘white-hot'. Isidore sees a link with Latin canis, dog, and Latin candere, shining bright:", "It was the Romans who named the constellation Sagittarius (\"sagitta\" is Latin for `arrow'), although several stars carry Arabic names which identify just which portion of the constellation they represent:", "Polaris has long been an important star to sailors, caravans of old winding their way over the desert by night and others who navigated their way by the stars. Located almost directly overhead as seen from the North Pole, it is situated at the tip of the tail of the Little Bear, Ursa Minor and the brightest star of that constellation. Perhaps more than any star other than the Sun; Polaris has been regarded as the most important star in the heavens. It has been known by many names in the past; \"the Pathway\" \"the Pointer\" - indicating the way; \"Navel of the World\", \"Gate of Heaven\", \"Hub of the Cosmos\", \"the Highest Peak of the World Mountain\", \"Lodestar\" \"the Steering Star\" \"the Ship Star\" and Stella Maris \"Star of the Sea\".", "The seven brightest stars formed a constellation, known as the Little Dipper within the Ursa Minor. The star at the end of the Little Bear was called Polaris, which marked the spot of north (celestial) pole. About three-quarter of Ursa Minor is surrounded by the long tail of Draco constellation (Dragon).", "In northern latitudes, the effect is known as the aurora borealis (or the northern lights), named after the Roman goddess of dawn, Aurora, and the Greek name for the north wind, Boreas, by Pierre Gassendi in 1621. Auroras seen near the magnetic pole may be high overhead, but from farther away, they illuminate the northern horizon as a greenish glow or sometimes a faint red, as if the Sun were rising from an unusual direction. The aurora borealis most often occurs near the equinoxes. The northern lights have had a number of names throughout history. The Cree call this phenomenon the \"Dance of the Spirits\". In Europe, in the Middle Ages, the auroras were commonly believed a sign from God.", "The 7 Hevelius' Constellations. Polish astronomer John Hevel (Hevelius in latin) note In the 1600 Europe there was still the habit of \"latinizing\" the names of important people. invented at the end of the 1600 century seven new constellations in the Northern and Equatorial sky. Before this, another astronomer had already invented another figure, Coma Berenices", "N.B. The Greeks also named the star itself Aster Aphrodition or Star of the goddess Aphrodite. The Romans followed suit when they called it the Star of Venus, Venus being the Roman counterpart of Aphrodite.", "Cicero and Ovid styled the constellation Cornus; elsewhere it was Corniger (\"Horn-bearer) and Laniger (\"Wool-bearer\"); Vervex, the Wether ; Dux opulenti gregis; Caput arietinum; and, in allusion to its position, Aequinoctialis. Venms Portitor, the Spring-bringer, is cited by Caesius (Dutch astronomical writer), who also mentioned Arcanus, that may refer to the secret rites in the worship of the divinities whom Aries represented.", "\"It remains for us to speak of the five stars which many have called wandering, and which the Greeks call Planeta . . . This fifth star is Mercurius' [Hermes], named Stilbon. It is small and bright. It is attributed to Mercurius [Hermes] because he first established the months and perceived the courses of the constellations.\"", "\"In the Roman era , the celestial pole was about equally distant from α Ursae Minoris (Cynosura) and β Ursae Minoris (Kochab). Before this, during the 1st millennium BC, β Ursae Minoris was the bright star closest to the celestial pole, but it was never close enough to be taken as marking the pole, and the Greek navigator Pytheas in ca. 320 BC described the celestial pole as devoid of stars. Polaris was described as αει φανης \"always visible\" by Stobaeus in the 5th century, when it was still removed from the celestial pole by about 8°. It was known as scip-steorra (\"ship-star\") in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England , reflecting its use in navigation.\" [76]", "Ancient Romans called the star Palilicium. The name is derived from Palilia or Parilia, referring to the feast of Pales, the feminine form of Pan.", "Bablyonians knew the star Regulus as “the star that stands at the Lion’s breast,” or the King Star. Both the constellation and its brightest star were well known in most ancient cultures.", "α Ursae Minoris was described as ἀειφανής \"always visible\" by Stobaeus in the 5th century, when it was still removed from the celestial pole by about 8°. It was known as scip-steorra (\"ship-star\") in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England, reflecting its use in navigation." ]

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[ "The science of cosmology addresses the most far-reaching questions of the Universe -- including those of its origin, structure, dynamics, and fate. Although cutting-edge research in cosmology requires a thorough grounding in gravitational physics (ie. general relativity), much can be gained by simply considering the overall scale of the Universe and how this evolving scale relates to basic observables such as the redshift, and derived properties such as the expansion rate, lookback time, temperature, and density.", "Scientists have raced in recent years to discover ever more distant and older galaxies, in paradoxical pursuit of clues to the early universe. Astronomers try to measure distance by seeing how starlight stretches, or “redshifts”, from the ultraviolet levels of high-energy light down to what’s visible to the eye, and then farther down to infrared levels. As the universe expands at an accelerating clip, the light stretches along longer wavelengths and becomes “redder”.", "Expanding Universe: based on the red shift (colour of light emitted from objects as they move away or the observer moves away, as seen in stars) & the theory of relativity.", "Einstein's theory of relativity , which explains how gravity warps space-time, is incompatible with quantum mechanics, the reigning model that explains the behavior of the tiny particles that make up matter. Because gravity slows time, atomic clocks will actually tick more slowly in a gravitational field — a phenomenon known as gravitational red shift. But some theories predict that gravitational red shifting breaks down, and ultraprecise clocks could test to see whether that happens by even the tiniest amount.", "According to Photon Theory, photons in space give up energy as they pass through fields of other photons. The red shift is a natural property of photons, observed on earth when photons interfere, and observed in space, which is not an absolute vacuum and is swarming with photons from massive stars and galaxies.", "Several cosmologists have speculated that the fine-structure constant might vary with the age of the universe, and attempts have been made to check this possibility by analyzing the light from stars and quasars, assuming that their distance is proportional to the red-shift of their light. The results suggest that there has been little or no change in the constant. But as with all other attempts to infer the constancy of constants from astronomical observations, many assumptions have to be made, including the constancy of other constants, the correctness of current cosmological theories, and the validity of red-shifts as indicators of distance. All of these assumptions have been and are still being questioned by dissident cosmologists.", "In astronomy the Doppler effect is used to measure the motion of the galaxies. The faster a galaxy moves the greater will be the shift in the colour of the light that you receive from it. If the galaxy is moving away from us then the light from it will be shift towards the red � this is known as Galactic Red Shift.", "A redshift is a doppler shift , of characteristics (such as spectral lines) in the frequency spectrum of light , to smaller frequencies, so that yellow light gets more reddish. The opposite of redshift is blueshift . The ratio of the frequencies of redshifted characteristics and the frequencies of the unshifted characteristics is also called redshift, usually denoted by a variable called (z).", "The shifting of spectral lines can be used to measure the Doppler shift (red shift or blue shift) of distant objects.", "If we consider the fact that more distant heavenly bodies are receding from Earth at a faster rate than closer bodies, then redshift due to cosmic expansion increases in proportion to distance. Therefore, by observing the shift in the wavelengths of the spectral lines of a galaxy, the velocity of that galaxy (and its distance from Earth) can be known.", "Red shift A shift in the wavelength to a longer wavelength determining that the galaxy is expanding. Suppose the light spectrum from a star shifted toward the blue end of the spectrum. What would this imply? The star is moving toward us. The doppler effect is used in what explantation of light? A change in frequency of light as the source moves relative to the observer. **Big Bang Theory The universe began with rapid expansion from a much more compact form. During the big bang what elements were formed within hours? Hydrogen and helium. What three elements make up 90% of the human body? Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. What did gravity pull together to form galaxies from the big bang? Irregular clouds of gas and dust. Nuclear Fusion Very high temperatures and pressures in the interiors of stars fuses hydrogen atoms together to form helium. What causes gravity? Large masses. What causes stars to burn out? Decrease in hydrogen. Supernova Giant stars final stage of life cycle is a massive explosion. What are the principle components of the sun? Hydrogen and helium. Terrestrial planets Heavier, rock planets closer to the star. Jovian planets Lighter, gas-rich planets farther from the star. Heliosphere Space affected by solar wind.", "The two primary measurements needed are the distance of a galaxy moving away from us and that galaxys red shift. An unsuccessful first attempt was made to find these distances through trigonometry. Scientists were able to calculate the diameter of the Earths orbit around the sun which was augmented through the calculation of the Suns motion through our own galaxy. Unfortunately, this calculation could not be used alone to determine the enormous distance between our galaxy and those which would enable us to estimate the age of the universe because of the significant errors involved. ", "True.   Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers and theoretical physicists.   In addition, physical cosmology is studied by academic philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and philosophers of space and time. ", "   This led to another fundamental discovery. Astronomers had previously noticed that such nebulae emitted spectral lines of unidentified wavelength. It turned out that these actually were common emission wavelengths, severely Doppler-shifted because their sources were moving away from us, at speeds which could be an appreciable fraction of c. In fact, this \"red shift\" seemed a universal feature, present in all directions and increasing with apparent distance. It seemed to suggest that all distant galaxies are moving away from us--the more distant they were, the faster their motion.", "The cosmic microwave background has a redshift of , corresponding to an age of approximately 379,000 years after the Big Bang and a comoving distance of more than 46 billion light years. The yet-to-be-observed first light from the oldest Population III stars, not long after atoms first formed and the CMB ceased to be absorbed almost completely, may have redshifts in the range of . Other high-redshift events predicted by physics but not presently observable are the cosmic neutrino background from about two seconds after the Big Bang (and a redshift in excess of ) and the cosmic gravitational wave background emitted directly from inflation at a redshift in excess of . ", "..... Click the link for more information. , and to detect rotation of other galaxies. The Doppler effect is responsible for the red shifts of distant galaxies, and also of quasars quasar", "A frequency shifting of light to lower frequencies for sources emitting light in a relatively strong gravitational field; also called the Einstein shift. It means that light travelling away from a massive body appears at a lower frequency (redshifted) than expected. The redshift of light travelling away from Earth was first measured in 1961 by Robert Pound and Glen Rebka using the Mössbauer effec…", "It wasn't until 1959 that the first truly conclusive experiment of redshift occurred right here on Earth. That year, physicists Robert Pound and Glen Rebka conducted a novel experiment inside the 74-foot-tall tower of Harvard's Jefferson Laboratory. Relying on an extremely sensitive phenomenon known as the Mí¶ssbauer effect, they were able to measure the change in wavelength of a beam of gamma rays they shot up the tower's elevator shaft. The predicted frequency shift from the bottom of the shaft to the top was only two parts in a thousand trillion, but as it happens that's just what the pair measured. The experiment offered one of the first high-precision tests of GR.", "�Another reason for our skepticism was that �the familiar interpretation of red-shifts [as Doppler velocity indicators] seems to imply a strange and dubious universe, very young and very small.� On the other hand, the plausible and, in a sense, familiar conception of a universe extending indefinitely in space and time, a universe vastly greater than the observable region, seemed to imply that red-shifts were not primarily velocity-shifts.�", "Slipher had found that most galaxies showed a redshift in their spectrum , indicating that they were all moving away from us in space, or receding (Slipher, 1915). By measuring the magnitude of the redshift, he was able to determine the recessional velocity or the speed at which objects were \"fleeing.\" Slipher had made an interpretation from his observations that put a new perspective on the universe , and in response, he received a standing ovation for his presentation.", "Cosmology is the science that deals with the structure and evolution of our universe and the large-scale objects in it. Its models are based on the properties of the known fundamental particles and their interactions as well as the properties of space-time and gravitation. The \"big-bang\" model describes a possible scenario for the early evolution of the universe. One of its predictions was experimentally verified when Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson discovered the cosmic microwave radiation background in 1960. They shared one-half of the Physics Prize for 1978. This radiation is an afterglow of the violent processes assumed to have occurred in the early stages of the big bang. Its equilibrium temperature is 3 kelvin at the present age of the universe. It is almost uniform when observed in different directions; the small deviations from isotropy are now being investigated and will tell us more about the earliest history of our universe.", "Cosmology is the scientific study of the large scale properties of the universe as a whole. It endeavors to use the scientific method to understand the origin, evolution and ultimate fate of the entire Universe. Like any field of science, cosmology involves the formation of theories or hypotheses about the universe which make specific predictions for phenomena that can be tested with observations. Depending on the outcome of the observations, the theories will need to be abandoned, revised or extended to accommodate the data. The prevailing theory about the origin and evolution of our Universe is the so-called Big Bang theory.", "For example, researchers will keep using the theory to gain a better understanding of black holes, neutron stars and other celestial bodies and phenomena. Scientists will also continue probing the nature of dark energy and dark matter, in an effort to understand the universe at the broadest scales.", "Since the late 19th century astronomy has expanded to include astrophysics , the application of physical and chemical knowledge to an understanding of the nature of celestial objects and the physical processes that control their formation, evolution, and emission of radiation. In addition, the gases and dust particles around and between the stars have become the subjects of much research. Study of the nuclear reactions that provide the energy radiated by stars has shown how the diversity of atoms found in nature can be derived from a universe that, following the first few minutes of its existence, consisted only of hydrogen , helium , and a trace of lithium . Concerned with phenomena on the largest scale is cosmology , the study of the evolution of the universe. Astrophysics has transformed cosmology from a purely speculative activity to a modern science capable of predictions that can be tested.", "Host:� Professor Dingle, you are an expert on the subject of redshifts: what exactly are they?", "\"The glamour of the mysterious quasars quickly attracted young researchers to the arcane calculations of general relativity and thus to cosmological problems, especially those of a mathematical nature. After 1964 the number of papers published in cosmology leapt upward, but the growth was almost wholly in purely theoretical piecesmathematical examinations of some problem in general relativity, which made no effort to compare results with observations. Already, in 1964, perhaps four out of five cosmology papers were theoretical, where only a third had been so a decade earlier.\" (64)", "Cosmology is the study of the Universe and humanity's place within it. The study has a long history, rooted in region, science, philosophy and esotericism. The first use of the definition was by Christian Wolff, a German philosopher who wrote Comologia Generalis in 1730. The term is derived from the Greek kosmos, meaning “universe,\" and logia, meaning “study.\"", "By 1911 Einstein was able to make preliminary predictions about how a ray of light from a distant star, passing near the Sun, would appear to be bent slightly, in the direction of the Sun. This effect is now used in a technique called gravitational lensing to examine deep space objects that are hidden by foregound objects.", "A large portion of assertions of today's secular cosmologists is based solely in mathematical calculations, much of it unrelated to observation. When discussing or reading content related to Cosmology, pay careful attention to the foundation of the assertions. Are they appealing solely to mathematics to explain a superficial observation, or combining other observations to explain it? For example:", "Cosmologists publish papers that constrain the size of the visible Universe, the rate of its breakneck expansion, and the distance to galaxies that lie closer and closer to the edges of both time and space. Type 1a Supernova. How exactly do they do it?", "      John Carlstrom, head of the Degree Angular Scale Interferometer team at the Centre of Astrophysical Research in Antarctica, presents findings that support the theory that tiny distortions in matter from the Big Bang led to the formation of the large structures in the universe; the findings also support the theory of dark matter and the idea that the universe is flat rather than curved.", "a branch of science that deals with studying the origin, structure, and nature of the universe." ]

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[ "Jupiter/Galilean Satellites: When Galileo first turned his telescope toward Jupiter four centuries ago, he saw that the giant planet had four large satellites, or moons. These, the largest of dozens of moons that orbit Jupiter, later became known as the Galilean satellites. The larger two, Callisto and Ganymede, are roughly the size of the planet Mercury; the smallest, Io and Europa, are approximately the size of Earth's Moon. This MGS MOC image, obtained from Mars orbit on 8 May 2003, shows Jupiter and three of the four Galilean satellites: Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa. At the time, Io was behind Jupiter as seen from Mars, and Jupiter's giant red spot had rotated out of view. This image has been specially processed to show both Jupiter and its satellites, since Jupiter, at an apparent magnitude of -1.8, was much brighter than the three satellites.", "Jupiter/Galilean Satellites: When Galileo first turned his telescope toward Jupiter four centuries ago, he saw that the giant planet had four large satellites, or moons. These, the largest of dozens of moons that orbit Jupiter, later became known as the Galilean satellites. The larger two, Callisto and Ganymede, are roughly the size of the planet Mercury; the smallest, Io and Europa, are approximately the size of Earth's Moon. This MGS MOC image, obtained from Mars orbit on 8 May 2003, shows Jupiter and three of the four Galilean satellites: Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa. At the time, Io was behind Jupiter as seen from Mars, and Jupiter's giant red spot had rotated out of view. This image has been specially processed to show both Jupiter and its satellites, since Jupiter, at an apparent magnitude of -1.8, was much brighter than the three satellites.", "This composite includes the four largest moons of Jupiter which are known as the Galilean satellites. The Galilean satellites were first seen by the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei in 1610. Shown from left to right in order of increasing distance from Jupiter, Io is closest, followed by Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The order of these satellites from the planet Jupiter helps to explain some of the visible differences among the moons.", "This \"family portrait,\" a composite of the Jovian system, includes the edge of Jupiter with its Great Red Spot, and Jupiter's four largest moons, known as the Galilean satellites. From top to bottom, the moons shown are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Europa, the smallest of the four moons, is about the size of Earth's moon, while Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system. North is at the top of this composite picture in which the massive planet and its largest satellites have all been scaled to a common factor of 15 kilometers (9 miles) per picture element. The Solid State Imaging (CCD) system aboard NASA's Galileo spacecraft obtained the Jupiter, Io and Ganymede images in June 1996, while the Europa images were obtained in September 1996. Because Galileo focused on high resolution imaging of regional areas on Callisto rather than global coverage, the portrait of Callisto is from the 1979 flyby of NASA's Voyager spacecraft. Image credit: NASA.", "The four large Galilean Satellites of Jupiter (from left to right in mosaic : Io , Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto ) resemble a miniature solar system. The global density, relative amount of rocky material, and duration and intensity of geologic activity on each satellite all decrease with increasing distance from Jupiter. Each satellite is very distinctive in appearance and geologic history. Io, the densest and innermost major satellite, is volcanically active today. Europa has a highly fractured, young icy outer shell. Ganymede has a complex volcanic and tectonic history, and Callisto, the least dense and outermost satellite, is heavily cratered and rather bland by comparison. The geologic histories of these satellites are related to tidal deformation and heating, which is more intense closer to Jupiter.", "The largest Galilean satellite is Ganymede, with a diameter of 3,273 miles (5,268 kilometers). Ganymede is larger than the planet Mercury. Callisto, with a diameter of 2,986 miles (4,806 kilometers), is slightly smaller than Mercury. Ganymede and Callisto appear to consist of ice and some rocky material. The two satellites have many craters.", "*Main group or Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. They are some of the largest objects in the Solar System outside the Sun and the eight planets in terms of mass and are larger than any known dwarf planet, Ganymede exceeding even the planet Mercury in diameter. They are respectively the fourth-, sixth-, first-, and third-largest natural satellites in the Solar System, containing approximately 99.997% of the total mass in orbit around Jupiter. Jupiter is almost 5,000 times more massive than the Galilean moons. The inner moons are in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. Models suggest that they formed by slow accretion in the low-density Jovian subnebula—a disc of the gas and dust that existed around Jupiter after its formation—which lasted up to 10 million years in the case of Callisto. Several are suspected of having subsurface oceans.", "Based on density, surface composition analysis, and gravity data, Io appears to be a rocky silicate rich body that has a dense iron, iron sulfide core that extends halfway to the surface with a partially melted silicate rich mantle, and a thin rocky crust. The lower density of Ganymede and Callisto suggest that they are composed of lighter elements, most likely water in some form. Why are there such differences among the four Galilean satellites? During the early formation of the solar system , Jupiter would have been very hot. This may have prevented lighter elements from condensing at the inner orbits. The mini system of Galilean satellites orbiting Jupiter resembles that of the solar system with the rocky, dense planets at the innermost orbits and the light, least dense planets at the outer orbits.", "Callisto (Jupiter IV) is the second-largest moon of Jupiter, after Ganymede. It is the third-largest moon in the Solar System and the largest object in the Solar System not to be properly differentiated. Callisto was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei. At in diameter, Callisto has about 99% the diameter of the planet Mercury but only about a third of its mass. It is the fourth Galilean moon of Jupiter by distance, with an orbital radius of about . It is not in an orbital resonance like the three other Galilean satellites—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—and is thus not appreciably tidally heated. Callisto's rotation is tidally locked to its orbit around Jupiter, so that the same hemisphere always faces inward; Jupiter appears to stand nearly still in Callisto's sky. It is less affected by Jupiter's magnetosphere than the other inner satellites because of its more remote orbit, located just outside Jupiter's main radiation belt. ", "Jupiter's moons are a very diverse group, ranging from the tiny, irregularly shaped S/2010 J 1 and S/2010 J 2 to the huge Galilean satellites Io, Europa, Callisto and Ganymede. With a diameter of 3,273 miles (5,268 km), Ganymede is the biggest moon in the solar system; it's larger than the planet Mercury.", "Explanation: Some of the Solar System's largest moons rose together on February 23. On that night, a twilight pairing of a waning gibbous Moon and Jupiter was captured in this sharp telescopic field of view . The composite of short and long exposures reveals the familiar face of our fair planet's own large natural satellite, along with a line up of the ruling gas giant's four Galilean moons. Left to right, the tiny pinpricks of light are Callisto , Io , Ganymede , [Jupiter], and Europa . Closer and brighter, our own natural satellite appears to loom large. But Callisto, Io, and Ganymede are actually larger than Earth's Moon, while water world Europa is only slightly smaller. In fact, of the Solar System's six largest planetary satellites , only Saturn's moon Titan is missing from the scene. (Editor's note: Composite corrected for orientation and field of view posted on March 7.)", "Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometres in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury - although only at about half of its mass. Europa, the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest at 3121.6 kilometres in diameter, which is slightly smaller than Earth's Moon. Callisto is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second largest of the four, and at 4820.6 kilometres in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System.", "Ganymede is the seventh and largest of Jupiter's known satellites. Ganymede is the third of the Galilean moons.", "The planet Jupiter  is the largest world in the solar system. It has at least 67 known moons and a thin dusty ring. Its four largest moons are called the Galileans, after astronomer Galileo Galilei, who discovered them in 1610. The individual moon names are Callisto, Europa, Ganymede , and Io, and come from Greek mythology.", "Ganymede /ˈɡænᵻmiːd/ (Jupiter III) is the largest moon of Jupiter and in the Solar System, and the only moon known to have a magnetic field. It is the seventh satellite outward from Jupiter and third of the Galilean moons, the first group of objects discovered orbiting another planet. Ganymede orbits Jupiter in roughly seven days and is in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance with the moons Europa and Io, respectively. Ganymede has a diameter of 5,268 km (3,273 mi), 8 % larger than the planet Mercury, but its mass is only 45 % that of Mercury. Ganymede is 2 % larger than Saturn's Titan (second-largest moon of the Solar System). At 2.02 times the mass of the Moon, it is the most massive planetary satellite. It is the ninth-largest object in the Solar System, and the largest without a substantial atmosphere.", "Ganymede, the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury – although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core. ", "Distance from Jupiter: Ganymede is the seventh moon and third Galilean satellite outward from Jupiter, orbiting at about 665,000 miles (1.070 million kilometers). It takes Ganymede about seven Earth-days to orbit Jupiter.", "The best of the Jupiter system is pictured in this collage of images acquired by the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft. Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system. The four largest moons of Jupiter are known as the Galilean moons and are named Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, and Io. Inside the orbits of the Galilean moons are Thebe, Amalthea, Adrastea, and Metis.", "Montage of Jupiter's four Galilean moons, in a composite image comparing their sizes and the size of Jupiter. From top to bottom: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.", "Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system made of dust, rather than ice – as with Saturn’s rings – and a powerful magnetosphere (14 times as strong as the Earth’s). There are also at least 66 moons, including the four large moons called the Galilean moons that were first discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of these moons, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.", "Jupiter has 66 moons but Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto are the four largest.  All four have radii larger than any of the dwarf planets. These are also known as Galilean Moons.", "Jupiter, the largest planet in the Solar System, has over 65 moons orbiting it. Its four largest moons are Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. These moons are known as the Galilean moons. Here are ten facts about the first of these moons - Io, a volcanic moon resembling a pizza.", "Volcanic Io is the innermost of the Galilean moons, completing one lap around Jupiter every 1.8 days. Europa, Ganymede and Callisto have orbital periods of 3.6, 7.2 and 16.7 days, respectively.", "As of 2014, scientists have confirmed the discovery of 173 natural satellites orbiting around the eight planets. Earth has one moon, Mars has two, Jupiter has 50, Saturn has 53, Uranus has 27, and Neptune has 13. Neither Mercury nor Venus have any moons. Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune all have provisional moons, which refers to moons not yet verified by the International Astronomical Union. Eight moons orbiting dwarf planets have been confirmed. Natural satellites also orbit minor planets and asteroids, with at least 200 moons orbiting minor planets. Within the asteroid belt, 76 objects have natural satellites, while four Jupiter trojans and 14 Mars-crosser asteroids also have orbiting celestial bodies. As of 2014, 39 near-Earth objects have one or two orbiting celestial bodies. Scientists believe that some of these moons may have their own moons, although no discovery of such a body has been confirmed. Jupiter's moon Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System.", "Ganymede, larger than the planet Mercury, is the largest Jovian satellite. Its distinctive surface is characterized by patches of dark and light terrain. Bright frost is visible at the north and south poles. The very bright icy impact crater, Tros, is near the center of the image in a region known as Phrygia Sulcus. The dark area to the northwest of Tros is Perrine Regio; the dark terrain to the south and southeast is Nicholson Regio. Ganymede's surface is characterized by a high degree of crustal deformation. Much of the surface is covered by water ice, with a higher amount of rocky material in the darker areas. This global view was taken in September 1997 when Galileo was 1.68 million kilometers from Ganymede; the finest details that can be discerned are about 67 kilometers across.", "Callisto, the fourth Galilean moon, farthest from Jupiter, represents the most heavily cratered object in the solar system. The moon’s landscape remains largely unchanged since the time of its formation, attracting much interest from researchers. Callisto roughly approximates Mercury in size, but the moon possesses a lower density. It also experiences the least amount of effect from Jupiter’s magnetic field, as it orbits farther away from the planet, beyond Jupiter’s primary radiation belt. [See more information about Callisto .]", "Virtually every planet in the Solar System has moons. Earth has The Moon , Mars has Phobos and Deimos , and Jupiter and Saturn have 67 and 62 officially named moons, respectively. Heck, even the recently-demoted dwarf planet Pluto has five confirmed moons – Charon , Nix , Hydra , Kerberos and Styx. And even asteroids like 243 Ida may have satellites orbiting them (in this case, Dactyl). But what about Mercury ?", "The Galilean moons, compared to Earth's Moon Name IPA Diameter Mass Orbital radius Orbital period km  % kg  % km  % days  % Io ˈaɪ.oʊ 3643 105 8.9×1022 120 421,700 110 1.77 7 Europa jʊˈroʊpə 3122 90 4.8×1022 65 671,034 175 3.55 13 Ganymede ˈɡænimiːd 5262 150 14.8×1022 200 1,070,412 280 7.15 26 Callisto kəˈlɪstoʊ 4821 140 10.8×1022 150 1,882,709 490 16.69 61", "Jupiter’s moons are sometimes called the Jovian satellites, the largest of these are Ganymeade, Callisto Io and Europa. Ganymeade measures 5,268 km across, making it larger than the planet Mercury .", "Jupiter's moon Ganymede is the largest satellite in the solar system. Larger than Mercury and Pluto, and only slightly smaller than Mars, it would easily be classified as a planet if were orbiting the sun rather than Jupiter.", "Callisto is the second largest Jovian moon (that is, moon of Jupiter), and third in the Solar System (with a diameter of 4820 km). It is 98% of the size of Mercury. Callisto has the oldest surface in the Solar System (this means is the most heavily cratered body in the Solar System) even older than Mercury's. Callisto was discovered in 1610, along with Io, Europa, and Ganymede.", "With a mean radius of 2410.3 ± 1.5 km (0.378 Earths) and a mass of 1.0759 × 1023 kg (0.018 Earths), Callisto is the second largest Jupiter’s moons (after Ganymede) and the third largest satellite in the solar system. Much like Ganymede, it is comparable in size to Mercury – being 99% as large – but due to its mixed composition, it has less than one-third of Mercury mass." ]

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[ "It is estimated that the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years, and is increasing in brightness at a rate of about 1% every 100 million years. At the end of its main sequence phase, the Sun will not go supernova since it does not have sufficient mass.", "Located 12,000 light-years from Earth, this colossal star is so bright that it is just about visible even with the naked eye. It is about one million times brighter than the Sun.", "Although we don't know which star truly is the brightest, we know some are remarkably bright. You can see one of them any clear night this summer. Deneb is the northeastern of the three stars that form a large and easily seen grouping called the Summer Triangle. While Deneb shines the brightest in the constellation Cygnus, 17 other stars glow brighter in our night skies. But Deneb is much farther from Earth than most of the other stars you see, and this giant is around 100,000 times brighter than the Sun. If Deneb were the same distance from Earth as Vega, another star in the Summer Triangle, not only would it outshine all the stars and planets visible at night, but it would even be bright enough to see in the daytime!", "Rigel (the \"Left Leg of the Giant\"), is a blue-white supergiant star, one of the rarest breeds in our galaxy.  But with their enormous brilliance — up to 100,000 times as bright as the sun — blue-white supergiants remain conspicuous over great distances.", "The light from these two stars taken together is, on average, more than 2200 times brighter than the sun. Their diameters are estimated to be 7.8 and 4 times the sun’s diameter.", "Some 1400 light years away, Rigel, also considered a supergiant, is 17 times more massive than our sun and 50,000 times brighter. What we see in the sky is actually two stars, a binary system, and is composed of one very large, super-bright star, and a small, fainter star, only observable by larger telescopes.", "Very large stars (red giants) are often called Super Giants. These stars have diameters up to 1000 times that of the Sun and have luminosities often 1,000,000 times greater than the Sun.", "In order for us to see it at its enormous distance, Deneb must also be tremendously bright and energetic. Among the 20 brightest stars, only Rigel in Orion surpasses Deneb in intrinsic brightness. Deneb is an A2Ia star, which says that it is white hot (A2) and a supergiant star (Ia). Prof. James Kaler, using the figure of 2,600 light years as the distance, estimated a diameter 200 times greater than our sun, and about a quarter of a million times brighter in visible light. Considering its spectral classification (A2), Deneb must have a surface temperature between about 8500 to 9000 kelvins (roughly 14,800 to 15,700 degrees F).", "\"If you looked up in the sky, their sun would appear 60 times bigger and shine more than 3,600 times brighter than on Earth,\" Matthews said. \"To block out the sun you would need to hold up a dinner plate at arm's length.\"", "These distance-luminosity relationships demonstrate how radically different are the natures of the stars we see. In absolute terms, alpha-Cygni has a luminosity of more than 60,000 times the sun, gamma-Cygni more than 7,000, and beta-Cygni nearly 800. In contrast, 61-Cygni is only about 9% as bright as the sun.", "There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8.5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 pc from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsec, or one star per 2,360 cubic light-year (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 pc of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsec, or one per 284 cubic light-year (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15.5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14. ", "There are 12 major bodies brighter than magnitude 6 (as viewed from Earth). All of these can be seen with the unaided eye or with binoculars.", "For example, a spiral galaxy with an absolute visual magnitude of MV = -20.15 mags can be compared with the Sun, where MV(Sun) = 4.85 magnitudes. According to the above relation, the spiral galaxy has a power output at visual wavelengths equal to 1010 (10 billion) Suns.", "The Sun is the star nearest to the Earth and it is like a sea of flame which is restless and seething. In ancient times, people thought of the Sun as a perfect sphere of celestial fire created by the gods. It would require about 333,000 Earths to equal the Suns mass; but more than a million Earths could fit inside because the Suns volume is greater since solar matter is about one-fourth as dense as earthly matter. About 109 Earths could fit side by side across the diameter of the Sun. Although the energy of the Sun comes from deep within, the light we see comes from an outer shell, called the photosphere, just 185 miles (300 km) thick. It is only through this outer layer that light, heat, and other types of radiation can escape. The photosphere glows because it is heated to nearly 5,800K (Kelvin) by the nuclear reactions in the core. Above the photosphere is the chromosphere. This is about 3,000 miles (5,000 km) thick and at its base has a temperature of approximately 4,000K.", "One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae , [61] which, with 100–150 times as much mass as the Sun, will have a lifespan of only several million years. A study of the Arches cluster suggests that 150 solar masses is the upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe. [62] The reason for this limit is not precisely known, but it is partially due to the Eddington luminosity which defines the maximum amount of luminosity that can pass through the atmosphere of a star without ejecting the gases into space. However, a star named R136a1 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, RMC 136a star cluster has been measured at 265 solar masses, which puts this limit into question. [63] A study determined that stars larger than 150 solar masses in R136 were created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close binary systems , providing a way to sidestep the 150 solar mass limit. [64]", "If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky that", "Luminosity, or the true brightness, is how bright the stars would look if all were at the same distance (compared to the Sun).", "Aldebaran and the Pleiades are visible to the naked eye and are two of the sky’s brightest objects.", "The sun is one of more than 200 billion stars in our galaxy, the Milky Way .", "Astronomers \"pretend\" to line up stars exactly 10 parsecs (about 32.6 light years) away from Earth. They then figure out how bright each star would look. They call that brightness the star's absolute magnitude. Our Sun is not an especially bright star. The Sun has an absolute magnitude of 4.83.", "Spica is bright both because of its size and relative proximity to Earth. The components in the system have a radius 7.40 and 3.64 times that of the Sun.", "Deneb's absolute magnitude is currently estimated as −8.4, placing it among the most luminous stars known, with an estimated luminosity nearly 200,000 times that of our Sun. This is towards the upper end of various published values over the last few decades. ", "The Solar System is located in the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter of about 100,000 containing about 100 billion stars.", "The Sun is a massive atomic furnace that works by converting hydrogen into helium. Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It has one proton in its nucleus. Temperatures and densities in the centre of the Sun are so great, 1.5 million°C and around 200 billion atmospheres, that colliding hydrogen nuclei sometimes fuse into helium nuclei. The creation of each helium nucleus requires four hydrogen nuclei.", "You can imagine the enormity of the energy generated when you realise that, given Albert Einstein's famous equation E=MC2, the 4 million ton differential is multiplied by the speed of light, squared. This energy is so great that the Sun gives off 6200 watts of light from every square centimetre of its surface. Compare this to a 60-100 Watt domestic light globe. As far as we know, the Sun has been giving off this light steadily for the last 4.5 billion years, and will continue to do so for several billion more. Only half a billionth of this energy reaches the Earth. The rest is lost in space, so to speak.", "where Re in this case is the radius inside of which half the light is contained, and Ie is the corresponding intensity at this radius. With this definition, the central intensity is 2140 Ie -- very bright indeed.", "For millions of years a star shined in the far off constellation of Taurus . So far away, and so faint that even if our eyes were ten thousand times more sensitive, the star would still not be visible to us on the Earth. Then one day, in a few seconds, all that changed. An explosion beyond belief in its intensity lit up the heavens; it still shines, almost one thousand years later....", "About 1800, an astronomer, William Herschel discovered that the spectrum of the sun contains more than invisible colors. Using a prism to split the sun into a spectrum, he experimented with a thermometer, and measured the temperature of each color. He found that the highest temperature reading came from the region beyond the red, where no color could be seen. Herschel had discovered that infrared energy is a form of invisible light.", "expounded at considerable length what the nature of that light must be which is found in the sun and the stars, and how thence in an instant of time it traverses the immense spaces of the heavens.", "The path of the Sun throughout a year with respect to the apparently fixed background of stars.", "The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool. Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude. The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. ", "The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool. Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star, and hence its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude." ]

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[ "Aperture synthesis imaging was first developed at radio wavelengths by Martin Ryle and coworkers from the Radio Astronomy Group at Cambridge University. Martin Ryle and Tony Hewish jointly received a Nobel Prize for this and other contributions to the development of radio interferometry.", "* Late 1960s / early 1970s: Aperture synthesis, used for accurate location and imaging of weak radio sources in the field of radio astronomy, developed by Martin Ryle (1918–1984) and Antony Hewish (born 1924). ", "A method of combining several small telescopes to simulate some properties of very large telescopes. It has been used successfully at radio frequencies to enable astronomers to see fine detail in sources. The technique was developed by UK astronomer Martin Ryle at Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory, Cambridge, UK. Aperture synthesis is a type of interferometry that mixes signals from a col…", "Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies. The initial detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was made in the 1930s, when Karl Jansky observed radiation coming from the Milky Way. Subsequent observations have identified a number of different sources of radio emission. These include stars and galaxies, as well as entirely new classes of objects, such as radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, and masers. The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation, regarded as evidence for the Big Bang theory, was made through radio astronomy.", "Karl Jansky (1905-1950, American) discovered that radio waves are emanating from space, which led to the science of radio astronomy.", "The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of astronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Perturbations and interference from the earth's atmosphere make space-based observations necessary for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy.", "The radio astronomy group in Cambridge went on to found the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory near Cambridge in the 1950s. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, as computers (such as the Titan) became capable of handling the computationally intensive Fourier transform inversions required, they used aperture synthesis to create a 'One-Mile' and later a '5 km' effective aperture using the One-Mile and Ryle telescopes, respectively.", "A radio telescope is a form of directional radio antenna used in radio astronomy and in tracking and collecting data from satellites and space probes. They differ from optical telescopes in that they operate in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum where they can detect and collect data on radio sources. Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic or dish antenna used singularly or in an array. As a successor to Karl Guthe Jansky in the field of radio astronomy, Grote Reber built the first parabolic \"dish\" radio telescope in 1937. He was instrumental in repeating Karl Guthe Jansky's pioneering but somewhat simple work, and went on to conduct the first sky survey in the radio frequencies.", "The Horn Antenna, at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey, is significant because of its association with the research work of two radio astronomers, Dr. Arno A. Penzias and Dr. Robert A. Wilson. In 1965 while using the Horn Antenna, Penzias and Wilson stumbled on the microwave background radiation that permeates the universe. Cosmologists quickly realized that Penzias and Wilson had made the most important discovery in modern astronomy since Edwin Hubble demonstrated in the 1920s that the universe was expanding. This discovery provided the evidence that confirmed George Gamow's and Abbe Georges Lemaitre's \"Big Bang\" theory of the creation of the universe and forever changed the science of cosmology--the study of the history of the universe--from a field for unlimited theoretical speculation into a subject disciplined by direct observation. In 1978 Penzias and Wilson received the Nobel Prize for Physics for their momentous discovery. [ 2 ]", "Radio telescopes are directional radio antennas used for radio astronomy. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed. Multi-element Radio telescopes are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large 'virtual' apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes; this process is known as aperture synthesis. As of 2005, the current record array size is many times the width of the Earth—utilizing space-based Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) [http://www.vsop.isas.ac.jp/ VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite]. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which is used to collect radiation when any visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars. Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for extraterrestrial life.", "Astronomers the world over were galvanised into action by the findings. In 1937 Grote Reber, an American amateur astronomer, began building the first radio receiver aimed up at space. Reber confirmed Jansky's findings about the direction of the radio waves and he went on to map the whole sky, using his dish to pick up naturally occurring radio transmissions from stars, galaxies, quasars, and other astronomical objects. For six years it was the only purpose-built radio telescope.", "But it wasn't until the 1930s that astronomers even began looking for other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Karl Jansky inadvertently discovered galactic emissions of radio waves in 1933. Working at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Jansky was trying to find what caused short-wave radio interference in Trans-Atlantic communications. By building a rotating radio telescope to look at the", "Before Jansky observed the Milky Way in the 1930s, physicists speculated that radio waves could be observed from astronomical sources. In the 1860s, James Clerk Maxwell's equations had shown that electromagnetic radiation is associated with electricity and magnetism, and could exist at any wavelength. Several attempts were made to detect radio emission from the Sun including an experiment by German astrophysicists Johannes Wilsing and Julius Scheiner in 1896 and a centimeter wave radiation apparatus set up by Oliver Lodge between 1897-1900. These attempts were unable to detect any emission due to technical limitations of the instruments. The discovery of the radio reflecting ionosphere in 1902, led physicists to conclude that the layer would bounce any astronomical radio transmission back into space, making them undetectable. ", "In 1951 Lovell was appointed professor of radio astronomy at Manchester University, and six years later his dream of a radio-astronomy observatory was realized when Jodrell Bank, now the nuffield radio astronomy laboratory, was opened. Its primary instrument is a 76-m (250-ft) fully steerable parabolic dish receiver on an altazimuth mount, completed in 1957. That was the same year that the Russian sputnik 1 satellite was launched, and Lovell was able to justify the expense of the great radio telescope - originally known as the Mark I, but renamed the lovell telescope in 1987 - by using it successfully to track the then-feared spaceship. In the 1960s he collaborated with Fred whipple to make important studies of flare stars simultaneously at radio and optical wavelengths, an observational technique now routinely used on all types of astrophysical objects.", "32. Hey, The Evolution of Radio Astronomy (New York: Science History Publications, 1973), pp. 19-23 & 33-34; Lovell, The Story of Jodrell Bank (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 5; Hey, Stewart, and S. J. Parsons, \"Radar Observations of the Giacobinid Meteor Shower,\" Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 107 (1947): 176-183; Hey and Stewart, \"Radar Observations of Meteors,\" Proceedings of the Physical Society 59 (1947): 858-860 & 881-882; Hey, The Radio Universe (New York: Pergamon Press, 1971), pp. 131-134; Lovell, Meteor Astronomy, pp. 28-29 & 50-52; Peter Robertson, Beyond Southern Skies: Radio Astronomy and the Parkes Telescope (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 39; Dudley Saward, Bernard Lovell, a Biography (London: Robert Hale, 1984), pp. 142-145; David O. Edge and Michael J. Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York: Wiley, 1976), pp. 12-14. For a brief historical overview of the Royal Radar Establishment, see Ernest H. Putley, \"History of the RSRE,\" RSRE Research Review 9 (1985): 165-174; and D. H. Tomin, \"The RSRE: A Brief History from Earliest Times to Present Day,\" IEE Review 34 (1988): 403-407. This major applied science institution deserves a more rigorously researched history.", "Meanwhile, two employees of Bell Labs had had their eye on the antenna. Arno Penzias (b. 1933), a German-born radio astronomer, joined Bell Labs in 1958. He had done his PhD on using masers (microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to amplify and measure radio signals from the spaces between galaxies. He knew the Holmdel antenna would also make a great radio telescope and was dying to use it to continue his observations, but he pursued other research while the antenna was booked for commercial use. Another radio astronomer came to Bell Labs in 1962 with the same idea. Robert Wilson (b. 1936) had also used masers to amplify weak signals in mapping radio signals from the Milky Way. The launch of Telstar in 1962 gave both researchers what they wanted: the Holmdel antenna was freed up for pure research.", "In 1964 two American radio astronomers, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias, were working at the Bell Labs in Holmdel, using the Horn Antenna to map signals across the Milky Way.  The Holmdel Horn Antenna was a highly sensitive instrument originally built to detect faint radio waves, which had been deflected off of satellites. In order for the antenna to work properly, all “noisey” interference, such as radio waves, radar and heat, had to be completely eliminated.", "1942 James Stanley Hey, English physicist whose work in radar led to pioneering research in radioastronomy. He discovered that large sunspots were powerful ultra-shortwave radio transmitters, and pinpointed a radio source in the Milky Way.", "8. J. V. Jelley, \"The Potentialities and Present Status of Masers and Parametric Amplifiers in Radio Astronomy,\" Proceedings of the IEEE 51 (1963): 31 & 36, esp. 30; J. W. Meyer, The Solid State Maser - Principles, Applications, and Potential, Technical Report ESD-TR-68-261 (Lexington: Lincoln Laboratory, 1960), pp. 14-16; Jelley, pp. 31 & 36; J. A. Giordmaine, L. E. Alsop, C. H. Mayer, and C. H. Townes, \"A Maser Amplifier for Radio Astronomy at X-band,\" Proceedings of the IRE 47 (1959): 1062-1070; Pettengill and Price, \"Radar Echoes from Venus and a New Determination of the Solar Parallax,\" Planetary and Space Science 5 (1961): 73. For Townes and the invention of the maser, see Paul Forman, \"Inventing the Maser in Postwar America,\" Osiris ser. 2, vol. 7 (1992): 105-134.", "Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation , which is used to collect radiation when any visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars . Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for exterrestrial life. One particularly exciting example is the Wow! signal, recorded in 1977.", "The technique of combining the signals from radio telescopes spaced across continents results in very detailed pictures of the sky. The British astronomers have performed their observations with one of the largest ever collections of telescopes, making, in effect one telescope 12,000 km across. Their maps of the sky are so detailed that they can see objects only 0.2 light years wide at the distance of M82 (10 million light years). The pictures are 30 times more detailed than can be obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope, and as Dr. Mike Garrett (another member of the observing team) from the Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe said. \"This is equivalent to being able to read a newspaper in London from the Netherlands!\"", "American proposed that radiation near 1-cm wavelength is left over from the hot Big Bang; invented the microwave radiometer, used to detect this radiation George H. Herbig 1920-", "Lovell saw the need for a larger telescope to give greater sensitivity in the search for the elusive cosmic rays and for the detection of signals from the \"radio stars\" being found at other observatories. This resulted in an upward-looking, static, parabolic telescope 218ft in diameter, made from wires stretched between scaffold poles. An aerial 176ft above the reflecting dish received the signals either in the radar or radio mode. This telescope was immediately successful in detecting fainter meteor signals, but more importantly it collected signals from the enigmatic radio stars and helped to solve the problem of their origin. Some came from within our Milky Way galaxy, others were extra-galactic. Our nearby companion galaxy, the Andromeda Nebula, was clearly seen, as well as known optical emission nebulae within the Milky Way. As more and more of these radio stars were found, the debate about whether they were Galactic or beyond our Milky Way became critical. The need for a large, fully steerable radio telescope able to receive radio signals from the whole sky became a first priority.", "Lovell had a major role in the discovery and identification of quasars (QUASi-stellAR radio source). These are thought to be powered by the accretion of dust and other material into super-massive black holes at the centre of distant galaxies.", "First, although the theoretical resolution of an optical telescope may be as good as a few hundredths of a second of arc, distortions of the incoming light signal by the Earth's atmosphere, known as seeing , diffuse the image, so that even at a good mountain site under good observing conditions the best angular resolution is only a little better than one arc second. At the much longer radio wavelengths, the distortions introduced by the atmosphere are less important, and so the theoretical angular resolution of a radio telescope can in practice be achieved. Because radio signals are easier than light signals to distribute over large distances without distortion, it is possible to build radio telescopes of essentially unlimited dimensions. In fact, the history of radio astronomy has been one of solving engineering problems to construct radio telescopes of continually increasing angular resolution.", "Host:� Dr. Eddington, was the 1931 Einstein-de Sitter universe the only model of the expanding finite spherical universe that was invented?", "). Gigantic radio telescopes that trap the radiations of cosmic bodies with a spectral radiant flux density of 10–26 erg/cm2·sec·Hz have been built. Information on cosmic objects has grown immeasurably. Radio stars and radio galaxies with powerful emissions of radio waves have been discovered. Quasars, the quasi-stellar objects most distant from us, were discovered in 1963 (see", "Technique in widespread use to dramatically improve the resolution of radio maps. Several radio telescopes observe the object simultaneously, and a computer analyzes how the signals interfere with each other.", "The Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), which will consist of ten 25-metre dishes spread across the United States from the Virgin Islands to Hawaii upon completion in the early 1990s, is expected to yield radio images of quasars and other compact radio sources of unprecedented angular resolution and quality. Other radio telescopes being constructed in such countries as Italy and Australia will be dedicated to VLBI research programs. When used together with the VLBA and other radio telescopes throughout the world, the effective resolution of the system will be comparable to that of a single antenna whose diameter is roughly equivalent to the Earth's. Future space-based radio antennas are expected to increase the resolution still further to produce images of cosmic radio sources in even finer detail.", "Completed in 1957, just in time to track the launch of Sputnik 1 , the Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank in Cheshire, England, remains one of the world's largest steerable radio telescopes. It is part of a UK network of radio telescopes called eMERLIN.", "The first non-visual study of galaxies, particularly active galaxies, was made using radio frequencies. The Earth's atmosphere is nearly transparent to radio between 5 MHz and 30 GHz. (The ionosphere blocks signals below this range.) Large radio interferometers have been used to map the active jets emitted from active nuclei. Radio telescopes can also be used to observe neutral hydrogen (via 21 cm radiation), including, potentially, the non-ionized matter in the early Universe that later collapsed to form galaxies. ", "). The luminosity of quasars is hundreds of times greater than that of the brightest galaxies. The resolving power of modern radio telescopes, equipped with computer-controlled movable antennas, reaches one second of arc (for radiation with a wavelength of a few centimeters). When the antennas are spread out over large distances (of the order of 10,000 km), even higher resolution is obtained (hundredths of a second of arc)." ]

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[ "Although ring material is organized into an extremely complex system of tens of thousands of separate ringlets, there are seven major sections. Each section is separated by a gap that is relatively devoid of particles or by an abrupt change in the spacing or sizes of the particles. The rings of Saturn were labeled in order of their discovery and so the labels have nothing to do with the rings' relative positions. Let us consider them in order outward from Saturn (Figure 10.4).", "In total, Saturn has a system of 12 rings with 2 divisions. It has the most extensive ring system of any planet in our solar system. The rings have numerous gaps where particle density drops sharply. In some cases, this due to Saturn’s Moons being embedded within them, which causes destabilizing orbital resonances to occur.", "In total, Saturn has a system of 12 rings with 2 divisions. It has the most extensive ring system of any planet in our solar system . The rings have numerous gaps where particle density drops sharply. In some cases, this due to Saturn's Moons being embedded within them, which causes destabilizing orbital resonances to occur.", "To answer the question, how many rings does Saturn have, you really need to find out how closely you’re looking. From what you might be able to see, there are 3 rings. With powerful telescopes, you can make out 8 rings. And with spacecraft like Cassini orbiting Saturn, that total rises above 30.", "Saturn's ring system is divided up into 7 major divisions with alphabetic designators in the order of discovery. From the innermost ring to the outermost ring the designators are D, C, B, A, F, G and E. Each major division is further subdivided into thousands of individual ringlets. The F and G rings are very thin and difficult to see while the A, B, and C rings are broad and quite visible. Between the A and B rings is a gap called the Cassini division named after Giovanni Cassini who discovered the Gap in 1676. Between the A and F rings lies the Keeler (Encke) gap.", "Saturn has a marvelous system of at least 23 orbiting moons and rings (Table 10.2). In fact, Saturn has more moons greater than 100 km in diameter than any other planet. The satellites range from moons the size of Mercury to ring particles smaller than sand grains. Most of the moons consist mainly of water ice, with lesser amounts of silicate rocks, and even smaller, but significant, quantities of methane and ammonia.", "The two densest parts of the rings are the A and B rings, separated by the Cassini Division, and then the C Ring. So, is that 3 rings, or 4? Whatever the case, these comprise Saturn’s main rings.", "Details of Saturn's icy rings are visible in this sweeping view from Cassini of the planet's glorious ring system. The total span, from A ring to F ring, covers approximately 40,800 miles (65,700 km) and was photographed at Nov. 26, 2008.", "Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second of the gas giants. At a mean distance of 1,427 million kilometres (9.5AU), and travelling at about 10km/s, it takes Saturn about 29.46 years to orbit the Sun once. Saturn rotates on its axis once every 10 hours 15 minutes. With an equatorial diameter of about 120,540km (10.4% polar flattening), Saturn is about 9.5 times the size of the Earth. Like Jupiter, Saturn has no real surface. Its atmospheric cloud layers are dominated by hydrogen and helium with traces of methane, ammonia and water vapour. The cloud layers are thick and show only faint banding. The temperature at Saturn�s cloud tops is about - 180C. Saturn is best known for its prominent and spectacular ice and dust dominated ring system (gravitationally trapped debris or a failed moon). Saturn�s rings vary in thickness up to only 200m but extend into space around the planet for about 1 million kilometres (diameter). Saturn has at least 18 confirmed moons (possibly as many as 24), the largest of which is Titan (about 5,000km across) with a thick, nitrogen dominated atmosphere. Many moons are co-orbital.", "Saturn's rings span a great distance with the inner D ring approximately 6,700 kilometers from Saturn's cloud tops to the fringes of the E ring, 480,000 kilometers out. Surprisingly, most of the rings are only a few tens of meters thick with a total mass equivalent to a medium sized moon. The rings are made out of particles ranging from microscopic dust to barnyard sized boulders with perhaps a few kilometer-sized objects as well. Near-infrared observations from Earth have shown that the rings are composed mostly of ice crystals with some impurities.", "Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique. The rings extend from 6,630 km to 120,700 km outward from Saturn's equator, average approximately 20 meters in thickness and are composed of 93% water ice with traces of tholin impurities and 7% amorphous carbon. The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m. While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn's is the largest and most visible.", "The rings that surrounds Saturn could be the remnants of a moon that was shattered by Saturn's gravity.  Saturn's rings are as wide as 22 planet earths all in a row but are only 30 feet thick!", "Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique. [22] The rings extend from 6,630 km to 120,700 km outward from Saturn's equator, average approximately 20 meters in thickness and are composed of 93% water ice with traces of tholin impurities and 7% amorphous carbon . [67] The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m. [68] While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn's is the largest and most visible.", "For now, astronomers count eight main rings. As they were discovered, each was assigned a letter of the alphabet (not exactly the flashiest nomenclature for such an awe-inspiring planet). But they do not appear in alphabetical order. Working outward from Saturn, the first are the C, B and A rings. The D ring is faint, and closest to the planet. The F ring is narrow and is just outside the A ring. Beyond that, are two fainter rings, G and E. There are gaps between the rings that have been named, and ringlets within the rings, which has upped the ring count into the thousands.", "Saturn is a favorite object for many observers.  Its beautiful rings are 169,800 miles wide, but less thick than a football field.  In many ways Saturn is similar to Jupiter, but it is much smaller.  Under the clouds of methane and helium the sky gradually turns into liquid until it becomes a giant ocean of liquid chemicals.", "The innermost ring that we now know to orbit Saturn is the D ring. It extends from within 7000 km of Saturn's atmosphere to the inner edge of the C ring but is not visible in telescopic view nor in normal Voyager photos. Its existence was suspected from Earth-based photos but was never confirmed until long-exposure photographs from Voyager detected it.", "is the bright central part of this image and is the dominant structure in Saturn's ring system. It is brighter than all other rings combined and presumably contains most of the ring mass. It also has the most extensive and uniform small-scale structure. Thousands of ringlets are discernible. The B ring is about 6000 km wide. The thinnest ringlets discernible are about 10 km across. (NASA/JPL PIA06175)", "Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun and is named after the Roman God Saturnus. The planet features a prominent set of rings, comprising of icy particles, small rocks and dust. Sixty planets orbit the planet of which Titan is the largest.", "The rings of Saturn are made up of objects ranging in size from microscopic to hundreds of meters, each of which is on its own orbit about the planet. Thus, a precise number of Saturnian moons cannot be given, as there is no objective boundary between the countless small anonymous objects that form Saturn's ring system and the larger objects that have been named as moons. At least 150 moonlets embedded in the rings have been detected by the disturbance they create in the surrounding ring material, though this is thought to be only a small sample of the total population of such objects.", "The rings of Saturn consist of billions of particles, ranging in size from the finest dust grains to large boulders 10 meters or more in diameter. Judging from their brightness and densities, the particles are probably made of water ice. Each particle moves in its own independent orbit and at its own independent speed. Each can be considered as a separate satellite, but the particles are concentrated in a thin region in Saturn's equatorial plane, giving the appearance of a solid disc (Figure 10.4).", "The rings of Saturn are the most extensive planetary ring system of any planet in the Solar System. They consist of countless small particles, ranging in size from micrometres to metres, that orbit about Saturn. The ring particles are made almost entirely of water ice, with a trace component of rocky material. There is still no consensus as to their mechanism of formation; some features of the rings suggest a relatively recent origin, but theoretical models indicate they are likely to have formed early in the Solar System's history. ", "Jupiter was found to have rings. Saturn's rings were found to contain spokes in the B-ring and a braided structure in the F-ring. Two new rings were discovered at Uranus and Neptune's rings, originally thought to be only ring arcs, were found to be complete, albeit composed of fine material.", "Based on Voyager observations, the total mass of the rings was estimated to be about 3 x 1019 kg. This is a small fraction of the total mass of Saturn (about 50 ppb) and is just a little less than the moon Mimas. More-recent observations and computer modeling based on Cassini observations show that this may be an underestimate due to clumping in the rings and the mass may be three times this figure. Although the largest gaps in the rings, such as the Cassini Division and Encke Gap, can be seen from Earth, both Voyager spacecraft discovered that the rings have an intricate structure of thousands of thin gaps and ringlets. This structure is thought to arise, in several different ways, from the gravitational pull of Saturn's many moons. Some gaps are cleared out by the passage of tiny moonlets such as Pan, many more of which may yet be discovered, and some ringlets seem to be maintained by the gravitational effects of small shepherd satellites (similar to Prometheus and Pandora's maintenance of the F ring). Other gaps arise from resonances between the orbital period of particles in the gap and that of a more massive moon further out; Mimas maintains the Cassini Division in this manner. Still more structure in the rings consists of spiral waves raised by the inner moons' periodic gravitational perturbations at less disruptive resonances.", "Skipping around, we find that the largest rings of Saturn are named A, B, and C for asymmetric, bright, and crepe rings (clearly planetary scientists were not expecting the thousands of rings found there by the Voyager spacecraft). However, the dubious pleasure of having gaps (clearings in the rings) named after one goes to Cassini (the Cassini division is a gap in between the A and B ring), Maxwell (he also figured out the nature of the rings), and Keeler--the first director of Lick observatory in San Jose, California, who observationally proved that the inner rings indeed rotated faster than the outer rings (i.e., the rings were really particles in orbit around Saturn).", "✶✶ Along with Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune, Saturn is one of the four outer planets furthest from the sun. Also known as the ‘gas giants’ or Jovian planets, they are composed of gas, have rings, multiple moons and are much larger compared to the four inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. The two sets of planets are separated by the asteroid belt. ✶✶ Saturn’s rings were first seen in 1610 by an astronomer, Galileo Galilei (who was first to use a telescope to look at space), but at the time did not realise what they were. In 1655, an astronomer, Christian Huygens, identified them as a disc surrounding the planet. ✶✶ The reflection of Saturn’s rings adds to its brightness and visibility. From a distance they appear a dull orange but they can also give off a variety of colours ranging from reds to blues. ✶✶ Although Saturn’s magnetic field is not as strong as Jupiter’s, it is 578 times more powerful than Earth’s. ✶✶ Because of Saturn’s gaseous nature and the fact that it rotates so quickly, its poles are flattened and its equator bulges outwards.", "Of course, the most amazing feature of Saturn is its rings . These are made of particles of ice ranging in size from a grains of sand to the size of a car. Some scientists think the rings are only a few hundred million years old, while others think they could be as old as the Solar System itself.", "What name is given to the broad gap between the outermost and the brightest of Saturn's rings*cassini division", "Its most interesting feature is the series of rings that surround the planet. The rings aren't solid, but are made up of lots of little pieces of rock and ice particles that orbit Saturn at the same speed.", "Somewhat like our Solar System of which it is a part, Saturn has its own system, including spectacular rings and the second greatest collection of moons in the Solar System including the second largest moon in the Solar System.", "Saturn’s rings are a thing of beauty. They’ve piqued the curiosity of legions of astronomers over the centuries, and yet, still very little is known about them.", "Note: Saturn, often called the most beautiful planet, is known for the rings that encircle it.", "The main gravitational effect that organizes the particles in the rings of Saturn into specific orbits is" ]

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[ "Voyager 1 and its twin, Voyager 2, were launched in 1977 to tour the outer planets including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune", "Voyager 1 and 2: NASA's twin Voyager probes launched in 1977 to study Saturn, Jupiter and their moons. The pair made many discoveries about these far-flung bodies, then checked out Uranus and Neptune and kept on flying.", "1977: Voyager 1 and 2 leave Earth to send back images from Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune from 1990 on their grand tours of the outer Solar System.", "The U.S. Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at Jupiter and begins sending back images of Jupiter and its moons.", "The first probe to explore the outer planets was Pioneer 10, which flew by Jupiter in 1973. Pioneer 11 was the first to visit Saturn, in 1979. The Voyager probes performed a grand tour of the outer planets following their launch in 1977, with both probes passing Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980 - 1981. Voyager 2 then went on to make close approaches to Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. The Voyager probes are now far beyond Neptune's orbit, and astronomers anticipate that they will encounter the Heliopause which defines the outer edge of the solar system in the next few years.", "The first probe to explore the outer planets was Pioneer 10, which flew by Jupiter in 1973. Pioneer 11 was the first to visit Saturn, in 1979. The Voyager probes performed a grand tour of the outer planets following their launch in 1977, with both probes passing Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 1980 – 1981. Voyager 2 then went on to make close approaches to Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989. The Voyager probes are now far beyond Neptune's orbit, and astronomers anticipate that they will encounter the heliopause which defines the outer edge of the solar system in the next few years.[40][41]", "The U.S. Voyager 1 spacecraft, launched in 1977, arrives at Jupiter and begins sending back amazing images of the giant planet and its moons.", "NASA next introduced the Voyager 1 and 2 probes, more sophisticated versions of the Pioneers. Launched in 1977, they flew by Jupiter two years later and took pictures of the planet's swirling colors, volcanic moons, and its previously undiscovered ring.", "The Voyager 1 space probe, launched in 1977, photographed Saturn and its moons. Titan, with its thick, orange atmosphere, frustrated scientists eager to see the moon's surface.", "In 1986, NASA ‘s Voyager 2 interplanetary probe encountered Uranus. This flyby remains the only investigation of the planet carried out from a short distance, and no other visits are currently planned. Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on January 24, 1986, coming within 81,500 kilometers of the planet’s cloudtops, before continuing its journey to Neptune. Voyager 2 studied the structure and chemical composition of Uranus’s atmosphere, [67] including the planet’s unique weather, caused by its axial tilt of 97.77°. It made the first detailed investigations of its five largest moons, and discovered 10 new moons . It examined all nine of the system’s known rings , discovering two new ones. [17] [81] [117] It also studied the magnetic field, its irregular structure, its tilt and its unique corkscrew magnetotail caused by Uranus’s sideways orientation. [89]", "The Voyager 1 spacecraft is a 722-kilogram robotic space probe of the outer solar system and beyond, launched September 5, 1977, and currently operational. It visited Jupiter and Saturn and was the first probe to provide detailed images of the moons of these planets.", "Crescent Uranus as imaged by Voyager 2 while departing for NeptuneMain article: Exploration of UranusIn 1986, NASA's Voyager 2 visited Uranus. This visit is the only attempt to investigate the planet from a short distance and no other visits are currently planned. Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on January 24, 1986, coming within 81 500 kilometers of the planet's cloudtops, before continuing its journey to Neptune. Voyager 2 studied structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere,[67] discovered 10 new moons and studied the planet's unique weather, caused by its axial tilt of 97.77°; and examined its ring system.[17][117] It also studied the magnetic field, its irregular structure, its tilt and its unique corkscrew magnetotail caused by Uranus's sideways orientation.[89] It made the first detailed investigations of its five largest moons, and studied all nine of the system's known rings, discovering two new ones.[17][81]", "Of all the NASA missions, none has visited as many planets, rings, and satellites, nor has provided as many fresh insights into the outer planets, as Voyager, which was launched in 1977. On 19 May 1981, the National Aeronautic Association awarded its Collier Trophy to the \"Voyager Mission Team, represented by its chief scientist Dr. Edward C. Stone, for the spectacular flyby of Saturn and the return of basic new knowledge of the solar system.\" 1 The awarding of the Collier Trophy was a fitting tribute to the science carried out by the Voyager spacecraft, which also received twice, in 1980 and 1981, respectively, the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, an aerospace industry prize awarded annually since 1958 by the National Space Club to recognize achievement in astronautics, for the Voyager encounters with Jupiter and Saturn. 2", "American interplanetary probes continued in the 1980s, the Voyager duo being the most known. After making a flyby of Jupiter in 1979, they went near Saturn in 1980–1981. Voyager 2 reached Uranus in 1986 (just a few days before the Challenger disaster), and Neptune in 1989 before the probes exited the solar system.", "1977 - Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are launched to encounter Saturn in 1980 and 1981. Astronomers discover rings around Uranus, making Saturn no longer the only planet with rings. Stephen O'Meara observes dark radial features (which would later be called \"spokes\") on Saturn's rings and records them in a sketch. (No one pays much attention to this until Voyager 1 sees these spokes up close in 1980).", "Although the missions of the twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft originally called for flybys of only Jupiter and Saturn, the timing of Voyager 2’s launch allowed for a change to its trajectory so that it could be retargeted to Uranus and Neptune for an extended mission, which ultimately was carried out. After more than eight years in space, Voyager 2 sped through the Uranian system on January 24, 1986. Its instruments provided an accurate determination of the masses and radii of the planet and its major moons, detected Uranus’s magnetic field and determined its strength and orientation, and measured the planet’s interior rotation rate. Images of the Uranian system, which totaled more than 8,000, revealed for the first time the weather patterns in the planet’s atmosphere and the surface characteristics of the moons. In addition to Voyager’s discoveries of new moons, a ring, and dust bands between the rings, it provided details of ring structure at scales not achievable from Earth. Yet, despite these achievements, Voyager left many unanswered questions that only another spacecraft mission or a major advance in Earth-based observational technology would be able to address. No future missions to Uranus are planned.", "The Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 Jupiter encounters in the early 1970s contributed little new information about Callisto in comparison with what was already known from Earth-based observations. The real breakthrough happened later with the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flybys in 1979. They imaged more than half of the Callistoan surface with a resolution of 1–2 km, and precisely measured its temperature, mass and shape. A second round of exploration lasted from 1994 to 2003, when the Galileo spacecraft had eight close encounters with Callisto, the last flyby during the C30 orbit in 2001 came as close as 138 km to the surface. The Galileo orbiter completed the global imaging of the surface and delivered a number of pictures with a resolution as high as 15 meters of selected areas of Callisto. In 2000, the Cassini spacecraft en route to Saturn acquired high-quality infrared spectra of the Galilean satellites including Callisto. In February–March 2007, the New Horizons probe on its way to Pluto obtained new images and spectra of Callisto.", "The Pioneer program's eight successful space missions from 1965 to 1978 were managed by Charles Hall at Ames, initially aimed at the inner solar system. By 1972, it supported the bold flyby missions to Jupiter and Saturn with Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. Those two missions were trail blazers (radiation environment, new moons, gravity-assist flybys) for the planners of the more complex Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 missions, launched five years later. In 1978, the end of the program saw a return to the inner solar system, with the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Multiprobe, this time using orbital insertion rather than flyby missions.", "The craft was launched in 1977 as part of a long-term mission to study the solar system, and after conducting flybys of both Jupiter and Saturn was set on a course straight out the solar system carrying images of Earth and a Golden LP with a track list of humanity's greatest hits .", "In 1986 the Voyager 2 spacecraft mission travelled past Uranus and took photos of Umbriel and other moons. Despite the technical difficulty associated with imaging moving objects whilst travelling past them, Voyager 2 was able to collect images of Umbriel with an impressive resolution of about 3km. This has been the only mission to Uranus and its moons to date.", "Beginning in 1973, several spacecraft have performed planetary flyby maneuvers that brought them within observation range of Jupiter. The Pioneer missions obtained the first close-up images of Jupiter's atmosphere and several of its moons. They discovered that the radiation fields near the planet were much stronger than expected, but both spacecraft managed to survive in that environment. The trajectories of these spacecraft were used to refine the mass estimates of the Jovian system. Radio occultations by the planet resulted in better measurements of Jupiter's diameter and the amount of polar flattening. ", "The Galileo spacecraft became the fifth space probe to visit Jupiter. Previous encounters, all flybys, included Pioneer 10 & 11 , and Voyager 1 & 2 .", "The Cassini space orbiter was part of the Cassini-Huygens mission, a collaborative NASA/ESA/ASI unmanned space mission for the purpose of studying Saturn and its moons. It was launched on 15 October 1997, from Cape Canaveral in Florida, USA. It was comprised of two parts, the Cassini orbiter, which was intended to remain in orbit around Saturn and its moons, and the Huygens probe, supplied by the European Space Agency (ESA). The spacecraft entered orbit around Saturn on July 1, 2004, and six months later, on 25 December 2004, the probe separated from the orbiter. From there, it travelled to Titan, one of Saturn's moons, descending to the surface on 14 January 2005. Once on the surface, it began collecting and relaying scientific data.", "Mariner 4 captured the first close-up photographs of another planet (showing impact craters) and provided accurate data about the surface atmospheric pressure, and noted the absence of a Martian magnetic field and radiation belt. NASA continued the Mariner program with another pair of flyby probes – Mariner 6 and 7 – which reached the planet in 1969.", "Several probes flying by or orbiting Jupiter have explored Ganymede more closely, including four flybys in the 1970s, and multiple passes in the 1990s to 2000s. The first approaches were conducted by the Pioneer 10 and 11 probes, which approached the moon in 1973 and 1974, respectively. These missions returned more specific information on its physical characteristics and resolved features to 400 km (250 mi) on its surface.", "In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes to Mars: the Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters and the Mars 6 and Mars 7 fly-by/lander combinations. All missions except Mars 7 sent back data, with Mars 5 being most successful. Mars 5 transmitted 60 images before a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. Mars 6 lander transmitted data during descent, but failed upon impact. Mars 4 flew by the planet at a range of 2200 km returning one swath of pictures and radio occultation data, which constituted the first detection of the nightside ionosphere on Mars. Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1300 km.", "Explanation: When dawn broke over Kennedy Space Center on Monday, May 16, the space shuttle orbiter Endeavour still stood on pad 39A. Its final launch, on mission STS-134 to the International Space Station, was only hours away . Shining through the early morning twilight four planets were also poised above the eastern horizon, a moving scene captured here from across the Banana River at the center's Saturn V VIP viewing site. Scattered by planet Earth's dense atmosphere, floodlight beams play over the launch pad , glancing skyward toward the celestial beacons. Jupiter is highest, near the top of the frame, but even the solar sytem's ruling gas giant is outshone by brilliant Venus near picture center. Innermost planet Mercury is below Venus, to the right. Below and left, Mars almost fades into the twilight glow. The four planets continue to hug the eastern horizon at dawn throughout the month, while Endeavour is now scheduled to make its final approach to planet Earth on June 1.", "It was launched on March 2, 1972, by an Atlas-Centaur expendable vehicle from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Between July 15, 1972, and February 15, 1973, it became the first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt. Photography of Jupiter began November 6, 1973, at a range of , and a total of about 500 images were transmitted. The closest approach to the planet was on December 4, 1973, at a range of . During the mission, the on-board instruments were used to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter, the solar wind, cosmic rays, and eventually the far reaches of the Solar System and heliosphere.", "Two Pioneer Venus spacecraft, an orbiter and a multiprobe lander, were to gather detailed information on the atmosphere and clouds of Venus in 1978 . The lander was to release four probes to the planet's surface. 6", "In 1977 a team of astronomers led by James Elliot of MIT discovered an extremely faint system of rings encircling Uranus. Flying aboard a jet aircraft equipped with a sizeable telescope, they found the rings by watching the Uranus system pass in front of a star. As expected, when the disk of the planet was in front of the star, the starlight was blocked (or eclipsed). Unexpectedly, the astronomers also saw several brief eclipses before and after Uranus was scheduled to cover the star. After careful analysis of their data, they surmised that the starlight was being alternately hidden and revealed by several thin, dark rings.", "1972 – The Pioneer 10 space probe is launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida with a mission to explore the outer planets. It carried a plaque designed by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake showing some details of human civilization on Earth. Pioneer is expected to reach the red star Aldebaran in Taurus in about 2 million years.", "The rings of Uranus were discovered by accident in 1977, as astronomers interested in the ATMOSPHERE of the planet prepared to watch Uranus pass in front of a star." ]

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[ "Pluto has only one moon, called Charon, which is about half the of Pluto with a diameter of 1200 km. Pluto and Charon as so similar in their mass and properties that scientist consider them a double planet rather than a planet and moon.", "Charon, also called (134340) Pluto I, is the largest of the five known moons of the dwarf planet Pluto. It was discovered in 1978 at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., using photographic plates taken at the United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station (NOFS). With half the diameter and one eighth the mass of Pluto, it is a very large moon in comparison to its parent body. Its gravitational influence is such that the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system lies outside Pluto.", "Pluto only has one moon - Charon. It was named after the character in Greek mythology who was a ferryman in the realm of Pluto. Charon has a diameter of 1,186 Km (736 miles), more than half of Pluto.  ", "Pluto was discovered in 1930 and is about half the size of Earth's moon. It has one known moon, Charon, which was discovered in 1978. Some scientists think that although we call Pluto a planet, it was perhaps once a moon of Neptune and was pulled out of its orbit by the pull from some other celestial body", "His other name Aïdoneus (Aidoneus) means the \"Unseen One\". To the Romans, he was known as Pluto (wealth) and Dis Pater or Dis. Pluto is the name of the ninth planet in the solar system. Charon is Pluto's moon or satellite.", "Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, are sometimes called a \"Binary system\". This is because the barycentre of their orbits does not lie within them. The IAU has yet to formalise a definition for binary dwarf planets, and until it passes such a ruling, they classify Charon as a moon of Pluto. Pluto has three known smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, discovered in 2005, and another, as yet unnamed, discovered in 2011.", "Pluto has one natural satellite , Charon , first identified in 1978 . Pluto and Charon are noteworthy for being the only planet/moon pair in the solar system whose barycenter lies above the planet's surface. Pluto and Charon are also unusual among planets in that they are tidally locked to each other. This means that Charon always presents the same face to Pluto, and Pluto also always presents the same face to Charon. Note that some binary asteroids may also possess both of these traits, and that the Jupiter /Sun barycenter is above the Sun's surface, so neither is completely unique.", "It is unclear whether Charon, Pluto's largest moon, will continue to be classified as such or as a dwarf planet itself. Both Pluto and Charon orbit a barycenter of gravity above their surfaces, making Pluto-Charon a binary system. Two much smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, orbit Pluto and Charon.", "The discovery of a fourth moon adds to Pluto’s complex and fascinating story. Discovered in 1930 by American astronomer Clyde Tombaugh, Pluto was first considered an icy oddball with a strange orbit – yet it harkened the existence of thousands of similar frozen mini-worlds in a planetary outpost known as the Kuiper Belt. Pluto’s moon Charon was discovered in 1978; it’s the largest moon in the solar system relative to the planet it orbits. (In fact, the pair orbits a common center of gravity that sits outside each body – earning it the rare status of a “double planet.”)", "Pluto (39 AU average), is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt and was previously accepted as the smallest planet in the Solar System. In 2006, it was reclassified as a dwarf planet by the Astronomers Congress organized by the International Astronomers Union (IAU).[25] Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane and ranging from 29.7 AU from the Sun at perihelion (within the orbit of Neptune) to 49.5 AU at aphelion. Prior to the 2006 redefinitions, Charon was considered a moon of Pluto, but in light of the redefinition it is unclear whether Charon will continue to be classified as a moon of Pluto or as a dwarf planet itself. Charon does not exactly orbit Pluto is a traditional sense; Charon is about one-tenth the mass of Pluto and the center of gravity of the pair is not within Pluto. Both bodies orbit a barycenter of gravity above the surface of Pluto (in empty space), making Pluto-Charon a binary system. Two much smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, orbit Pluto and Charon.", "Charon is the largest known moon in relation to the size of its host planet. It is about half the size of Pluto and about eight times less massive. The new observations put Charon's diameter at between 750 and 753 miles (1,207 and 1,212 kilometers).", "Charon, the largest of Pluto's moons, is sometimes described as part of a binary system with Pluto, as the two bodies orbit a barycentre of gravity above their surfaces (i.e. they appear to \"orbit each other\"). Beyond Charon, four much smaller moons, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra, orbit within the system.", "This Tuesday, July 14, 2015, image provided by NASA on Wednesday shows Pluto’s largest moon, Charon, made by the New Horizons spacecraft. AP", "This Tuesday, July 14, 2015 image provided by NASA on Wednesday shows Pluto’s largest moon, Charon, made by the New Horizons spacecraft. Associated Press", "A Hubble Space Telescope image of Pluto and its moons. Charon is the largest moon close to Pluto. The other four bright dots are smaller moons discovered in 2005, 2011 and 2012: Nix, Hydra, Kerberos and Styx.", "Pluto (39 AU average), is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt and was previously accepted as the smallest planet in the Solar System. In 2006, it was reclassified as a Dwarf planet by the Astronomers Congress organized by the International Astronomers Union (IAU). Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane and ranging from 29.7 AU from the Sun at perihelion (within the orbit of Neptune) to 49.5 AU at aphelion. Prior to the 2006 redefinitions, Charon was considered a moon of Pluto, but in light of the redefinition it is unclear whether Charon will continue to be classified as a moon of Pluto or as a dwarf planet itself. Charon does not exactly orbit Pluto in a traditional sense; Charon is about one-tenth the mass of Pluto and the center of gravity of the pair is not within Pluto. Both bodies orbit a barycenter of gravity above the surface of Pluto (in empty space), making Pluto-Charon a binary system. Two much smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, orbit Pluto and Charon. Those Kuiper belt objects which, like Pluto, possess a 3:2 orbital resonance with Neptune (ie, they orbit twice for every three Neptunian orbits) are called Plutinos.", "\"Low gravity and a low crater impact rate conspire to create a situation where the canyons can be as deep as they are,\" says Moore. The moons of Uranus and Saturn are about the same size as Charon, but because of the higher crater rates, the canyons and plains haven't been preserved as well. Studying Charon can therefore lead to a better understanding of those moons, too.", "Pluto has five known moons. Pluto is sometimes called a double-planet system due to the fact that its moon Charon is quite large and orbits close to its parent planet.", "Pluto and Charon are an extreme example of a tidal lock. Charon is a relatively large moon in comparison to its primary and also has a very close orbit. This results in Pluto and Charon being mutually tidally locked. Pluto's other moons are not tidally locked; Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra all rotate chaotically due to the influence of Charon.", "A: For now, Charon is considered just to be Pluto's satellite. The idea that Charon might qualify to be called a dwarf planet in its own right may be considered later. Charon may receive consideration because Pluto and Charon are comparable in size and orbit each other, rather than just being a satellite orbiting a planet. Most important for Charon's case as a dwarf planet is that the centre of gravity about which Charon orbits is not inside of the system primary, Pluto. Instead this centre of gravity, called the barycentre, resides in free space between Pluto and Charon.", "The Pluto-Charon system is noteworthy for being the largest of the solar system's few binary systems, defined as those whose barycentre lies above the primary's surface ( 617 Patroclus is a smaller example). [68] This and the large size of Charon relative to Pluto has led some astronomers to call it a dwarf double planet . [69] The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other: Charon always presents the same face to Pluto, and Pluto always presents the same face to Charon. If one were standing on Pluto's near side, Charon would hover in the sky without moving; if one were to travel to the far side, one would never see Charon at all. [70] In 2007, observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active cryo-geysers. [71]", "New Horizons aims to map the geology of Pluto and its moons. The largest, Charon, is the size of Texas.", "Charon has a huge fracture system, unlike anything seen on Pluto. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute", "While Pluto has a reddish tint, Charon appears more grayish. In its early days, the moon may have contained a  subsurface ocean , though the satellite probably can't support one today.", "The information from Charon is probably even more surprising. See that big blob of red? That stuff came from Pluto. “Charon does not have an atmosphere that is known so far,” says Will Grundy, a New Horizons team scientist and astronomer at Lowell Observatory. Charon may not have an atmosphere, but Pluto is leaking nitrogen like crazy . And as those nitrogen particles leave Pluto, Grundy says they could be getting dragged into Charon’s gravity. The distribution over the moon would be about even. But while nitrogen particles will burn away on the always-sunny equatorial and midlatitude regions, those that land on the polar night side are in the dark for decades.", "The ninth planet in order from the sun. It is one of the five outer planets of the solar system. Its only natural satellite is Charon.", "Charon has a massive \"canyon\" across more than 1,600 km its equatorial region almost as if the moon was nearly split in two.  It has been proposed that Charon was formed by a giant impact similar to the one that formed Earth's Moon", "Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune. It was discovered on October 10, 1846, by English astronomer William Lassell. It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit, an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet's rotation. At 2700 km in diameter, it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto's, Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt. Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen, a mostly water-ice crust, an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. Triton has a mean density of and is composed of approximately 15–35% water ice.", "Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune. It was discovered on October 10, 1846, by English astronomer William Lassell. It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit, an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet's rotation. At 2,700 kilometres (1,700 mi) in diameter, it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto's, Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt. Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen, a mostly water-ice crust, an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm3 and is composed of approximately 15–35% water ice.", "The planets of the outer Solar System are known for being strange, as are their many moons. This is especially true of Triton, Neptune’s largest moon. In addition to being the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System, it is also the only major moon that has a retrograde orbit – i.e. it revolves in the direction opposite to the planet’s rotation. This suggests that Triton did not form in orbit around Neptune, but is a cosmic visitor that passed by one day and decided to stay.", "In the photo, shot from less than 5 million kilometers away, the 1,200-kilometer-wide sphere appears riven with enormous canyons — at least one of which is deeper and longer than the Grand Canyon, said planetary geologist Bill McKinnon of the Washington University in St. Louis in a statement. In addition, Charon’s surface is mottled with impact craters. That alone is not surprising (in fact, craters were one of the team’s top predictions for surface features on Charon), but the size and color are intriguing. One of the crater bottoms appears darker than the surrounding surface; whether this is because it’s made of different material or is simply less reflective isn’t clear yet. And then there’s that mysteriously dark region capping the moon’s pole.", "To NASA's knowledge, Triton is the only moon in the solar system that orbits in a direction opposite to the rotation of its planet . Additionally, its surface is a study of contrasts, with smooth plains appearing to be right next to cratered surfaces." ]

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[ "Astronomers believe that clouds of gas and dust, called nebulas, are the birthplace of stars. Imagine an enormous cloud of gas and dust many light-years across. Gravity, as it always does, tries to pull the materials together. A few grains of dust collect a few more, then a few more, then more still.", "How and where are stars born? Observational evidence points to the interstellar gas and dust clouds along the Galaxy's spiral arms (Figure 14.1) as being the birthplaces of stars. As some stars--such as those responsible for planetary nebulae, novae, and supernovae--approach the end of their lives, they return some of their mass to the interstellar medium. New generations of stars are thus forming from the \"ashes\" of previous generations.", "Astronomers believe that molecular clouds, dense clouds of gas located primarily in the spiral arms of galaxies are the birthplace of stars. Dense regions in the clouds collapse and form \"protostars\". Initially, the gravitational energy of the collapsing star is the source of its energy. Once the star contracts enough that its central core can burn hydrogen to helium, it becomes a \"main sequence\" star.", "The cold clouds of neutral or molecular hydrogen are the birthplace of new stars if they become gravitationally unstable and collapse. The neutral and molecular forms emit radiation in the radio band of the electromagnetic spectrum .", "Though it is difficult to offer a sure shot reason for all the happenings in our stellar universe but either of the above two theories conclusively indicate that the matter gave birth to large interstellar gas and dust nebulas which exist even today. Later the stars were created through condensation at extremely low temperature.", "Galactic clouds of dust and gas are fun targets for amateur telescopes. The clouds that glow with a soft red light are called emission nebulae because they are emitting light of their own. They are mostly hydrogen gas - warmed by young stars born within them. Other clouds, the reflection nebulae, act like mirrors. These are mostly dust, scattering the bluish light from nearby stars because the dust particles are similar in size to the wavelength of blue light. Then there are the dark nebulae. Dark cold clouds don�t glow much at all, and aren�t scattering a detectable amount of light. Thus they are the most elusive to find and observe. Some of them can be found silhouetted by brighter clouds that lay in the distance behind them. The most famous backlit dark cloud is the Horse Head Nebula in Orion, near the easternmost star of his belt.", "On a clear night, the Milky Way spans the sky as a band of light through the darkness. Made up of billions of stars, the band is crossed by dim lanes  \"Dark Nebulae\", where the light is blocked by vast clouds of dust hanging in space. Other patches known as \"Bright Nebuale\", form wisps of glowing light which are often called 'star nurseries', as they glow from the energy of new born stars.", "The nebulous haze that often blurs the stars of the Pleiades makes it seem as if they are young stars still emerging from the cloudy caul of their creation. In fact, astronomers have learned that while the stars are indeed relatively young as stars go, the cloud of dust and gases around them is unrelated to their birth. They just happen to be passing through it in space. When it comes to the celestial perspective, everything's relative.", "Dense, compact cloud of interstellar dust and gas on its way to forming one or more stars.", "CHAPTER 6 The Interstellar Medium 2. Dark nebulae: the dark patches in the Milky Way and dark clouds observed in other places (such as the Horsehead nebula). These dark nebulae are often called dust clouds even though they consist mostly of gas. These clouds range in size from less than 1 pc to more than 10 pc. Most nebulae absorb 75% of the starlight from background stars—a few absorb more, nearly 95% in some cases. 3. Reflection nebulae: these shine by scattered starlight, in much the same way that the blue sky shines by scattered sunlight. These nebulae are always bluish in color, and so are easily distinguished from HII regions that are always reddish in color. The line spectrum of these nebulae resembles the spectrum of the stars whose light they scatter.", "The Interstellar Medium and Star Formation The Interstellar Medium The interstellar medium (ISM) is the dust and gas between the stars. The interstellar medium is seen as the dark dust lanes in the Milky Way (or in other galaxies), or by its effects on starlight: reddening and extinction. It is also observed more directly as reflection or emission nebulae. Approximately 20% of the Galaxy’s mass is ISM. The ISM absorbs visible light, but at the same time emits radio waves or infrared radiation. So, while we can’t make an accurate map of the distant Galaxy in visible light, we can see distant pockets of interstellar dust and gas quite easily. Ninety-nine percent of the ISM is gas, and only 1% of the mass is dust. Even in the nebulae, which have fairly high densities (Table 6-1), the density is lower than in the best vacuums that we can achieve in a laboratory.", "Interstellar cirrus clouds are composed of tiny dust grains smaller than a micrometer and are therefore not true clouds of this genus which are composed of ice crystals or other frozen liquids. They range from a few light years to dozens of light years across. While they are not technically cirrus clouds, the dust clouds are referred to as \"cirrus\" because of their similarity to the clouds on Earth. They also emit infrared radiation, similar to the way cirrus clouds on Earth reflect heat being radiated out into space. ", "A classic image from the Hubble Space Telescope is the \"Pillars of Creation\" in the Eagle Nebula in the constellation Serpens. The \"pillars\" are enormous clouds of gas and dust, the largest of them seven light years long. Within them stars are being formed.", "A new star forming out of a cloud of gas and dust (nebula), which is one of the remnants of the ‘smoke’ that was the origin of the whole universe. (The Space Atlas, Heather and Henbest, p. 50.)", "Stars and dust clouds towards the center of the Milky Way. Stars form half the detectable mass of the Milky Way. The other half is in the form of gas and dust.", "A patch of stars appears to be missing in this image from the La Silla Observatory in Chile. But the stars are actually still there behind a cloud of gas and dust called Lynds Dark Nebula 483. The cloud is about 700 light years from Earth in the constellation Serpens (The Serpent).", "While these big clouds of dust and gas lay dormant for many millions and perhaps billions of years, eventually some of them are disturbed. This can happen gradually, maybe caused by the approach of one of the Milky Way's spiral arms as it slowly sweeps around the center of the galaxy, or it can be a sudden event, like a nearby supernova explosion that blasts a shockwave through the cloud. Either way, a small increase in the pressure and density of the cloud forms knots in the gas and dust that eventually collapse under their own gravity, pulling more and more of the surrounding material in, and forming the stellar \"seeds\" known as protostars.", "Reflection nebula – Gas and dust clouds made visible due to the dust reflection from the light of nearby star.", "not the dust one finds around the house, which is typically fine bits of fabric, dirt, or dead skin cells. Rather interstellar dust grains are much smaller clumps, on the order of a fraction of a micron across, irregularly shaped, and composed of carbon and/or silicates. Dust is most evident by its absorption, causing large dark patches in regions of our Milky Way Galaxy and dark bands across other galaxies.", "Astronomers know that the dust is formed in the envelopes of late-evolved stars from specific observational signatures. In infrared light, emission at 9.7 micrometres is a signature of silicate dust in cool evolved oxygen-rich giant stars. Emission at 11.5 micrometres indicates the presence of silicon carbide dust in cool evolved carbon-rich giant stars. These help provide evidence that the small silicate particles in space came from the ejected outer envelopes of these stars. ", "As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region of glowing gas and plasma. The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually serve to disperse the cloud, often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.", "Under-sea coral? Enchanted castles? Space serpents? These eerie, dark, pillar-like structures are actually columns of hydrogen gas and dust where new stars are being formed. This picture of the Eagle Nebula was taken with the Hubble Space Telescope. The nebula is 7000 light years from Earth and is huge - the largest pillar is about four light years from top to bottom!", "In the 1700s, astronomers began to suspect that the Milky Way is a disk of stars that completely encircles us. However, for a long time astronomers believed that our sun was at the center of the Galaxy. Astronomers including Herschel and Kapteyn counted the stars in the Milky Way, and there seemed to be equal numbers in every direction, which led them to the conclusion that we are at the center. What they didn't account for was interstellar extinction ; dust and gas throughout our galaxy was obscuring their view. This dust acts like a fog, and they were actually only observing the very nearest stars. The view through our galaxy is obscurred by dust and gas, but our view out of the plane of the Galaxy has very little interstellar extinction.", "The nebula was born when a heavy star exploded as a supernova. The star’s outer layers are still racing outward at millions of miles an hour, so they’ve spread out to form a cloud that’s several light-years in diameter.", "Image: Dozens of newborn stars sprouting jets from their dusty cocoons have been spotted in images from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. In this view showing a portion of sky near Canis Major, infrared data from Spitzer are green and blue, while longer-wavelength infrared light from NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) are red.", "7. The process in which clouds of cool dense gas (such as in the Eagle Nebula) are eaten away by radiation from nearby hot young stars is called ____. HINT", "In the new picture, the relatively cool environment at lower levels allows dust grains to condense effectively; here they can be strongly propelled by the more-intense starlight, carrying gas with them. Indeed, dust has previously been inferred to form sporadically near Betelgeuse's surface, but its presence there was difficult to reconcile with the old picture.", "\"The Milky Way, i.e. the Galaxy, is made up of a very large number of small, tightly clustered stars, which, on account of their concentration and smallness, seem to be cloudy patches. Because of this, it was likened to milk in color.\"", "The matter between stars, composed of two components, gas and dust, intermixed throughout all of space at varying densities.", "The most directly observable consequence of cosmic dust is the extinction of starlight that is produced by absorbing dust along the line of sight to the star. In the magnitude system (see Endnote 3), the extinction A(l) is defined as follows", "Disk Instability – A possible explanation for the origin of a close binary pair of stars in which one star forms within the disk of gas and dust orbiting another, newly formed star", "In the early 1900s, astronomers were debating the makeup of spiral nebulae — cloudy, spiral-shaped objects found throughout the night sky. Were they gas clouds located within our Milky Way galaxy, or were they vast groups of stars located far beyond our galaxy?" ]

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[ "a non-metric unit of distance equal to one billion parsecs , 3.2616 billion light years , or 30.856 78 zettameters (30.856 78 x 1021 kilometers). The unit is used in astronomy.", "The light-year is often used to measure distances to stars and other distances on a galactic scale, especially in non-specialist and popular science publications. The preferred unit in astrometry is the parsec , because it can be more easily derived from, and compared with, observational data. The parsec is defined as the distance at which an object will appear to move one arcsecond of parallax when the observer moves one astronomical unit perpendicular to the line of sight to the observer, and is equal to approximately 3.26 light-years. [1]", "The astronomical unit (symbol au, [2] [3] AU [4] or ua) is a unit of length , roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun . However, that distance varies as Earth orbits the Sun, from a maximum ( aphelion ) to a minimum ( perihelion ) and back again once a year. Originally conceived as the average of Earth's aphelion and perihelion, it is now defined as exactly 7011149597870700000♠149597870700 metres (about 150 million kilometres, or 93 million miles). The astronomical unit is used primarily as a convenient yardstick for measuring distances within the Solar System or around other stars. However, it is also a fundamental component in the definition of another unit of astronomical length, the parsec .", "The most important fundamental distance measurements come from trigonometric parallax. As the Earth orbits the Sun, the position of nearby stars will appear to shift slightly against the more distant background. These shifts are angles in an isosceles triangle, with 2 AU (the distance between the extreme positions of Earth's orbit around the Sun) making the base leg of the triangle and the distance to the star being the long equal length legs. The amount of shift is quite small, measuring 1 arcsecond for an object at the 1 parsec (3.26 light-years) distance of the nearest stars, and thereafter decreasing in angular amount as the distance increases. Astronomers usually express distances in units of parsecs (parallax arcseconds); light-years are used in popular media.", "Astronomical Unit The Astronomical Unit (au or ua), often used for measuring distances in the Solar system, is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun. It is 149,597,870,691 m, Âą 30 m, as currently defined.", "The light-year is most often used when expressing distances to stars and other distances on a galactic scale, especially in non-specialist and popular science publications. The unit usually used in professional astrometry is the parsec (symbol: pc, approximately 3.26 light-years; the distance at which one astronomical unit subtends an angle of one second of arc).", "One parsec is the distance at which one astronomical unit subtends an angle of one arcsecond. A parsec is equivalent to 3.26 light years, and since a light year is the distance light travels in 1 year 9.4 trillion km, 1 parsec equals 30.8 trillion km.", "A unit of length used in astronomy. It is about 3.26 light-years, which is about 30.9 trillion (3.09×1013) kilometers or about 19.2 trillion (1.92×1013) miles.", "It's easy now. A is one astronomical unit, the distance from Earth to the Sun. If BC is one arcsecond, the star is 1 x 206,265 astronomical units away. That's one parsec, 3.26 light years. The smaller the parallax, the greater the distance:", "An astronomical unit (A.U.) is the average distance between the Earth and the Sun, which is about 93 million miles or 150 million kilometers. Astronomical units are usually used to measure distances within our solar system. For example, the planet Mercury is about 1/3 of an A.U. from the Sun, while the farthest planet, Pluto, is about 40 A.U. from the Sun (thats 40 times as far away from the Sun as the Earth is).", "Brightness a star has at its current distance if seen from a standard distance of 32.6 LY", "However, even with this large baseline, the distances to the stars in units of astronomical units are huge, so a more convenient unit of distance called a parsec is used (abbreviated with ``pc''). A parsec is the distance of a star that has a parallax of one arc second using a baseline of 1 astronomical unit. Therefore, one parsec = 206,265 astronomical units. The nearest star is about 1.3 parsecs from the solar system. In order to convert parsecs into standard units like kilometers or meters, you must know the numerical value for the astronomical unit---it sets the scale for the rest of the universe. Its value was not know accurately until the early 20th century (see the planetary science chapter ). In terms of light years, one parsec = 3.26 light years.", "A useful unit for measuring the distances between astronomical objects, equal to 3.26 light-years and 3.085678 * 1013kilometers, or approximately 18 trillion miles. A parsec is also equivalent to 103,132 trips to the Sun and back.", "For distances to other parts of the Milky Way Galaxy (or even further), astronomers use units of the light-year or the parsec . The light-year we have already defined. The parsec is equal to 3.3 light-years. Using the light-year, we can say that :", "A central undertaking in astronomy is the determination of distances. Without a knowledge of its distance, the size of an observed object in space would remain nothing more than an angular diameter, and the brightness of a star could not be converted into its true radiated power, or luminosity. Astronomical distance measurement began with a knowledge of Earth’s diameter, which provided a base for triangulation. Within the inner solar system, some distances can now be better determined through the timing of radar reflections or, in the case of the Moon, through laser ranging. For the outer planets, triangulation is still used. Beyond the solar system, distances to the closest stars are determined through triangulation, with the diameter of Earth’s orbit serving as the baseline and shifts in stellar parallax being the measured quantities. Stellar distances are commonly expressed by astronomers in parsec s (pc), kiloparsecs, or megaparsecs. (1 pc = 3.086 × 1018 cm, or about 3.26 light-years [1.92 × 1013 miles].) Distances can be measured out to around a kiloparsec by trigonometric parallax (see star: Determining stellar distances ). The accuracy of measurements made from Earth’s surface is limited by atmospheric effects, but measurements made from the Hipparcos satellite in the 1990s have extended the scale to stars as far as 650 parsecs, with an accuracy of about a thousandth of an arc second. Less-direct measurements must be used for more-distant stars and for galaxies.", "Stars in the Constellation Hercules have a diameter 600 times bigger than the Sun. We see such giants as small specks of light because of intervening distances. Celestial distances cannot be measured with the measures/scales likes kilometres and miles. Scientists have devised the scale of light year. A light-year, or light year (symbol: ly), is a unit of length equal to just under 10 trillion kilometres (or about 6 trillion miles). As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a light-year is the distance that light travels in a vacuum in one Julian year (not Gregorian year, it is of exactly 365.25 days). The star nearest to the Sun, Alpha Tauri is four and half light years away. Star شعراےء یمانی which gets visible early in the winter evenings and which is second to زہرہ in brightness is 806 light years away. The diameter of our galaxy is 120000 light years. There are an estimated number of one trillion stars in this galaxy. Our solar system is moving at a speed of eleven and half miles per second towards a star called نسرواقع which is 30000 light years away. There are trillions of galaxies in this universe. The nearest galaxy مرأۃ مسلسلہ is a million light years away from us. There is no imperfection as far as one can see and gauge. There are laws and balance for every object and none can defy them.", "The IAU Style Manual recommends the use of Julian calendar years (not Gregorian) of 365.25 days, or exactly 31,557,600 seconds. This gives the light-year an exact value of 9,460,730,472,580,800 metres (again about 9.461 Pm).", "5.15 Astronomical units: The IAU System of Astronomical Constants recognises a set of astronomical units of length, mass and time for use in connection with motions in the Solar System; they are related to each other through the adopted value of the constant of gravitation when expressed in these units (IAU 1976). The symbol for the astronomical unit of length is au; the astronomical unit of time is 1 day (d) of 86 400 SI seconds (s); the astronomical unit of mass is equal to the mass of the Sun and is often denoted by Mo, but the special subscript makes this symbol inconvenient for general use.", "In August 2015, the IAU passed Resolution B2, which as part of the definition of a standardized absolute and apparent bolometric magnitude scale, included an explicit definition of the parsec as exactly astronomical units, or approximately metres (based on the IAU 2012 exact SI definition of the astronomical unit). This corresponds to the small-angle definition of the parsec found in many contemporary astronomical references. ", "Would you rather know how far it is in kilometers? The astronomical unit \"A\" is 150,000,000 km, and our object is at", "In 1976, in order to establish a yet more precise measure for the astronomical unit, the IAU formally adopted a new definition. Although directly based on the then-best available observational measurements, the definition was recast in terms of the then-best mathematical derivations from celestial mechanics and planetary ephemerides. It stated that \"the astronomical unit of length is that length (A) for which the Gaussian gravitational constant (k) takes the value when the units of measurement are the astronomical units of length, mass and time\". Equivalently, by this definition, one AU is the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with an angular frequency of ; or alternatively that length for which the heliocentric gravitational constant (the product G) is equal to ()2 AU3/d2, when the length is used to describe the positions of objects in the Solar System.", "Correction: A previous version of this article said the next most-distant object, a gamma-ray burst, was two light-years closer than this galaxy. The true figure is 30 million light-years.", "Distances among the stars are so large that it is helpful to express them using the light-year — the distance light travels in one year — as a measuring unit. In this way of expressing distances, alpha Centauri is about four light-years away, and Sirius is about eight and a half light- years distant. (Thus if your students look at Sirius this evening, then they will be seeing light that left the star in 1977!)", "Absolute magnitude=The brightness that a star would appear to have if it were 32 light-years (10 parsecs) away.", "Based on the rotation of the Earth, time can be measured by observing celestial bodies crossing the meridian every day. Astronomers found that it was more accurate to establish time by observing stars as they crossed a meridian rather than by observing the position of the Sun in the sky. Nowadays, UT in relation to International Atomic Time (TAI) is determined by Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) observations of distant quasars, a method which can determine UT1 to within 4 milliseconds.", "Now for the second part of “parsec”: arcsecond. In this instance, we’re not referring to a measure of time. It’s a part of a measurement of angle. Imagine the horizon around you broken up into 360 slices, or degrees. Each slice is about twice the width of the full moon. An arcminute is 1/60th of a degree, and an arcsecond is 1/60th of an arcminute. So astronomers measure the size of objects, or the parallax movement of stars in degrees, arcminutes and arcseconds.", "Bleem  - Distance of a billion light years or 2000 earth years on the planet Ork", "NGC 7331 is a spiral galaxy about 38 million light-years away. It was one of the first objects to be described as \"spiral.\"", "The galaxy has a visual magnitude of 8.9 and is about 36 million light years distant.", "It has a visual magnitude of 1.76 and is about 81 light years distant from Earth. It has the stellar classification of A0pCr.", "5. What unit, equivalent to 3.2 light years, is the measure of distance between stars and galaxies?", "This red supergiant has a visual binary that just might be visible, depending on local conditions and the size of one's scope (see below). The star is estimated to be between 285 sun diameters to about 700 suns. It's 600 light years away." ]

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[ "Saturn is the second largest planet in our Solar System. It is the sixth planet outward from the Sun.", ", from Latin : Plūto, Greek : Πλούτων), formal designation (134340) Pluto, is the second-largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System (after Eris ) and the tenth-largest body observed directly orbiting the Sun . Originally classified as a planet , Pluto is now considered the largest member of a distinct population called the Kuiper belt . [7]", "Beautiful Saturn, with its bright rings, is the second largest planet in our solar system. Saturn is almost 10 times bigger than Earth.", "The gas giant Saturn contains many of the same components as the sun. Although it is the solar system's second largest planet, it lacks the necessary mass to undergo the fusion needed to power a star. Still, its gaseous composition — and the stunningly beautiful rings that surround it — make it one of the more interesting object in the solar system.", "Saturn's moon Titan is the second largest in the Solar System with a diameter of 3,200 miles, half again as large as Earth's Moon.", "The next largest objects in the solar system are the planets. Jupiter is the largest planet, with a diameter of 86,881 miles, or about 11 times the diameter of Earth. Saturn is the next largest, followed by Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Older textbooks list Pluto as the smallest planet, but most astronomers now classify Pluto as a “dwarf planet” or trans-Neptunian object, leaving Mercury with the title of “smallest planet.” All eight planets orbit the sun in the same direction (counterclockwise as viewed from Earth’s north pole) and are very nearly in the same plane. This plane is called the ecliptic.", "Venus is the 2nd planet from the sun.  The closest planet to the sun is Mercury .  Then comes Venus and then Earth , followed by Mars , Saturn , Jupiter , Uranus , Neptune and Pluto .  There are other orbiting bodies beyond Pluto but astronomers (scientists who study the Solar System ) do not agree about whether these are planets.", "Pluto is considered to be the last known planet of the solar system. Pluto, formal designation 134340 Pluto, is the second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System (after Eris) and the tenth-most-massive body observed directly orbiting the Sun. Originally classified as the ninth planet from the Sun, Pluto was re categorized as a dwarf planet owing to the discovery that it is only one of several large bodies within the Kuiper belt.", "Venus is the second planet from the Sun and the sixth largest. Venus' orbit is the most nearly circular of that of any planet, with an eccentricity of less than 1%.", "In this solar system, Mercury and Venus have no moons. Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar system and only slightly larger than Earth's moon. It is the closest planet to the Sun. Venus is the second closest planet to the Sun and is slightly smaller than Earth.", "The planet closest to the Sun and the second smallest in the solar system. Mercury is a terrestrial or inner planet, second in density only to Earth, with a rugged, heavily-cratered surface similar in appearance to Earth's Moon. Its rotational period of 58.6 days is two-thirds of its 88-day orbital period, thus, it makes three full axial rotations every two years. Mercury's atmosphere is almost nonexistent; this fact, which produces rapid radiational cooling on its dark side, together with its proximity to the Sun, gives it a temperature range greater than any other planet in the solar system, from 466° to -184°C (870° to -300°F). Because it is so close to the Sun, Mercury is only visible shortly before sunrise or after sunset, and observation is further hindered by the fact that its light must pass obliquely through the lower atmosphere where it is distorted or filtered by dust and pollution. See Table at solar system .", "Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System. With a mean diameter of 142,984 km, it is big enough to fit all the other planets (except Saturn) inside itself, and big enough to fit Earth 11.8 times over. But with a mass of 1898 x 1024 kg (or 1,898,000,000,000 trillion metric tons), Jupiter is more massive than all the other planets in the Solar System combined – 2.5 times more massive, to be exact.", "The largest planet in the solar system is Jupiter. Jupiter is actually over 300 times larger than earth - and if Jupiter was a hollow shell - you could fit over 1,000 Earths inside of it.", "Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System. Ganymede is one of Jupiter's satellites, or moons, and is the largest moon in the Solar System. In fact, it more than twice the size of the Earth's moon. Ganymede is even larger than the planet of Mercury and is one-tenth more massive than Mercury itself.", "Mercury is the smallest planet in the Solar System, measuring just 4879 km across at its equator. However, it is second densest planet in the Solar System, with a density of 5.427 g/cm3 – which is the second only to Earth. Because of this, Mercury experiences a gravitational pull that is roughly 38% that of Earth’s (0.38 g).", "The largest planet in the solar system, the gas giant Jupiter is approximately 318 times as massive as Earth. If the mass of all of the other planets in the solar system were combined into one \"super planet,\" Jupiter would still be two and a half times as large.", "The next terrestrial planet, and second planet from the sun, is Venus. Venus is the brightest object in the sky except for the Sun and the Moon. The first spacecraft to visit the planet was the Mariner 2 in 1962. It has also been visited by many other spacecrafts, including the Pioneer Venus, Venera 7, Venera 9, and most recently the US spacecraft Magellan. The rotation on Venus is somewhat unusual because it is very slow and also retrograde. One day on Venus is equivalent to 243 days on Earth. The atmosphere on Venus is composed almost entirely of Carbon Dioxide. It contains several layers of clouds made up of sulfuric acid. These clouds completely cover up our view of the planet. The dense atmosphere produces a greenhouse effect that raises the temperatures to nearly 400 degrees, which is 740K. Venus' surface is actually hotter than Mercury's, despite being nearly twice as far from the Sun. There are also very strong winds on the planet that reach up to 350 kph. Venus is usually visible to the naked eye. Being the brightest star in the sky makes Venus easily seen on starry nights.", "Explanation: In this sharp snapshot, the Solar System's largest moon Ganymede poses next to Jupiter, the largest planet. Captured on March 10 with a small telescope from our fair planet Earth, the scene also includes Jupiter's Great Red Spot, the Solar System's largest storm. In fact, Ganymede is about 5,260 kilometers in diameter. That beats out all three of its other fellow Galilean satellites, along with Saturn's Moon Titan at 5,150 kilometers and Earth's own Moon at 3,480 kilometers. Though its been shrinking lately , the Great Red Spot's diameter is still around 16,500 kilometers. Jupiter, the Solar System's ruling gas giant, is about 143,000 kilometers in diameter at its equator . That's nearly 10 percent the diameter of the Sun.", "Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system and is 318 times bigger than the Earth! It's also the fastest rotating planet too, with 1 day only lasting 10 hours – but a year on Jupiter lasts for 12 Earth years.", "Next up is Ganymede . At 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. While it is larger than the planet Mercury, the fact that it is an icy world means that it has only half of Mercury’s mass. It is also the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core.", "Neptune is the 8th and final planet in the Solar System, orbiting the Sun at a distance of 29.81 AU (4.459 x 109 km) at perihelion and 30.33 AU (4.537 x 109 km) at aphelion. With a mean radius of 24,622 ± 19 km, Neptune is the fourth largest planet in the Solar System and four times as large as Earth. But with a mass of 1.0243×1026 kg – which is roughly 17 times that of Earth – it is the third most massive, outranking Uranus.", "Pluto is the largest and most-massive member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO, surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc. Originally considered a planet, Pluto's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt, and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs, known as \"plutinos\", that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune.", "Ganymede, the next moon, is the largest moon in the solar system, and is in fact larger than the planet Mercury.", "Figure 2.  Ganymede, the largest moon in the Solar system.  An image from the NASA Galileo spacecraft", "2. Which planet in the Solar System is thought to weigh about two and a half times that of all the other planets combined? Ans. Jupiter", "The giant planets of the outer solar system are like mini solar systems on their own, because each is encircled by a large entourage of moons. Consider Neptune, the fourth-largest planet, which is putting in its best showing of the year this week. It rises around sunset and remains in the sky all night. It’s also at its brightest for the year. Even so, it’s still so far away that you need a telescope to see it, in the constellation Aquarius.", "2. Galileo discovered four of this planet's moons--Io, Ganymede [GAN-uh-meed], Callisto, and Europa--in 1609. It rotates twice as fast as Earth, but takes twelve years to orbit the Sun. Which planet is our solar system's most massive?", "Here’s another article about the which is the largest planet in the Solar System , and here’s what’s the smallest planet in the Solar System .", "Its biggest moon is called Ganymede, the largest moon in the solar system – which is", "This is a classic exercise for visualizing just how BIG our Solar System really is. Both the relative size and spacing of the planets are demonstrated in this outdoor exercise, using a mere peppercorn to represent the size of the Earth. Guy Ottewell has kindly given permission for this electronic presentation of The Thousand-Yard Model; his exercise is presented in its original form, indexed with a few anchors to help you find you way around the large file. We also include a catalog describing several Ottewell publications. Image of the planets courtesy of NASA .", "A collection of the largest moons in the Solar System are in orbit around the largest planet.", "Based solely on mass, which of the following terrestrial planets would you expect to retain a secondary" ]

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[ "Over the years, NASA has continued to look for life beyond our planet. In 1975, NASA launched the two Viking spacecraft to look for basic signs of life on Mars; the spacecraft arrived on Mars in 1976 but did not find any indications of past or present biological activity there. In 1996 a probe from the Galileo spacecraft that was examining Jupiter and its moon, Europa, revealed that Europa may contain ice or even liquid water, thought to be a key component in any life-sustaining environment. NASA also has used radio astronomy to scan the heavens for potential signals from extraterrestrial intelligent life. It continues to investigate whether any Martian meteorites contain microbiological organisms and in the late 1990s, organized an \"Origins\" program to search for life using powerful new telescopes and biological techniques. More recently scientists have found more and more evidence that water used to be present on Mars.", "On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will search for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.", "On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic, and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.", "On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.", "Although planetary geologists are interested in studying all aspects of other planets, a significant focus is to search for evidence of past or present life on other worlds. This has led to many missions whose primary or ancillary purpose is to examine planetary bodies for evidence of life. One of these is the Phoenix lander, which analyzed Martian polar soil for water, chemical, and mineralogical constituents related to biological processes.", "Current studies on Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers are now searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on Mars is now a primary NASA objective.", "The Hubble Space Telescope has sniffed out evidence of complex carbon molecules, the building blocks of life, on the frozen surface of the distant dwarf Solar System planet Pluto.", "Most astronomy-related astrobiological research falls into the category of extrasolar planet (exoplanet) detection, the hypothesis being that if life arose on Earth then it could also arise on other planets with similar characteristics. To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect 'Earth-like' exoplanets are under development, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs.[27] Additionally, NASA plans to launch the Kepler mission in 2008, and the French Space Agency has already launched the COROT space mission.[28][29] There have also been several less ambitious ground-based efforts are also underway (see exoplanet).", "“It will seek to answer age old questions,” he continued referring to Curiosity’s charge to gather data regarding whether the building blocks of life exist on the Red Planet. “This is an amazing achievement.”", "Still, there is perhaps no other body in the Solar System that has intrigued us more than Mars. To this very day, it is still one of the most likely candidates for extraterrestrial life. In fact, meteorites recently discovered in Antarctica are believed to have originated from the red planet. These ancient Martian rocks may contain fossils of tiny bacteria. If this turns out to be true, it will be the first evidence that life evolved on other planets besides Earth.", "Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results, including a temporary increase of CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. This sign of life was later disputed by scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life. A re-analysis of the Viking data, in light of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life, has suggested that the Viking tests were not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life. The tests could even have killed a (hypothetical) life form. Tests conducted by the Phoenix Mars lander have shown that the soil has a alkaline pH and it contains magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. The soil nutrients may be able to support life, but life would still have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light. A recent analysis of martian meteorite EETA79001 found 0.6 ppm ClO4−, 1.4 ppm ClO3−, and 16 ppm NO3−, most likely of martian origin. The ClO3− suggests presence of other highly oxidizing oxychlorines such as ClO2− or ClO, produced both by UV oxidation of Cl and X-ray radiolysis of ClO4−. Thus only highly refractory and/or well-protected (sub-surface) organics or life forms are likely to survive. ", "Curiosity will be larger and more capable than any craft previously sent to land on the Red Planet. It will check to see whether the environment in a selected landing region ever has been favorable for supporting microbial life and preserving evidence of life. The rover also will search for minerals that formed in the presence of water and look for several chemical building blocks of life.", "Given what we know about the ingredients necessary for life, Europa is certainly a very likely place in the Solar System to look for evidence of life. A future mission to Europa would likely seek such evidence by determining whether the moon harbors an ocean of liquid water below its icy surface. Such a mission would examine Europa's surface from orbit or during multiple flybys for the chance that we might be able to identify any chemical signs of life that might have been transported from the ocean.", "Scientists search for biosignatures within the Solar System by studying planetary surfaces and examining meteorites. Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars. An experiment on the two Viking Mars landers reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil samples that some scientists argue are consistent with the presence of living microorganisms. Lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the same samples, indicates that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis. In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars.", "A meteorite found in Antarctica made headlines in 1996 when scientists claimed that it could contain evidence of traces of life on Mars. Known as ALH 84001 , the Martian rock contained structures resembled the fossilized remains of bacteria-like lifeforms. Follow-up tests revealed organic material, though the debate over whether or not the material was caused by biological processes wasn't settled until 2012, when it was determined that these vital ingredients had been formed without the involvement of life .", "Researchers will use Curiosity in an intriguing area of Mars to search for modern or ancient habitable environments, including any that may have also been favorable for preserving clues about life and environment.", "The question of the presence of life forms on Mars, some 3.6 billion years ago is controversial. Advocates point to several lines of evidence, no one of which is convincing, but--they say-- taken together is strong evidence for their hypothesis. We summarize these lines of evidence briefly:", "With the Terran system well behind us, we next encounter a beautiful, bright red world. This is the planet Mars, and it is the fourth planet from the Sun. It was named after the Roman god of war because its color reminded observers of a bloody Roman battlefield. Early astronomers believed they could see faint, dark lines crossing the surface of the planet. Some believed these to be artificially built canals. This gave rise to some of the early speculation of intelligent life on Mars. These lines were later found to be an optical illusion. Later unmanned missions to the planet found no evidence of the so-called canals.", "Europa's high-energy particle environment and the probability of a tidally heated subsurface ocean relatively close to the surface suggest that the moon could have all the conditions necessary to support life. From orbit or multiple flybys we can search for molecular signs of life that have been transported from Europa's ocean up to its surface. Such signs of life are called biosignatures, and could include byproducts of metabolism. The science instruments included on a future mission to Europa would be designed to collect the chemical fingerprints of materials on the moon's icy surface, which researchers will examine for biosignatures. Scientists around the world are working together to determine what types of biosignatures to look for and how a spacecraft's instruments could best accomplish the task. However, ultimately a future landed spacecraft would be the most suited to directly search for biosignatures on Europa.", "Here, we begin to run into speculative territory. Current observing technology is insufficient to detect planets that are significantly less massive than Jupiter, ie. Earths. Therefore, we are left with extrapolations from our own situation. Of the nine planets in the Solar System, only Earth occupies the so-called \"water-zone,\" the annular region whose distance from the Sun allows water to be in liquid state. Earth barely qualifies, the greenhouse effect of its atmosphere providing enough additional heating to keep the surface from freezing over -- most times. The subsurfaces of Mars and Europa may also harbor liquid water. The biochemistry of life on Earth relies on water as the primary chemical solvent. Other chemicals, such as ammonia, may qualify as solvents in other more frigid worlds. Lacking further insights, our \"water zone\" requirement suggests a number of 1 habitable planet per system, or more conservatively 1 habitable planet every 10 systems. We are then left with about 100 million habitable planets in the Milky Way.", "The innermost planet's importance to planetary science was known to be disproportionate to its size. Earth-based observations at radar, visible, and infrared wavelengths had strongly suggested the absence of any atmosphere, and it was therefore hoped that a primordial surface, upon which was written a history of the early events in the inner Solar System, unerased by the action of wind and water, awaited a spacecraft's cameras. The opportunity to study this anticipated record was eagerly awaited because, should Mercury's primordial surface remain, a valuable comparison with similar surfaces on the Moon and Mars could be made, providing an insight into the distribution of the planetesimals whose impacts on these other two bodies had left a record in their cratered terrains. Furthermore, the probable location of the source of these bodies could be better understood by a careful analysis of the cratering densities on the three bodies.", "Exploration of the red planet was put on hold for more than two decades. When examination of the planet resumed, scientists focused more on the search for habitable environments than for life, and specifically on the search for water. The slew of rovers, orbiters, and landers revealed evidence of water beneath the crust, hot springs – considered an excellent potential environment for life to evolve – and occasional rare precipitation. Although the most recent lander, Curiosity , isn't a life-finding mission, there are hopes that it could pinpoint locations that later visitors might explore and analyze.", "mission: Study Gale Crater (154 km diameter) for signs that life may once have existed Look for clues about past and present habitable environment", "It would be among the most profound discoveries in the history of our species if we could detect life on other planets circling other stars in the galaxy. Whether the life turns out to be intelligent, technological, or simply microbial, such a discovery would provide evidence that we are not alone, that life (in one form or another) is widespread in a universe that suddenly seems less stark and empty.", "As the existence of life beyond Earth is currently uncertain, planetary habitability is largely an extrapolation of conditions on Earth and the characteristics of the Sun and solar system which appear favorable to life's flourishing; of particular interest are factors that have sustained complex, multicellular organisms and not just simpler, unicellular creatures. Research and theory in this regard is a component of planetary science and the emerging discipline of astrobiology.", "For centuries, men have pondered the possibility of life on other planets and tried to prove its existence. Even before the first shuttle or probe was launched, stories of life on other planets and life invading our own planet, were published prolifically. Whether it’s a desire to connect with others or a burning curiosity to know whether we are truly alone, the question of life on other planets fascinates people from every walk of life.", "Curiosity can now get to work. Its main task is to determine if the Gale Crater area is, or ever was, capable of supporting microbial life. It sports 10 scientific instruments to aid in this task, including a rock-zapping laser and gear that can identify organic compounds, the carbon-containing building blocks of life as we know it.", "The goal now is to find a rocky, earth-like, planet in a star's \"habitable zone\", an orbit not too near and not to far from the star, where temperatures are in a range that would support the presence of liquid water. Scientists believe the introduction of newer, more sensitive technologies will allow them to identify such an object within just a few years from now.", "a scientist who searches for the chemical building blocks of life, environments that may have been habitable for life, or even life itself on other worlds", "Planetary astronomers have directly observed many of these phenomena through spacecraft and sample return missions. These observations include fly-by missions with remote sensors, landing vehicles that can perform experiments on the surface materials, impactors that allow remote sensing of buried material, and sample return missions that allow direct laboratory examination.", "Planetary astronomers have directly observed many of these phenomena through spacecraft and sample return missions. These observations include fly-by missions with remote sensors, landing vehicles that can perform experiments on the surface materials, impactors that allow remote sensing of buried material, and sample return missions that allow direct laboratory examination.", "D.J. DesMarais, L.J. Allamandola, S.A. Benner, A.P. Boss, J.R. Cronin, D. Deamer, P.G. Falkowski, J.D. Farmer, S.B. Hedges, B.M. Jakosky, A.H. Knoll, D.R. Liskowsky, V.S. Meadows, M.A. Meyer, C.B. Pilcher, K.H. Nealson, A.M. Spormann, J.D. Trent, W.W. Turner, N.J. Woolf, and H.W. Yorke, “The astrobiology roadmap,” Astrobiology 3(2):219-233, 2003." ]

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[ "In 1915 Einstein published his general theory of relativity where he argued that the properties of space-time were to be conceived as modified locally by the presence of a body with mass. The theory of relativity revolutionized our understanding of matter, space, and time.", "General relativity is a metric theory of gravitation. At its core are Einstein's equations, which describe the relation between the geometry of a four-dimensional, pseudo-Riemannian manifold representing spacetime, and the energy–momentum contained in that spacetime. Phenomena that in classical mechanics are ascribed to the action of the force of gravity (such as free-fall, orbital motion, and spacecraft trajectories), correspond to inertial motion within a curved geometry of spacetime in general relativity; there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths. Instead, gravity corresponds to changes in the properties of space and time, which in turn changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow. The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy–momentum of matter. Paraphrasing the relativist John Archibald Wheeler, spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve. ", "This theory, referred to as the General Theory of Relativity, proposed that matter causes space to curve.", "The special theory of relativity deals with questions of systems of reference moving with constant speed against each other. It lead to a revision of the terms space and time and is based on the principle of the constancy of the speed of light and on the principle of relativity, which postulates the impossibility of the determination of an absolute movement. However, the general theory of relativity deals with systems of reference relatively accelerated against each other, as well as the impact of gravity on space and time.", "The General Theory of Relativity by Albert Einstein describes how things are with space and time even when forces act upon the observer. The General Theory of Relativity says that the effects of an acceleration do not depend on the cause of the acceleration (not even if that cause is the force of gravity ). It follows that gravity bends rays of light and can slow down time, and that black holes can exist. Einstein invented this theory at the beginning of the 20th century . The theory has passed many tests.", "Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that massive objects warp the space-time around them. NASA's Gravity Probe B found that the space-time around Earth is indeed curved by our planet, and twisted by its rotation.", "�General relativity tells us that massive objects like black holes warp the space�time around them, and what we call gravity is the effect of that warp,� says Alexander. �This experiment will enable us to test our theory of gravity with much greater precision than ever before, and perhaps even show that our current theories need to be changed.�", "Thus, the primary result from general relativity is that gravitation is a purely geometric consequence of the properties of spacetime. Special relativity destroyed classical physics view of absolute space and time, general relativity dismantles the idea that spacetime is described by Euclidean or plane geometry. In this sense, general relativity is a field theory, relating Newton's law of gravity to the field nature of spacetime, which can be curved.", "The geodetic effect (also known as geodetic precession, de Sitter precession or de Sitter effect) represents the effect of the curvature of spacetime, predicted by general relativity, on a vector carried along with an orbiting body. The geodetic effect was first predicted by Willem de Sitter in 1916, who provided relativistic corrections to the Earth–Moon system's motion.", "General relativity (GR, also known as the general theory of relativity or GTR) is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations.", "The general theory of relativity derives its origin from the need to extend the new space and time concepts of the special theory of relativity from the domain of electric and magnetic phenomena to all of physics and, particularly, to the theory of gravitation. As space and time relations underlie all physical phenomena, it is conceptually intolerable to have to use mutually contradictory notions of space and time in dealing with different kinds of interactions, particularly in view of the fact that the same particles may interact with each other in several different ways--electromagnetically, gravitationally, and by way of so-called nuclear forces.", "Yet perhaps the most important insight that came from special relativity was the idea that space and time are not a sacred, immutable backdrop for the universe, but rather things that can change, from point to point and person to person. It was this insight that paved the way for the theory of general relativity and its radical interpretation of gravity, whose ramifications are still being felt today.", "General relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics. It is the basis of current cosmological models of the Universe. General relativity generalizes special relativity and Newton's law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time, or spacetime. In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the energy and momentum of whatever matter and radiation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations, a system of partial differential equations. In general relativity, the distribution of matter and energy determines the geometry of spacetime, which in turn describes the acceleration of matter. Therefore, solutions of the Einstein field equations describe the evolution of the Universe. Combined with measurements of the amount, type, and distribution of matter in the Universe, the equations of general relativity describe the evolution of the Universe over time.", "What was general relativity? Einstein's earlier theory of time and space, special relativity, proposed that distance and time are not absolute. The ticking rate of a clock depends on the motion of the observer of that clock; likewise for the length of a \"yardstick.\" Published in 1915, general relativity proposed that gravity, as well as motion, can affect the intervals of time and of space. The key idea of general relativity, called the equivalence principle, is that gravity pulling in one direction is completely equivalent to an acceleration in the opposite direction. A car accelerating forwards feels just like sideways gravity pushing you back against your seat. An elevator accelerating upwards feels just like gravity pushing you into the floor.", "Einstein discovered that there is a relationship between mass, gravity and spacetime. Mass distorts spacetime, causing it to curve.", "This implied that there might exist a special inertial frame of reference--the background radiation--that could be considered to be at rest in space. If this were true, it would falsify Einstein's major assumption in his theory of relativity. It would imply that it really was the fundamental structure of the mass and not the fundamental structure of space and time that caused the observed relativistic effects.", "We have followed a simple pathway to the main ideas of the general theory of relativity. We started with the geometrical notion of the curvature of space and saw how that geometrical notion can be extended from space to spacetime. We then found the resulting theory of curved spacetime not just to cover a curved geometry of space, but gravitational phenomena as well.", "Space-time (or spacetime or the spacetime continuum) is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single construct. The fourth dimension of time is traditionally considered to be of a different sort than the three dimensions of space in that it can only go forwards and not back but, in Albert Einstein �s General Theory of Relativity , space and time are seen to be essentially the same thing and can therefore be treated as a single entity.", "If gravity is equivalent to acceleration, and if motion affects measurements of time and space (as shown in special relativity), then it follows that gravity does so as well. In particular, the gravity of any mass, such as our sun, has the effect of warping the space and time around it. For example, the angles of a triangle no longer add up to 180 degrees, and clocks tick more slowly the closer they are to a gravitational mass like the sun.", "The motion of the clocks as represented in a solution offered by C. Møller is studied in detail. It is found that in the non-inertial rest frame of the accelerated clock the free clock suffers discontinuities in velocity whenever the \"gravitational field\" in that frame abruptly changes. Although these discontinuities occur at points of discontinuity of the metric tensor, examination of a case in which the gravitational field is turned on smoothly reveals that the effect is a real one within the framework of the general theory of relativity. By the principle of equivalence, it follows that even in a real gravitational field when that field changes in time velocity, dependent terms in the acceleration of a particle exist. These become impulsive for abruptly changing fields and can even cause acceleration in the direction \"opposite\" to the field.", "According to Einstein’s principle of relativity, any physical phenomenon, be it a mechanical, optical, or thermal one, occurs identically under identical conditions in all inertial frames of reference. This means that the uniform and rectilinear motion of a system does not influence the course of processes within the system. All inertial frames of reference are equivalent (there exists no special frame of reference that is at “absolute rest,” just as neither absolute space nor absolute time exists). The speed of light in a vacuum therefore is the same in all inertial frames of reference. The transformations of space coordinates and time upon transition from one inertial frame to another—the Lorentz transformations—follow from the aforementioned two postulates.", "The subject of this book is the structure of space-time on length-scales from 10-13cm, the radius of an elementary particle, up to 1028cm, the radius of the universe. ...we base our treatment on Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. This theory leads to two remarkable predictions about the universe: first, that the final fate of massive stars is to collapse behind an event horizon to form a 'black hole' which will contain a singularity; and secondly, that there is a singularity in our past which constitutes, in some sense, a beginning to the universe.", "The results of special relativity can be summarized by treating space and time as a unified structure known as spacetime (with c relating the units of space and time), and requiring that physical theories satisfy a special symmetry called Lorentz invariance, whose mathematical formulation contains the parameter c. Lorentz invariance is an almost universal assumption for modern physical theories, such as quantum electrodynamics, quantum chromodynamics, the Standard Model of particle physics, and general relativity. As such, the parameter c is ubiquitous in modern physics, appearing in many contexts that are unrelated to light. For example, general relativity predicts that c is also the speed of gravity and of gravitational waves. In non-inertial frames of reference (gravitationally curved spacetime or accelerated reference frames), the local speed of light is constant and equal to c, but the speed of light along a trajectory of finite length can differ from c, depending on how distances and times are defined.", "There have been various attempts to find modifications to general relativity. The most famous of these are the Brans–Dicke theory (also known as scalar-tensor theory), and Rosen's bimetric theory. Both of these theories proposed changes to the field equations of general relativity, and both suffer from these changes permitting the presence of bipolar gravitational radiation. As a result, Rosen's original theory has been refuted by observations of binary pulsars. As for Brans–Dicke (which has a tunable parameter ω such that ω = ∞ is the same as general relativity), the amount by which it can differ from general relativity has been severely constrained by these observations.", "The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.", "At the end of the early universe's inflationary period, all the matter and energy in the universe was set on an inertial trajectory consistent with the equivalence principle and Einstein's general theory of relativity and this is when the precise and regular form of the universe's expansion had its origin (that is, matter in the universe is separating because it was separating in the past due to the inflaton field).", "* Lense–Thirring precession a general relativistic correction accounting for the frame dragging by the Kerr metric of curved space near a large rotating mass.", "* The Principle of Relativity – The laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not affected, whether these changes of state be referred to the one or the other of two systems in uniform translatory motion relative to each other.", "The author's theory in which space-time formalism is extended to include thermodynamic terms is applied to the case of stationary Riemannian space-time.", "In physics, spacetime is any mathematical model that combines space and time into a single interwoven continuum. Since 300 BCE, the spacetime of our universe has historically been interpreted from a Euclidean space perspective, which regards space as consisting of three dimensions, and time as consisting of one dimension, the \"fourth dimension\". By combining space and time into a single manifold called Minkowski space in 1905, physicists have significantly simplified a large number of physical theories, as well as described in a more uniform way the workings of the universe at both the supergalactic and subatomic levels.", "Spacetime: A system for looking at the universe as one in which the three spatial dimensions are unified with the time dimension.", "How free fall motion in a gravitational field can be reinterpreted as a curvature of a spacetime sheet." ]

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[ "The first and only attempts to search for life on Mars were the Viking missions, launched in 1975. Those probes failed to find organic compounds in Martian soils, apparently ruling out the possibility of extant life on the Red Planet. [ 7 Biggest Mars Mysteries of All Time ]", "Missions specifically designed to search for current life on Mars were the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes. The Viking results were inconclusive, and Beagle 2 failed minutes after landing. A future mission with a strong astrobiology role would have been the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter, designed to study the frozen moons of Jupiter—some of which may have liquid water—had it not been cancelled. In late 2008, the Phoenix lander probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars, and to research the history of water there.", "Another part of space has also been interesting scientists recently. On Mars, Curiosity may have detected perchlorate . The presence of life on Mars has been a matter of a debate since the Viking mission . In the 1970s, two probes, Viking 1 and 2 may have detected life while on Mars. However, the scientists who worked on these projects have disagreed on whether this is true or not ever since. The official version of the events states that life was not detected. The discovery of perchlorate by Curiosity may be able to put an end to this disagreement. Due to the longstanding disagreement, a sample would likely need to be brought back to Earth to settle things definitively. If Curiosity really has found perchlorate, a chemical that destroys organic matter, then a new review of the Viking mission’s data may be required. It is ironic that a malfunction in Curiosity’s equipment may resolve such a longstanding debate.", "Though we now rarely take part in space tracking activities, we have been asked by NASA to search for the two missing Mars space probes, Mars Observer and Mars Polar Lander and, on Christmas Day 2003, hoped to receive the first signals from the Beagle II spacecraft that should have soft landed on Mars early that morning.  Sadly, despite having put together the most sensitive receivers in the world to undertake these tasks, we were unsuccessful.  It appears that the Mars Observer exploded when NASA attempted to fire its retrorockets to enter Martian orbit and that both Mars Polar Lander and Beagle II crash landed.", "Over the years, NASA has continued to look for life beyond our planet. In 1975, NASA launched the two Viking spacecraft to look for basic signs of life on Mars; the spacecraft arrived on Mars in 1976 but did not find any indications of past or present biological activity there. In 1996 a probe from the Galileo spacecraft that was examining Jupiter and its moon, Europa, revealed that Europa may contain ice or even liquid water, thought to be a key component in any life-sustaining environment. NASA also has used radio astronomy to scan the heavens for potential signals from extraterrestrial intelligent life. It continues to investigate whether any Martian meteorites contain microbiological organisms and in the late 1990s, organized an \"Origins\" program to search for life using powerful new telescopes and biological techniques. More recently scientists have found more and more evidence that water used to be present on Mars.", "Efforts to explore Mars began in earnest in the 1960s. Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviets launched nine unmanned spacecraft towards Mars, but all failed to reach the planet. In 1964, NASA began launching Mariner probes towards Mars. This began with Mariner 3 and Mariner 4, two unmanned probes that were designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. The Mariner 3 mission failed during deployment, but Mariner 4 – which launched three weeks later – successfully made the 7½-month long voyage to Mars.", "In 2003, a team of researchers published a report in the journal Science in which they duplicated the tests used by the Viking 1 and Viking 2 Mars landers to detect life, and were unable to detect any signs in Atacama Desert soil in the region of Yungay. The region may be unique on Earth in this regard, and is being used by NASA to test instruments for future Mars missions. The team duplicated the Viking tests in Mars-like Earth environments and found that they missed present signs of life in soil samples from Antarctic dry valleys, the Atacama Desert of Chile and Peru, and other locales.", "2003 Scientists failed to make contact with British-built Mars probe Beagle 2, which should have landed on the Red Planet 'on this day'. If you've seen the movie 'Transformers' you'll know why... eddiesleftfoot", "The Soviet Phobos 1 and 2 probes were launched in 1988 and were meant to study Mars's moon Phobos in detail. However, Phobos 1 failed due to a software glitch and Phobos 2 malfunctioned shortly before mission controllers attempted to send two landers from the orbiter onto the moon's surface. In this clip Soviet space programme analyst Phillip Clark explains the probes' missions.", "Latter studies, however, hit a roadblock. A curious peculiarity of the Soviet unmanned program is that while it was quite successful with the inner Solar System, for some reason, it invariably failed when Mars was concerned. The aforementioned Mars probe that lost contact with the Earth shortly after landing was only the tip of the iceberg; it was followed by several other failed probes.", "The USSR intended to have the first artificial satellite of Mars beating the planned American Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 Martian orbiters. In May 1971, one day after Mariner 8 malfunctioned at launch and failed to reach orbit, Cosmos 419 (Mars 1971C), a heavy probe of the Soviet Mars program M-71, also failed to launch. This spacecraft was designed as an orbiter only, while the next two probes of project M-71, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were multipurpose combinations of an orbiter and a lander with small skis-walking rovers that would be the first planet rovers outside the Moon. They were successfully launched in mid-May 1971 and reached Mars about seven months later. On November 27, 1971 the lander of Mars 2 crash-landed due to an on-board computer malfunction and became the first man-made object to reach the surface of Mars. On 2 December 1971, the Mars 3 lander became the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing, but its transmission was interrupted after 14.5 seconds.", "JPL has managed and operated nearly every major U.S. interplanetary exploration mission. These include the early Ranger and Surveyor lunar probes; the Mariner series of spacecraft that flew past Venus and Mars in the 1960s; the Viking landers, which made the first successful U.S. landings and explorations of the Martian surface in 1976; the historic Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft, which explored the outer regions of the solar system, including the distant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The center also managed the hearty Mars Sojourner rover and the twin Mars Rovers Spirit and Opportunity, which landed on the Red Planet in 2004 and are still roaming and exploring its surface; the orbiting Mars Surveyor and Mars Climate Orbiter, which have snapped hundreds of thousands of high-resolution images of the planet from orbit; the Magellan and Galileo space probes; and many more advanced planetary exploration spacecraft.", "The 1970s Viking program placed two identical landers on the surface of Mars and tasked to look for biosignatures of microbial life on the surface. Of the four experiments performed by each Viking lander, only the 'Labeled Release' (LR) experiment gave a positive result for metabolism, while the other three did not detect organic compounds. The LR was a specific experiment designed to test only a narrowly defined critical aspect of the theory concerning the possibility of life on Mars; therefore, the overall results were declared, officially, inconclusive. Further, no Mars lander mission has found meaningful traces of biomolecules or biosignatures. The claim of extant microbial life on Mars, is based on old data collected by the Viking landers, currently reinterpreted as sufficient evidence of life, mainly by Gilbert Levin, Joseph D. Miller, Navarro, Giorgio Bianciardi and Patricia Ann Straat, that the Viking LR experiments did, indeed, detect extant microbial life on Mars.", "In 1964, both Soviet probe launches, of Zond 1964A on June 4, and Zond 2 on November 30, (part of the Zond program), resulted in failures. Zond 1964A had a failure at launch, while communication was lost with Zond 2 en route to Mars after a mid-course maneuver, in early May 1965.", "Beginning in the early 1960s, both the former Soviet Union and the United States sent unmanned spacecraft to Mars in an attempt to learn more about the planet. Although some of those missions were unsuccessful, others were able to transmit data back to Earth. In 1965, the U.S. probe Mariner 4 flew past Mars, sending back 22 pictures of the planet's cratered surface. It also revealed that Mars has a thin atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide and that the atmospheric pressure at the surface of Mars is less than 1 percent of that on Earth.", "So far, no attempt at finding life on Mars has been successful — but it's not too late. Scientists still think microbial life could exist deep underneath the Martian ground, and may have been present on the surface during the past. The latest exploration mission to Mars is NASA's Mars Science Laboratory rover , called Curiosity, which is due to land on Mars Aug. 5, 2012. Curiosity is slated to spend two years hunting for signs that Mars is, or ever was, habitable to life. What it will find is anyone's guess.", "Until recently, the list of Solar System objects considered worth searching for evidence of life automatically excluded worlds devoid of an atmosphere, and those outside the Sun's ECOSPHERE (or habitable zone), whose limits correspond quite closely to the orbits of Venus and Mars. Although Venus has a dense atmosphere, space probes have revealed it to be hostile to life in every way. Mars, at the outer limit of the Sun's ecosphere, appears to be a possible if uncertain abode of life. The surface chemistry of Mars at two different sites was investigated in 1976 by the sophisticated landers of the two VIKING missions. They revealed no unequivocal evidence for the existence of Martian life. It was concluded that, at the present epoch at least, Mars is devoid of life, implying that any extraterrestrial life would have to be sought beyond the Solar System (see EXTRASOLAR PLANET).", "Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of Mars has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions and some failed before their observations could begin. Some missions have met with unexpected success, such as the twin Mars Exploration Rovers, which operated for years beyond their specification. On 15 March 2015, two scientific rovers were on the surface of Mars beaming signals back to Earth (Opportunity of the Mars Exploration Rover mission and Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission), with five orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission and MAVEN, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed. ", "The Viking landers conducted biological experiments designed to detect life in the Martian soil (if it existed) with experiments designed by three separate teams, under the direction of chief scientist Gerald Soffen of NASA. One experiment turned positive for the detection of metabolism (current life), but based on the results of the other two experiments that failed to reveal any organic molecules in the soil, most scientists became convinced that the positive results were likely caused by non-biological chemical reactions from highly oxidizing soil conditions.", "During the next two decades, NASA will continue to conduct missions to address whether life ever arose on Mars. The search begins with determining whether the Martian environment was ever suitable for life. Life, as we understand it, requires water, so the history of water on Mars is critical to finding out if the Martian environment was ever conducive to life. Although the Mars Exploration Rovers do not have the ability to detect life directly, they are offering very important information on the habitability of the environment in the planet's history.", "Future expeditions. In October 2000, NASA unveiled an ambitious plan to send eight or more probes to Mars over the next two decades to search for evidence of water or life. The first of these, Mars Odyssey, was launched in the spring of 2001, with a planned arrival in the fall. Once in orbit, the spacecraft will try to determine the composition of the planet's surface, to detect water and shallow buried ice, and to study the radiation environment. In mid-2003, in a mission planned by the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency, NASA will launch the Mars Express. This spacecraft's main mission will be to search for subsurface water from orbit and to deliver a lander to the Martian surface. That lander, the Beagle 2 , will sniff air, dig dirt, and bake rock samples for evidence of past or present life.", "In recent decades, the high-resolution mapping of the surface of Mars, culminating in Mars Global Surveyor, revealed no artifacts of habitation by \"intelligent\" life, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars continues from commentators such as Richard C. Hoagland. Reminiscent of the canali controversy, these speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as 'pyramids' and the 'Face on Mars'. Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote:", "5. What was the name of the unsuccessful British space probe sent to Mars in 2003?", "In 2008, NASA's Phoenix Mars lander was the first mission to touch water ice in the Martian arctic. Phoenix also observed precipitation (snow falling from clouds), as confirmed by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . Soil chemistry experiments led scientists to believe that the Phoenix landing site had a wetter and warmer climate in the recent past (the last few million years). NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission, with its large rover Curiosity , is examining Martian rocks and soil at Gale Crater, looking for minerals that formed in water, signs of subsurface water, and carbon-based molecules called organics, the chemical building blocks of life. That information will reveal more about the present and past habitability of Mars, as well as whether humans could survive on Mars some day.", "As the centerpiece of India's Mars Orbiter Mission, the Mangalyaan probe is a 2,976 lb. (1,350 kilogram) spacecraft powered by solar arrays and packed with five instruments to study the surface and atmosphere of Mars. Those instruments include a color camera for photographic imaging, a spectrometer for surface composition and mineralogy analysis and a methane sensor.", "1996 - NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin announced the possibility that a primitive form of microscopic life may have existed on Mars more than three billion years ago. The evidence came from a fossil found on a meteorite in Antarctica believed to have come from Mars billions of years ago.", "Although the three biology experiments contained on the landers discovered unexpected and enigmatic chemical activity in the Martian soil, they provided no clear evidence for the presence of living microorganisms in soil near the landing sites. According to scientists, Mars was self‑sterilizing. They concluded that the combination of solar ultraviolet radiation that saturates the surface, the extreme dryness of the soil, and the oxidizing nature of the soil chemistry had prevented the formation of living organisms in the Martian soil.", "Mars 2 and Mars 3 were identical spacecraft – each an orbiter with attached descent module. They were supposed to send back images of the surface along with information about weather conditions, the composition of the atmosphere, and chemical and mechanical properties of the soil. Each had two television cameras, a mass spectrometer to study the atmosphere, and temperature, pressure, and wind sensors. Each had a mechanical scoop to search for organic signs of life.", "The Viking landers performed sensitive experiments to test for life forms in the martian soil. There were four basic experiments. The details need not concern us. We only note that a considerable effort was made to determine whether life forms were present, and that the conclusions were negative.", "Although selected by NASA's Human Exploration and Development of Space Enterprise, the MECA instrument suite also has the capability of addressing the possibilities of life on Mars past as well as future. Rehydrating the Martian soil in the wet-chemistry laboratory will reproduce the conditions believed to pertain to an earlier, wetter Mars. On Earth, the earliest forms of life are preserved as microfossils. The atomic-force microscope will have the required resolution to image down to the scale of terrestrial microfossils and beyond.", "* Mars Sample Return Mission — The best life detection experiment proposed is the examination on Earth of a soil sample from Mars. However, the difficulty of providing and maintaining life support over the months of transit from Mars to Earth remains to be solved. Providing for still unknown environmental and nutritional requirements is daunting. Should dead organisms be found in a sample, it would be difficult to conclude that those organisms were alive when obtained.", "The Preservation of Extraterrestrial Life Mark Lupisella NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt Rd. Greenbelt, MD 20770 Mark.Lupisella@gsfc.nasa.gov As we expand our presence in the solar system and beyond, novel and challenging scientific and policy issues will face us. A relatively near-term issue requiring attention involves questions regarding the search for and discovery of primitive extraterrestrial life-Mars being an obvious candidate. Such a search and potential discovery is clearly of paramount importance for science and will pose novel and challenging mission planning and policy questions regarding how we should search for and interact with that life. This paper will explore the scientific and mission planning issues along with the policy issues associated with the search and interaction with primitive extraterrestrial life. Central to the logistical science and mission planning issues is the role and feasibility of modeling techniques. Central to the policy questions are issues of value. Exploring this overall issue responsibly requires a holistic understanding of how both of these aspects of the issue interrelate. Some of the questions to be considered are: Will contamination jeopardize or mask possible indigenous life forms? To what extent can we control contamination (e.g. will it be local or global?) What are the criteria for determining the biological status of an extraterrestrial planet like Mars (e.g. for example, can we extrapolate from a few strategic missions?) What will our policies be regarding our interaction with non-intelligent extraterrestrial life?" ]

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[ "Pulsar: a celestial object, believed to be a rapidly spinning neutron star, that emits intense bursts of radio waves at regular intervals.", "Pulsar: a celestial object, believed to be a rapidly spinning neutron star, that emits intense bursts of radio waves at regular intervals.", "A celestial object (most likely a neutron star) that spins rapidly, sending out short, precisely timed bursts of electromagnetic radiation.", "Pulsars are highly magnetized, rotating neutron stars that emit a beam of electromagnetic radiation. The radiation can only be observed when the beam of emission is pointing towards the Earth. This is called the lighthouse effect and gives rise to the pulsed nature that gives pulsars their name. Because neutron stars are very dense objects, the rotation period and thus the interval between observed pulses is very regular. A quasar is a very energetic and distant active galactic nucleus. Quasars are among the most luminous objects in the universe. The asteroid belt is the region of the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter. It is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets. An equinox occurs twice a year, when the tilt of the Earth's axis is inclined neither away from nor", "A pulsar (short for pulsating radio star) is a highly magnetized, rotating neutron star that emits a beam of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be observed only when the beam of emission is pointing toward Earth (much the way a lighthouse can be seen only when the light is pointed in the direction of an observer), and is responsible for the pulsed appearance of emission. Neutron stars are very dense, and have short, regular rotational periods. This produces a very precise interval between pulses that range roughly from milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar. Pulsars are believed to be one of the candidates of high and ultra-high energy astroparticles (see also Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration).", "The explosions are brief thermonuclear eruptions called type I X-ray bursts and last about one minute. The bursts occur every several hours on the surface of very small, dense stars called neutron stars. They are fueled by gas that a neutron star siphons off a companion star.", "OJ 287 has been seen on photographic plates since at least 1887. It belongs to a special class of celestial objects known as blazars, which are a compact celestial radio source that are some of the most energetic objects in the universe. It is thought that one of its powerful jets is pointed right at the earth.", "The amount of energy radiated into space every second by a celestial object, such as a star. It is closely related to the absolute brightness of a celestial object.", "A star's spectacular death in the constellation Taurus was observed on Earth as the supernova of 1054 A.D. Now, almost a thousand years later, a super dense object -- called a neutron star -- left behind by the explosion is seen spewing out a blizzard of high-energy particles into the expanding debris field known as the Crab Nebula. X-ray data from Chandra provide significant clues to the workings of this mighty cosmic \"generator,\" which is producing energy at the rate of 100,000 suns.", "The Sun is an emitter of radio waves, but with present techniques its radio emission could only just be detected—even in its most active phases—at the distance of the nearest star, about four light-years away. Most discrete radio-frequency sources have turned out to be objects such as old supernovas, radio galaxies, and quasar s, though well-recognized radio stars also have been recorded on occasion. These probably include flare stars, possibly red supergiants such as Betelgeuse , the high-temperature dwarf companion to the red supergiant Antares , and the shells ejected from Nova Serpentis 1970 and Nova Delphini. The radio emission from the latter objects is consistent with that expected from an expanding shell of ionized gas that fades away as the gas becomes attenuated . The central star of the Crab Nebula has been detected as a radio (and optical) pulsar .", "Astronomical scintillation is typically strongest for celestial objects lying at large zenith distances and is not easily observed by eye for objects whose zenith distances are under 30°. Nonperiodic vibratory motions of stellar images with frequencies of the order of 1 to 10 cycles per second create a troublesome problem of seeing in astronomical work. The size of the schlieren producing vibratory scintillations has been estimated to be of the order of centimeters, and chromatic scintillations of celestial objects appear to be produced by parcels whose dimensions are of the order of decimeters or, perhaps, meters. Hence, astronomical scintillation is primarily a consequence of the high-frequency, short-wavelength type of atmospheric turbulence.", "A narrow beam of intense electromagnetic radiation released during a supernova event, as a rapidly rotating, high- mass star collapses to form a black hole . They are the brightest events known to occur in the universe , and can last from milliseconds to several minutes (typically a few seconds). The initial burst is usually followed by a longer-lived 'afterglow' emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared and radio).", "Stars are an electrical plasma discharge phenomenon. Electrical energy produces heavy elements near the surface of all stars. The energy is transferred over cosmic distances via Birkeland current transmission lines. The energy may be released gradually or stored in a stellar circuit and unleashed catastrophically. It is these cosmic circuits that are the energy source for the supernova explosion – not the star. That is why the energy output of some nebulae exceeds that available from the central star. See Shocks from Eta Carina .", "Perseus is also the \"radiant\" point of the Perseid meteor shower , which is visible every August. Although the meteors can streak across any part of the sky, if you trace their paths backwards they all appear to originate in Perseus. The shower is spawned by Comet Swift-Tuttle. As it orbits the Sun, this big \"dirty snowball\" sheds tiny grains of rock and dust. Over time, the particles spread out along the comet's orbital path. Earth flies through this path every August, sweeping up some of the dust grains. They plunge into our atmosphere at more than 100,000 miles per hour, vaporizing as the streaks of light known as meteors.", "Stellar sized source of energetic X and gamma radiation, powered by accretion onto a neutron star or black hole, somewhat like a quasar but on a much smaller scale.", "Explosions on the Sun's surface that lash out from the Sun and emit huge amounts of energy", "The Perseids are a prominent annual meteor shower that appear to radiate from Perseus from mid-July, peaking in activity between 9 and 14 August each year. Associated with Comet Swift–Tuttle, they have been observed for about 2,000 years. The September Epsilon Perseids, discovered in 2012, are a meteor shower with an unknown parent body in the Oort cloud.", "Every 50 years or so, a massive star in our galaxy blows itself apart in a supernova explosion. Supernovas are one of the most violent events in the universe, and the force of the explosion generates a blinding flash of radiation, as well as shock waves analogous to sonic booms.", "The article offers information about other space phenomena. A supernova happens when a star explodes because it used up all of its nuclear fuel. Quasars look like stars in photographs but have characteristics of galaxies. An unidentified flying object (UFO) is said to kept in Area 51 in Nevada...", "A near-Earth supernova is an explosion resulting from the death of a star that occurs close enough to the Earth (roughly fewer than 100  light-years away) to have noticeable effects on its biosphere . Gamma rays are responsible for most of the adverse effects a supernova can have on a living terrestrial planet. In Earth's case, gamma rays induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere , converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful solar and cosmic radiation. The gamma ray burst from a nearby supernova explosion has been proposed as the cause of the end Ordovician extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.", "Watch Sirius for more than a few seconds and you'll discover that it doesn't just appear to twinkle wildly; it fires off colorful sparks that often prompt calls to observatories and emergency personnel. The effect is even more spectacular when viewed through binoculars or a telescope thrown slightly our of focus.", "Those that have bright nuclei associated with great energy production or energetic outflows of matter (most emit strong radio waves).", "Here’s another recent one. About ten years ago a previously unknown star now called V838 Monocerotis somehow produced a huge light flash and temporarily became one of the brightest stars in the galaxy. One guess is that it “ate” a companion star — observation showed it wasn’t a nova or supernova. Astronomers could easily track the light echo as it expanded through surrounding gas.", "a sudden eruption of intense high-energy radiation from the sun's surface; associated with sunspots and radio interference", "As starlight enters the atmosphere, it often passes through regions of different air density undergoing repetitive refractions. As a result, the star appear to twinkle or flicker, a condition known as scintillation.", "irectly between the two lower stars in Lyra is a very interesting object, it is M57 the ring nebular. Through even a modest telescope a very distinct ‘doughnut’ shape can be seen, this is the remnants of a star that exploded many thousands of years ago and the explosion is expanding throughout space. Eventually the ring nebular will disperse so much that it will no longer be visible from Earth.", "\"Halley treats us to a meteor shower twice a year as our planet passes by the debris cloud,\" says Cooke. \"In May we have the Eta Aquariids, and in October the Orionids.\"", "(Emissions of Light and Very low-frequency perturbations from Electromagnetic pulse Sources) halo-shaped electrical discharge in the upper atmosphere, usually appearing above sprites.", "when the larger of orb illuminated i could hear a faint 'puck' sound, it was quite an amzing sight no the less with sky in front being filled with stars and the light show off in the horizon, i would love to get some feed back on the phenomena, what causes \"eletrical storms\"", "Radiant : 20:28 -10.2° - ZHR : 5 - Velocity: 15 miles/sec (slow - 24km/sec) - Parent Object: 169P/NEAT", "Radiant : 22:32 -1° - ZHR : 55 - Velocity: 42 miles/sec (swift - 66.9km/sec) - Parent Object: 1P/Halley", "Radiant : 06:20 +15.5° - ZHR : 25 - Velocity: 41 miles/sec (swift - 67km/sec) - Parent Object: 1P/Halley" ]

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[ "A neutron star has some of the properties of an atomic nucleus, including density (within an order of magnitude) and being composed of nucleons. In popular scientific writing, neutron stars are therefore sometimes described as giant nuclei. However, in other respects, neutron stars and atomic nuclei are quite different. In particular, a nucleus is held together by the strong interaction, whereas a neutron star is held together by gravity, and thus the density and structure of neutron stars is more variable. It is generally more useful to consider such objects as stars.", "A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event. Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles without electrical charge and a slightly larger mass than protons. Neutron stars are very hot and are supported against further collapse because of the Pauli exclusion principle. This principle states that no two neutrons (or any other fermionic particle) can occupy the same place and quantum state simultaneously.", "As the core of a massive star is compressed during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova, and collapses into a neutron star, it retains most of its angular momentum. Because it has only a tiny fraction of its parent's radius (and therefore its moment of inertia is sharply reduced), a neutron star is formed with very high rotation speed, and then gradually slows down. Neutron stars are known that have rotation periods from about 1.4 ms to 30 s. The neutron star's density also gives it very high surface gravity, with typical values ranging from 1012 to 1013 m/s2 (more than 1011 times that of Earth). One measure of such immense gravity is the fact that neutron stars have an escape velocity ranging from 100,000 km/s to 150,000 km/s, that is, from a third to half the speed of light. The neutron star's gravity would accelerate infalling matter falling to tremendous speed. The force of the impact would likely destroy the object's component atoms, rendering all the matter identical, in most respects, to the rest of the neutron star.", "Neutron star: an extremely dense star with a powerful gravitational pull. Some neutron stars pulse radio waves into space as they spin; these are known as pulsars .", "A neutron star is the remaining  star after a giant star explodes and goes supernova. The neutron star can now have up to three times the mass of our sun and it is packed into only a small ball with a radius of around 6 to 10 miles or 10 to 15 kilometers. A neutron star is so dense that on earth just one teaspoon full would way a hundred million tonnes!", "Neutron Star – A star composed primarily of neutrons and supported by the degenerate pressure of the neutrons", "An extremely compact ball of neutrons created from the central core of a star that collapsed under gravity during a supernova explosion. Neutron stars are extremely dense: they are only 10 kilometers or so in size, but have the mass of an average star (usually about 1.5 times more massive than our Sun). A neutron star that regularly emits pulses of radiation is known as a pulsar.", "Neutron stars also have powerful magnetic fields which can accelerate atomic particles around its magnetic poles producing powerful beams of radiation. Those beams sweep around like massive searchlight beams as the star rotates. If such a beam is oriented so that it periodically points toward the Earth, we observe it as regular pulses of radiation that occur whenever the magnetic pole sweeps past the line of sight. In this case, the neutron star is known as a pulsar.", "These stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced when a supernova explodes, forcing the protons and electrons to combine to produce a neutron star. Neutron stars are very dense. Typical stars having a mass of three times the Sun but a diameter of only 20 km. If its mass is any greater, its gravity will be so strong that it will shrink further to become a black hole. Pulsars are believed to be neutron stars that are spinning very rapidly.", "a compressed core of an exploded star made up almost entirely of neutrons. Neutron stars have a strong gravitational field and some emit pulses of energy along their axis. These are known as pulsars.", "The events leading to the formation of a pulsar begin when the core of a massive star is compressed during a supernova, which collapses into a neutron star. The neutron star retains most of its angular momentum, and since it has only a tiny fraction of its progenitor's radius (and therefore its moment of inertia is sharply reduced), it is formed with very high rotation speed. A beam of radiation is emitted along the magnetic axis of the pulsar, which spins along with the rotation of the neutron star. The magnetic axis of the pulsar determines the direction of the electromagnetic beam, with the magnetic axis not necessarily being the same as its rotational axis. This misalignment causes the beam to be seen once for every rotation of the neutron star, which leads to the \"pulsed\" nature of its appearance.", "Taylor and Hulse made their discovery in 1974 while conducting a systematic search for pulsars with the large radio telescope at Arecibo, P.R. A pulsar, short for pulsating radio star, is thought to be a rapidly spinning neutron star, an extremely dense star that is composed almost entirely of neutrons and that was formed in an explosive stellar event called a supernova. The extremely intense magnetic field that surrounds a neutron star gives rise to a narrow beam of radio emission (and occasionally of other kinds of emission such as visible light or X-rays), which sweeps around the star like a beam of light from a lighthouse. When the Earth happens to lie in the path of the beam, observers detect brief, precisely timed pulses of radio waves from the star, which then is labeled a pulsar. The time between pulses corresponds to the pulsar’s period of rotation.", "Ultimately, only neutrons will survive the implosion of the star, and in the final act, the neutrons form a new core which becomes that which is known as a neutron star. As the neutron core stabilizes, what is left of the previous massive star will flow in limbo.", "In 1934, Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky proposed the existence of neutron stars, only a year after the discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick. In seeking an explanation for the origin of a supernova, they tentatively proposed that in supernova explosions ordinary stars are turned into stars that consist of extremely closely packed neutrons that they called neutron stars. Baade and Zwicky correctly proposed at that time that the release of the gravitational binding energy of the neutron stars powers the supernova: \"In the supernova process, mass in bulk is annihilated\". Neutron stars were thought to be too faint to be detectable and little work was done on them until November 1967, when Franco Pacini (1939–2012) pointed out that if the neutron stars were spinning and had large magnetic fields, then electromagnetic waves would be emitted. Unbeknown to him, radio astronomer Antony Hewish and his research assistant Jocelyn Bell at Cambridge were shortly to detect radio pulses from stars that are now believed to be highly magnetized, rapidly spinning neutron stars, known as pulsars.", "The \"atmosphere\" of a neutron star is hypothesized to be at most several micrometers thick, and its dynamics are fully controlled by the neutron star's magnetic field. Below the atmosphere one encounters a solid \"crust\". This crust is extremely hard and very smooth (with maximum surface irregularities of ~5 mm), due to the extreme gravitational field. The expected hierarchy of phases of nuclear matter in the inner crust has been characterized as nuclear pasta. ", "This circularly symmetric supernova remnant contains a dense, rotating dead star at its centre - a textbook case of what an exploding star looks like after 2,000 years.  When a massive star collapses, outer layers are energetically blown away.  Depending on the original mass, a dense object (neutron star or a black hole) can form at the explosion's centre.  Such a neutron star, known as a pulsar when it rapidly rotates, can be kicked by the thermonuclear shock wave created in the explosion, causing it to race through space at millions of miles per hour.", "A pulsar (short for pulsating radio star) is a highly magnetized, rotating neutron star that emits a beam of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be observed only when the beam of emission is pointing toward Earth (much the way a lighthouse can be seen only when the light is pointed in the direction of an observer), and is responsible for the pulsed appearance of emission. Neutron stars are very dense, and have short, regular rotational periods. This produces a very precise interval between pulses that range roughly from milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar. Pulsars are believed to be one of the candidates of high and ultra-high energy astroparticles (see also Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration).", "The explosion that created the nebula also caused the neutron star to spin more than 30 times a second. And it created a magnetic field a trillion times stronger than Earth’s. As the star spins, the magnetic field causes it to beam energy into space. Radio telescopes detect this beam as on-and-off “pulses” of energy, so the neutron star is also known as a pulsar. We’ll have more about pulsars tomorrow.", "X-ray source that radiates thousands of times more energy than our Sun, in short bursts that last only a few seconds. A neutron star in a binary system accretes matter onto its surface until temperatures reach the level needed for hydrogen fusion to occur. The result is a sudden period of rapid nuclear burning and release of energy.", "Some neutron stars have jets of materials streaming out of them at nearly the speed of light. As these beams pan past Earth, they flash like the bulb of a lighthouse . This pulsing appearance led them to be called pulsars.", "Pulsars are types of neutron stars; the dead relics of massive stars. What sets pulsars apart from regular neutron stars is that they’re highly magnetized, and rotating at enormous speeds. Astronomers detect them by the radio pulses they emit at regular intervals.", "The researchers concluded, after comparing their observations to many models, that the most plausible explanation is the birth of a magnetar, or a neutron star rotating very rapidly on its axis. The initial peak, decline, then quick rise back to brightness is consistent with that of an emission of a huge bubble of material that cools as it grows.", "A schematic view of the formation of a neutron star. A supernova explosion leaves a massive core of neutrons behind.", "Neutron stars are only the size of a city and are very far away yet astronomers can work out what is going on beneath their surfaces - how? They do this by looking for small changes in the rotation of the pulsar. We have already mentioned that pulsars slow down as they get older. However, for a few pulsars they suddenly start spinning faster (in a very short space of time) and then slowly return to their original spin rate; that is they glitch. The Crab pulsar which is in the Crab nebula (shown in a picture above) has been observed to do this many times. The reason for glitching is not very well understood and is actively being investigated. However, current explanations suggest that glitches are probably due to the way the interior superfluid of a neutron star interacts with the crystalline surface.", "Pulsars are neutron stars , compact objects packing more mass than the sun's into a sphere roughly the size of Washington, D.C. Lighthouse-like beams of radiation powered by the pulsar's rapid rotation and strong magnetic field sweep across the sky with every spin, and astronomers can detect these beams if they happen to sweep toward Earth.", "pulsar    The name for a spinning, ultra-dense neutron star. When these stars rotate, they emits short, regular pulses of radio waves or X-rays (and occasionally both at alternate intervals).", ", but a bit exotic in that it can only have stable existence in a neutron star).", "Some of the closest neutron stars are RX J1856.5-3754 about 400 light years away and PSR J0108-1431 at about 424 light years. RX J1856.5-3754 is a member of a close group of neutron stars called The Magnificent Seven. Another nearby neutron star that was detected transiting the backdrop of the constellation Ursa Minor has been nicknamed Calvera by its Canadian and American discoverers, after the villain in the 1960 film The Magnificent Seven. This rapidly moving object was discovered using the ROSAT/Bright Source Catalog.", "*** Binary pulsars: a pulsar with a binary companion, often a white dwarf or neutron star.", "Photo appears to reveal a pinpoint surrounded by a circle disk, with jets emerging from either poles. Isn't this more representative of a black hole than a neutron star?", "Which is a reason that a neutron star may not be observed from Earth as a pulsar", "Chapter 3. The Observed Rotation Period as an Identifier of the Pulsar Time Properties, pp. 61-72" ]

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[ "KLM, legally Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N.V. (Royal Dutch Airlines), is the flag carrier airline of the Netherlands. KLM is headquartered in Amstelveen, with its hub at nearby Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. It is part of the Air France–KLM group, and is a member of the SkyTeam airline alliance. KLM was founded in 1919; it is the oldest airline in the world still operating under its original name and had 32,505 employees . ", "KLM (Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij) is the national air carrier of the Netherlands, its name is literally translated as Royal Aviation Company but more usually as Royal Dutch Airlines. Founded on 7 October 1919, KLM is the oldest airline in the world still operating under its original name.", "KLM Airlines is the national airline of Netherlands, with its main operating hub situated at the Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, Netherlands. This airline is renowned for its network, and operates scheduled flights to more than 133 destinations across 69 countries. Some of the famous destinations that this airline covers are London, Orlando, Washington, Melbourne, Calgary, Vancouver, Beijing, Paris, Frankfurt, Mumbai, Tel Aviv and many more. KLM Airlines is one of the few airlines that rank high on all the fronts: comfort, dining and entertainment.", "Headquartered in Amstelveen, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines is the flag carrier airline of the Netherlands. The airline, part of the Air France KLM group and Skyteam allinace, alone operates 118 aircraft, 3 more aircraft than in 2014. Its fleet consists of 8 different types of aircraft with Boeing, Airbus and McDonnell Douglas. ", "1919: KLM, the national airline of the Netherlands, was established. It is the oldest existing airline.", "KLM Asia () is a wholly KLM-owned subsidiary registered in Taiwan. The airline was established in 1995 to operate flights to Taipei without compromising the traffic rights held by KLM for destinations in the People's Republic of China. ", "The object of acquisition, KLM, is a Dutch airline with its main hub at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport. Its most important business units are passenger and cargo transport within Northern Europe and to the Far East (EC, 2004a). Since 1989 KLM also operates in a joint venture on transatlantic routes with Northwest Airlines, one of the United States’ largest air carriers.", "On 31 December 1953, the founder and president of KLM, Albert Plesman, died at the age of 64. He was succeeded as president by Fons Aler. After Plesman's death, the company and other airlines entered a difficult economic period. The conversion to jet aircraft placed a further financial burden on KLM. The Netherlands government increased its ownership of the company to two-thirds, thus nationalizing it. The board of directors remained under the control of private shareholders.", "The advent of World War II changed the fortunes of the Dutch airline, as it did almost every other major airline in the world. KLM stopped all its European flights in August 1939 except to Scandinavia, Belgium, and London. Despite defiant attempts to continue regularly scheduled service after the war began, KLM had to close all its European operations in May 1940 when the Nazis invaded and occupied the Netherlands. Amazingly, the company continued to provide services in eastern Asia even though it no longer had a �home� country. For a while, KLM operated out of New York. Longtime KLM president Plesman quickly resumed regular operations as the war neared its end. In April 1945, he received a loan of 14 Douglas C-54 four-engine transports (the military version of the DC-4) from the U.S. government. Using these planes, KLM once again began service from Amsterdam to Jakarta, inaugurating a new post-war era for one of the greatest airlines in European aviation history.", "KLM, abbreviation of Koninklijke Luchtvaartmaatschappij NV (Dutch: Royal Air Transportation Company), English: Royal Dutch Airlines, Dutch airline founded on Oct. 7, 1919, and flying its first scheduled service, between Amsterdam and London , on May 17, 1920. Until its merger with Air France in 2004, it was the world’s oldest continuously operating airline. Headquarters are at Amstelveen , Neth.", "Air France was formed on 7 October 1933 from a merger of Air Orient, Air Union, Compagnie Générale Aéropostale, Compagnie Internationale de Navigation Aérienne (CIDNA), and Société Générale de Transport Aérien (SGTA). During the Cold War, from 1950 until 1990, it was one of the three main Allied scheduled airlines operating in Germany at West Berlin's Tempelhof and Tegel airports. In 1990, it acquired the operations of French domestic carrier Air Inter and international rival UTA – Union de Transports Aériens. It served as France's primary national flag carrier for seven decades prior to its 2003 merger with KLM.", "In the 1920s and ’30s KLM’s routes spread throughout the Netherlands and Europe. During World War II , however, KLM lay largely dormant except in the West Indies , where its service, begun in 1941, grew rapidly, expanding to nine Caribbean and Latin American countries by 1945.", "7/10/1919, KLM, the Dutch national airline, the oldest established air carrier, was established.� It began flights on 17/5/1920.", "According to Wikipedia, KLM continued operations in the Netherlands Antilles during the war. Was this a separate brand or subsidiary?", "Tuesday marks the 95th anniversary of Dutch carrier KLM, the airline generally regarded as the world's oldest airline. The company was established on Oct. 7, 1919.", "Tuesday marks the 95th anniversary Dutch carrier KLM, the airline generally regarded as the world's oldest. The company was established on Oct. 7, 1919. The company commemorated the anniversary with a series", "\"Thanks to the efforts, pride, expertise and energy of our 33,000 employees, KLM is now the world's oldest airline still operating under its original name,\" Camiel Eurlings, CEO of KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, says in a statement . \"I feel it is important that we celebrate this milestone. KLM is rooted in Dutch society and we all have KLM-blue blood coursing through our veins. We look to the coming years with confidence.\"", "The Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.", "KLM Royal Dutch Airlines was founded in 1919. In 1920, pilot Jerry Shaw captained the first KLM flight, flying from London to Schiphol in a De Havilland DH-16. The KLM Group, which includes the wholly owned subsidiaries KLM Cityhopper, transavia.com and Martinair, currently employs more than 32.000 people.", "KLM and Surinam Airlines fly from Europe via Amsterdam, there are not direct flights from UK.", "KLM (08705 074074; www.klm.com ) flies to Paramaribo via Amsterdam from Heathrow; a return in September costs from £790.", "At JACDEC Airline Safety Ranking 2015, KLM is ranked fifth place out of 60 major airlines. It is the only European airline in the JACDEC top ten. The most notable accident involving a KLM aircraft was the 1977 Tenerife airport disaster, which led to 583 fatalities. Since the Tenerife disaster, no KLM flight has led to fatalities.", "Like most European airlines, KLM also suffered through hard times in the late 1920s. In fact, the company would have ended up bankrupt had it not been for a government bailout in 1927 that ensured a strong state role in future operations of the airline.", "1919 – KLM, the oldest airline in the world still operating under its original name, was founded.", "Ryanair Ltd. (, , ) is an Irish low-cost airline headquartered in Swords, Dublin, Ireland, with its primary operational bases at Dublin and London Stansted Airports. In 2013, Ryanair was both the largest European airline by scheduled passengers carried, and the busiest international airline by passenger numbers. ", "In 1919, a young aviator lieutenant named Albert Plesman sponsored the ELTA aviation exhibition in Amsterdam. The exhibition was a great success; after it closed several Dutch commercial interests intended to establish a Dutch airline, which Plesman was nominated to head. In September 1919, Queen Wilhelmina awarded the yet-to-be-founded KLM its \"Royal\" (\"Koninklijke\") predicate. On 7 October 1919, eight Dutch businessmen, including Frits Fentener van Vlissingen, founded KLM—the abbreviation of Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij (\"Royal Aviation Society\") as one of the first commercial airline companies. Plesman became its first administrator and director.", "The airline says it will also will add the special anniversary logo to one of each of the widebody aircraft models that make up its intercontinental fleet. KLM's fleet of long-haul aircraft includes Boeing 777, Boeing 747-400, Boeing 747 Combi and Airbus 330 aircraft. The MD-11 will carry the logo through mid-November while those on the other aircraft will last into April, according to KLM .", "Since the 1950s, KLM presents its World Business Class passengers with a Delft blue, miniature, traditional, Dutch house. These miniatures are reproductions of real Dutch houses and are filled with Dutch genever. Initially the houses were filled with Bols liqueur, which in 1986 was changed for Bols young genever. ", ", KLM's corporate leader is its president and chief executive officer (CEO) Pieter Elbers, who replaced Camiel Eurlings suddenly on 15 October 2014. The president and CEO is part of the larger Executive Committee, which manages KLM and consists of the statutory managing directors and executive vice-presidents of KLM's business units that are represented in the Executive Committee. The supervision and management of KLM are structured in accordance with the two-tier model; the Board of Managing Directors is supervised by a separate and independent Supervisory Board. The Supervisory Board also supervises the general performance of KLM. The Board of Managing Directors is formed by the four Managing Directors, including the CEO. Nine Supervisory Directors comprise the Supervisory Board.", ", the KLM fleet (excluding its subsidiaries KLM Cityhopper, Transavia, Martinair) consists of the following aircraft: ", "Long-range, pressurized Lockheed Constellations and Douglas DC-6s joined KLM's fleet in the late 1940s; the Convair 240 short range pressurized twin engined airliner began European flights for the company in late 1948.", "�z���T���L��M����c��2G��G�lUL�!�}m�ĺ��柼{��� `��Zv 5����W�t����b�3T����Dެ�yH5� !=��L ��N�: j���f9K�u�6��@lk��M�Xݵ[�罡�����q0q�[e�6��?�T7�ս�.k��t��mZUYq� k���i��nBWKEZ ��klm: !Sc�˫p1���F�5�s�Y������nm,� Y �p��M�nd2�=�T &Qq��j��.�����V���p�x���9�5ht+;'���s�(]+)Բ t�[�-d ANK�1��3�Xe�ø)�@c�(N{~j3���2jk}�r����[5��j� ��Q�kH�!���p�m�l�ڬ*6mqh�JW����뺰q�w�p��n�z�������fe8���� m|4������m�� ;,ܺ r �KB�y�Td < � �H�0 <[S�D��J��5N�g�7 w��89��R� ��@H��Gls�in���0�w ���9Ii����sG�n�����w%T��T9V0�~�t��� ��M/ԏn���Ը�#C�5cg=�\\H:���\\�� ���d�!�� Ouv}!�U��0ս����m�kD��b��i� �q��$�(��Fd�\" |�[P�,�\\y�IK��Js�I��ҙ1`��-�\"!��w�N�rm�&Z��k�/ ����*�H�mQ�_�.:�$ ��f\"�j�}��.�������)�Ǖo?�?�ۚ�� _DݮrN��Gs|�R[�mT��,��G�F�FW`T���O�=��3�k;L���~Un��~*] �ѕ}?B� �������j�[2E��]@Y>����N�_Qd4�MD���}����\\ͧ�5��{���xp��3��� �5y{�eouNac�K\\�hA@�y]��ޑ]� ��\"Ɛ܆� >�o��3N �Q���J��Z��[&5�iٟS)!�Oc����'=�;(<9�;D��� ���$j{��ӱ�q l�w���OJǿ���ܖ� HN������Ѻ�i3�}3�G)�4d�:������s��>M-{a�� Ge.�nEM�o�G����`��d��`g�4��� ��N��� ݡ�q*��K@e��8�跺�A�hkXX� �~s=���ʘ�-�K$\"7��ew.�����>�D�%M@88�)�u�[6�X���S���-V7ptB���%�0����j`�C�%Q~]��ay)QZ%����t��V9��ib ��G���6�J�`�Q��'�\\�VI��xn-~40v\\�C,��<�x�DKG���$�O].Mcv�����+�d�� �. \"P��L��� �P4t\\�-��m{t�G {Z|U{�Wp��{^� �nuL����Ys���˪�1��,0�+\\ �G�q� A��ֹ��* �h$hQ���ִi�DB�B�z< �Y`o態��W�w���Q��Ve� ����utD�p)Q�f�A�a���E�9^ L8AP�{V �B��|i���N��C��ң�>i��� t�4�Gy���oͩ�45�\"t?E?R�Y�����X��csw\"e��@ *� C��� h�Q!��;2CDB�0x��~21�OQ;C�*/�`JO~�ʃ�$� f M� :��� �D ���ϲ���b8 ��oޟ*���L�we��ëv̶vT���h���d�U����7����ݤ�G���1:-@�~D����7��/4{Av�+�s��]+��q+c���o�t�zw���\\Bl ve,�T���L2ݝ_ڞ���Ip ��G�5��e��v������� �Y�� {\\�WcC�|�k����,�·hǰa3�F��i?����� ٩��K��O���N��8���u9�X��ik�a�v� �(��tƁz'U���ԋl�k�n�ؓcr���g�U�Ϫ0�ŗ��s��� ����FEj�v8[=/ 7�Vk�hht}1 �w���7��%!쨲�������nc�N�¯���E �]��o����=�ki�����gۑ�f%~��gl��e���wT1r��GM���m�jp��ʁ�֩���,�]�0;6}�՛���I�u>ր��c�T�!��ʔu� ,�sX}�N��� >j��}�!Õ�x���� '��ۡ�4��aq �(x�|:\"8 �R��1 $�d�W��Oe:1m��Ѣ}�c� 4�����Ъ9����G��Ԇ�[3$��ܣ�Pk�4>g�[j���AYO�Dh}���! ������ m�E]��INג�ڨ!ԙ����k.o��5AT�D+$.(� +J��� �\"T��g���l/��\\|�sd�j��8������X�M��6���H@cL�!BZ�b ��T\\�uOl�9�p*\\cO6 ����v��L(��<\"�ڗ ||�n'�*Ѐ�OV�b+�0 ��S� C�8�E�����������#�im����W������}Lm����w ��7����G���p�?��C�;?�.����;���ן�����/�G1�tv���Ӣth�u,c��v?j�@?��U��T\\$�Ty�4�d�Mp���Od Hr�K F�o���r�q�i��iJ ����5=�����\\yZ1��T����{�D5��(\\H�S��DJ3MZr�+��$4Q65`�$��������z��sEԓ�y�����k\\ �L�N��~S ^��Cl�����\"갂k������R���ы���@$������!2�cP+n����V��{t$�� x��<�pon�XD{�d�H�#���q��Wn-��i/5��q�߾��^���̇V��Z���Ҳss}q�;��-��+x_V�M����hv���5 ]�@�ϳ�uTX2-/ Ý+���<�7)�a�N�����n5��I��?�ֽ8t2�Y[H���x�Ů������uv7�E���@OG폱ۜ6XӶ� Z��ٵ�2� 9(yV �>ڜ��)��7�e���QG�/��Y��e��Áh�3]�}/b�㣦�+�C���~�����m�G��U��� ��l�8� ke�xu?��� (�.6�� 4�H���� �p����� �6� -��U��Г��{� i 4�Ů� �F�r��sݪ=,i��}��9�7��4��vh��n����] M��f�;��N�X�X�� ;2΄@�SͰ V�.�3� *x�&�{Z�;���C\" r��4��U�\\;�ڶ� ���Ov1��XV=��4�{3�@�R(�\\;MeY� ۃ��]�$J�NGdCѺ����XI$^� �:�zU�U��2l2] %[Fd ���Jej���]q����k� �BL� k �$�� ^�gE- S�J*Ü�h��ɕX�D��=�pP1'cL��� I��e�Ύ�mn���O� wD�C�_%�@�N�Zi �g:����u��tkJ��a����;�6l+=�X����Ol 정%-Q k���nUX�Y�Uo��'��7�X���5]DywL͠;N̪��Q�*� �u�1�_���F���s�g��bʭ��uob�>���VS��m}y,�e3���+0I`�t�L���G�Y1ˇ$e�fÞ�����ے�EC��C��:�N�ZJ�nE�@0�]��@ 9�H�c�K)� �t��'�Ď���B=V �`��Z�6�.uۡ��>.r�:p�,:EX �����=����Q�5 =\\�><��_� ���rq�=� �>��ɬ��$�4UK�q�'�r���`�(dg�; ���� ���iسT@+y�L{��HR�A���8�I3�*��l*���.�h$�u�y��t�Ȁ�X�e��1��P���2~�E�da6p�`�Q�r���Y��o�_�4�[cؘ�s�ps2w.�9x@�?� pp-{Ik��p0୳'�s]�\\��G&�m�����[�v��w;�c��o�Jܜ�2�?߇�鷥����>��8j�ҿ�����\\�� b���������HXֵ�������ݿ����[�f;Iƴ<�w�=J&&�2�K��,T��O�9��8���:c�t�}V���]Q4X�#�#�ڹ7Ֆ�+%��J��5�R��XtA�Z�z��?U3���E���>�Ū�M�/p9^�b5��3:~l�+��kem)��ꅗ8�C'�W�i�pnWXaik��2ϩ�Ӫ]/W���ay.�� �ar�g08��꾣_�O� 5�2\"�-ܐ۩s]ผֶ�K�-���6�V�����2m6Z\\�JDj�:wf��{[*�p��\" J�0����qeH0��k !s>��nԥ�q�Ȉ�+���f�m�۽��Ⱥ������\\�}�-�`v��R1=���Դ���>+W��#P%I�c4�B\\%\\q��v��9R��h�U��am���W��^ftL�eْ9 �p� �_��w!k�1@�A����R�ҕ���r�k��N�l�� g��� W[�Hv�.��V<���|�mV1c;� �,���,.h�L՝��D3a4�����,`$m���A�r *�)�C���&�%� ��yr���d���G���� ������e� ���:� VP³!��]sv�'���ܑ$�� �^�{�p�tW�Zq]S�@5ߠs���ȁS�����+�����;����� n��I�tT�ؙ ]��F�Cj ӕWp�V��c��Qv � Ua��Ig�7�Sq *����}��o �i9D�]�8���U:��^��\\�4 L�{�n�� ����C�D�K�����bt� Z�Z#��{�<�h���G:��<� � ݩU� U~��c��~�_� +uq(l����̡O�H�G�VAf�~L,��Sh [�V�uo`�ò �����;���$��� HD{@Z-�ŏ��!ԑ��*) ��q�7F%kH�8�ۡ�i����t� 6���Y�m?�w�-���,�7��u�� �,|�����)y�Ɠ��,����" ]

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[ "S is the most valuable letter in English-language Scrabble because it easily goes on the ends of words; Alfred Butts included only four instances to avoid a game that was \"too easy\". Q is considered the most problematic letter, as most words with it also contain U; a similar problem occurs in other languages like French, Dutch, Italian and German. J is also difficult to play due to its low frequency and a scarcity of words having it at the end. C and V may be troublesome in the endgame, since no two-letter words with them exist, save for CH in SOWPODS.", "  While Scrabble and Lexulous have the same board colors (though the layout is different), there are several key differences between the two games to make the scoring a very different animal. First off, several of the letters have had their values changed. The letter T is worth two points instead of one. B, C, M, and P are worth four points instead of three. F, H, V, W, and Y are each worth five points instead of four. K is worth six instead of five. Finally, Q and Z are worth twelve points instead of ten. With each of these point value increases comes a higher scoring game overall.", "It’s a fair observation. Since Scrabble was adopted in chess parlors in New York in the 1950s, competitive players have dissected its strategic quirks. One early realization was that short words have outsized value, so players scoured the preferred source (the now-defunct Funk & Wagnalls Standard College Dictionary) and compiled lists of two- and three-letter words. They also recognized that the most common letters showed up in a lot of words, so they recorded and memorized seven- and eight-letter words—ones that would earn the 50-point bonus for using all seven tiles at once—that contained A, E, I, N, R, S, and T, among other single-point letters. You didn’t need a computer to see that the Q, though worth the most points, was a pain in the rack but the Z not so much.", "66 in Scrabble, 2 letters have a value of ten. Z is one, which is the other?", "Rack management is the strategic element most overlooked by beginners. It is disadvantageous to keep duplicates of most letters or to have a large imbalance between vowels and consonants. For example, the highest-scoring whole word that can be formed with the letters AADIIKR is DARK. However, this leaves the player with no consonants and a double I. Because vowels are more commonly represented in Scrabble, it is entirely possible that the player will enter the following turn holding the unpromising letters AIIEUAO, for example. If the player had instead played RADII – which scores fewer points than DARK – he or she would have been left with an A and K, a combination which is common. Experts who know all the four-letter words might also have played KADI or RAKI to good effect, leaving an R or a D.", "The key in Scrabble is to build a letter with a high point value. A Scrabble game includes 100 tiles, but only 98 contain letters. The remaining two are blank tiles, which are wild. Wild means the tile can be used as any letter in the alphabet when trying to form a word.", "Learn which letters are more likely to appear in bonus words. The distribution and point value of Scrabble tiles are based on the relative frequency of each letter's appearance in English language words. Thus, the more common the letter, the more likely it will appear in a 7-letter word or can be played in a word that will earn double or triple word score value. [3]", "There are two blank tiles in a game of scrabble but they are not worth any points at all. This is because these tiles can be used for any letter at all, whether you want to play a consonant or a vowel. The blank tile is a great option if you can use a high pointed piece on a bonus tile and need the extra letter that you do not have.", "Scrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by forming words from individual lettered tiles on a gameboard marked with a 15x15 grid. The words are formed across and down in crossword fashion and must appear in a standard dictionary. The board is marked with premium squares, which multiply the number of points awarded: eight dark red triple-word squares, 17 pink double-word squares, of which one, the center square (H8), is marked with a star or other symbol; 12 dark blue triple-letter squares, and 24 light blue double-letter squares.", "There are numerous variations of the game. While these games are similar to the original Scrabble game, they include minor variations. For example, Literati draws random tiles instead of providing a finite number of tiles for the game, assigns different point levels to each letter and has a slightly different board layout whereas Lexulous assigns eight letters to each player instead of the customary seven. Words with Friends uses a different board layout and different letter values and so do Words of Gold.", "Learn the most common 7-letter words in Scrabble. It is possible, though rare, to draw seven tiles at once that form a word. The most likely such word, based on the frequency of its letters in Scrabble, is ANEROID, meaning \"without liquid,\" as in an aneroid barometer. Some other words that you can form by playing seven tiles at once include ETESIAN, ISATINE, INOSITE, ATONIES, and ERASION.", "Scrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by forming words from individual lettered tiles on a gameboard marked with a 15-by-15 grid.", "The value of this 8-letter word is 13 points. It is included in the first and second editions of the Official Scrabble Players Dictionary.", "Scrabble is one of the best, most challenging games invented. Up to four players choose seven letter tiles each, and they must use them to produce words that connect with other tiles already on the board to form horizontal and vertically arranged words — like a crossword puzzle. Sound easy to play? It is. But it’s not easy to master.", "In scrabble, each letter have different value depends on the frequency of its usage. Blank tiles can be a substitute for any letter.", "    Scrabble is played with exactly 100 tiles. 98 of these tiles contain letters on them, while there are 2 blank tiles. These blank tiles add a wild card aspect to Scrabble. The blanks substitute for any letter in the alphabet. Once played, a blank tile remains for the remainder of the game the letter for which it was substituted when first played.", "In all other countries, the competition word list is Collins Scrabble Words 2012 edition. It was published in 2011 and uses the SOWPODS word list, including all words of length 2 to 15 letters, and is a complete reference. This list contains all OWL2 words plus words sourced from Chambers and Collins English dictionaries. This book is used to adjudicate at the World Scrabble Championship and all other major international competitions outside of North America.", "Three vowels and seven consonants were chosen randomly from a set of five alphabets. Create exactly two words with the ten letters. Scrabble rules apply to word choice.", "This section offers a discussion of various two and three letter Scrabble words and includes a full list of these words and their plural forms.", "Scrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by forming words from individual lettered tiles on a game board marked with a 15-by-15 grid. The words are formed across and down in crossword fashion and must appear in a standard dictionary. Official reference works (e.g. The Official Scrabble Players Dictionary) provide a list of permissible words.", "Scrabble is a word game in which two to four players score points by forming words from individual lettered tiles on a game board marked with a 15-by-15 grid. The words are formed across and down in crossword fashion and must appear in a standard dictionary . Official reference works (e.g. The Official Scrabble Players Dictionary, now in its 4th edition) provide a list of permissible words, many of which are rarely found in standard English writing.", "Scrabble aficionados, like the ones mentioned above, may memorize long lists of unusual words to win their bragging rights. But casual players can improve their games by learning just a handful of useful entries. You can impress -- and even beat -- your friends by blitzing them with high-scoring words, or by sneaking in common but strategic words that get rid of unwanted letters. Remember to make use of the double and triple squares to leverage your score on almost any word. And always look for what players call a \"bingo,\" the 50 extra points you get for using all your tiles on one play.", "    Here is a favorite that has been around for many years.  Foreign language editions are available for purchase from a number of  companies.  Two to four players play in any game of Scrabble. If enough game boards are not available, teams of two can be formed.  The object of Scrabble is to score more points than one's opponent. A player collects points by placing words on the game board. Each letter has a different point value, so the strategy becomes to play words with high scoring letter combinations.", "The game is based on Scrabble, except that letters can be stacked on top of other words to create new words. The higher the stack of letters, the more points are scored. This often makes words built in later turns of the game more valuable than earlier words, increasing play intensity. For 2-4 players, ages 10+", "During their turn, a player can either place a word on the scrabble board, exchange tiles, or pass on their turn. If a player passes two consecutive times then the game ends. If a player decides to exchange their letters, they cannot place a word on the board until their next turn. Word scores are calculated by adding up the numbers on each of the tiles. Extra points can be earned by arranging a word over premium squares. These squares are multipliers, they either multiply an individual letter or the entire word by the value listed on the square. The specific values are printed on the board. If a player puts a word on the board and one of the tiles touches a tile in an adjacent row, it must also form a word. A players receives points for any of the words they play or modify during their play.", "Alfred Mosher Butts, an unemployed architect from Poughkeepsie, N.Y., invented the word game during the Great Depression when he combined the element of chance with the vocabulary skills required for crossword puzzles. During the game, each player draws seven lettered tiles from a pool of 100 and scores points by forming words on a puzzle grid. More than 100 million sets have been sold since Scrabble was introduced in 1949, and more than 200 tournaments are sanctioned each year by the North American Scrabble Players Association.", "What a great way for kids to play America’s favorite word game! Kid-sized words and colorful pictures make it fun to match letter tiles to words on the grid. Players collect scoring chips for completing words. When all of the tiles are played, the one with the most chips wins! The advanced side of the game board features an open grid where kids can create their own words, Scrabble-style! For 2 to 4 players. Game includes: 2-sided game board, 101 letter tiles, 44 scoring chips and rules.", "In the scrabble board we have some squares represent multipliers. If a tile is placed on those squares the tile value is doubled or tripled based on the type of square.", "Still, there are crazy variations that people play, including one called Clabbers. “That’s the anagram of Scrabble,” Cree says. “You can play words in any order you want to and play the letters in any order you want to as long as the letters can make an anagram of a word.”", "What is the Scrabble point value of the word jar on a double word score without blanks*twenty", "The World Scrabble Championship is the most prestigious title in competitive English-language Scrabble. It has been held every second year since 1991, and annually since 2013. The reigning World Scrabble Champion is Wellington Jighere, who won the title at Perth, Australia in 2015.", "39. Scrabble Games. Two games of Scrabble, to be played by tournament rules. Donated by Bob Ellickson." ]

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[ "Wow - Together for 40 years!  You have defied the odds and you deserve to celebrate your Ruby Anniversary.  Whether you are the lucky couple celebrating your 40th  or you have been invited to a 40th wedding anniversary party, we would like to give you some information unique to the 40th  wedding anniversary.", "Rubies are believed to bring friendship and love when given as a gift, so that makes them a pretty good present for a couple that are celebrating 40 years of marriage.", "The 40th anniversary is called the ruby anniversary, and many of the gifts given to celebrate it, both traditional and contemporary, as well as its symbols employ the ruby in some way. The symbolism behind the ruby itself rests in its inner flame that represents a living and vibrant love.", "The gemstone representing the 40th anniversary is, of course, the ruby, the color is red, and the flower is the nasturtium. Parties for this particular anniversary frequently carry out a red theme with tablecloths and table accessories, balloons and candles in ruby red. Other anniversaries with well-known names are the silver anniversary for 25 years, the golden anniversary for 50 years, and the diamond anniversary of 75 years.", "Wedding, Engagement, Golden Wedding Anniversary, Ruby Wedding Anniversary, Silver Wedding Anniversary, 70th Birthday, 60th Birthday, 50th Birthday, 40th Birthday, 30th Birthday, 21st Birthday, 18th Birthday, Sweet 16, Christmas Party, New Year's Eve Party, Corporate Event, Club Event, Themed Night, Fancy Dress Party, Kids Party, School Disco, School Prom, College Prom, University Prom and anything else you can think of!", "There are three gemstones that are often connected with the 15th wedding anniversary: ruby, garnet, and alexandrite.", "However, wedding anniversaries are celebrated with traditional gemstones as gifts. The traditional gemstone associated with the 60th wedding anniversary is the diamond. The birthstone for January is garnet, for February is amethyst and for March is aquamarine; April is celebrated with the diamond, May with the green emerald and June with the pearl; the ruby is the gemstone for July birthdays, peridot for August birthdays and sapphire for September. Finally, October birthdays are marked with the opal, November with yellow topaz and December with blue topaz.", "Ten years of marriage qualifies as a milestone, so diamond jewelry is a great idea! For her, this is a perfect opportunity to add a diamond anniversary band to her engagement ring and wedding ring. For him, consider a diamond ring or, if he wears an earring, a beautiful diamond stud.", "The twentieth year of marriage is one of the big milestone anniversaries. As you celebrate this special 20th wedding anniversary, reflect on the commitment to a lifetime marriage the two of you have made.", "The celebration of wedding anniversaries goes back to ancient Roman times, when couples used to celebrate their 25th and 50th marriage anniversaries. Husbands used to offer their wives a silver wreath for the 25th anniversary and a golden wreath for the 50th anniversary. The tradition of having a name for each year of marriage dates from the beginning of the 20th century. This is when various gemstone became associated with wedding anniversaries. The gemstones for the 13th wedding anniversary are malachite, citrine and moonstone.", "Although, generally speaking, it's five- and ten-year anniversaries that are the most widely celebrated, there's no reason not to mark the date of your wedding every year. So if you want to have a big bash on your 37th or 38th - go ahead! Try an alabaster carving or sculpture, as a gift.", "Jewellery is the natural choice for this anniversary gift, as coral goes so well with jade, the gemstone associated with 25 years of marriage.", "The 80th anniversary is the ruby jubilee.  If she doesn’t have a ruby ring or pin by now, this is the perfect time to give her one!", "Sharing the joy and memories of a marriage that grew in love and respect for 25 years is a special occasion indeed. Whether the couple chooses to fly to Mars with an out-of-this-world theme or the children of the couple plan an intimate dinner at a favorite restaurant, the day should not go without notice.", "I like to think that I'm very considerate of other people's feelings, and I was trained as a small child to always try my best at everything. I think I'm a mixture of romantic and realist. I'm a realist about some stuff, but I also wholeheartedly believe that in a society where people get divorced every five minutes you can still stay married for 50 or 75 years. It's been done and it's beautiful. When I see a couple celebrating their 75th wedding anniversary, I just think that it's totally incredible.", "Sapphire is the September birthstone as well as the accepted anniversary gem for the 5th and 45th years of marriage.", "Emerald is the birthstone for the month of May. It is also the anniversary gemstone for the 20th and 35th years of marriage.", "Just as a gemstone is believed to represent every month that a person was born in, there is a gemstone for every year of married life too. This is referred to as an anniversary gem stone. Certain anniveraries like the 10th, 25th and 50th are considered to be significant milestones and are celebrated worldwide. Anniversary gemstone jewelry is generally made with a main center gemstone and surrounded by small diamonds. It is also a tradition in certain countries to wear anniversary gemstone rings with the same 'theme' as the wedding or engagement ring.", "Decade: The couple will celebrate their 10th wedding anniversary in October - they got together in 1999 after dancing at a winner's ball and married two years later", "Congratulations - you've made it together through two whole decades! Invite friends and family together to help you celebrate. To mark your 20th anniversary, throw a roaring twenties fancy dress party ", "Amid all the travels, Elizabeth celebrated many joyous personal events. On November 20, 1972, the queen and Prince Philip celebrated their twenty-fifth wedding anniversary. One hundred couples from all over Britain who had the same anniversary date were invited to share in the occasion. On November 14, 1973, Princess Anne married Mark Philips and later had two children: Peter and Zara. Prince Charles married Lady Diana Spencer on July 29, 1981, and had two sons, Prince William and Prince Henry. Prince Andrew (made Duke of York) married Sarah Ferguson on July 23, 1986, and they had two daughters, Princess Beatrice and Princess Eugenie.", "Looking at the gemstone list and Emeralds are your anniversary stone for 20 years. It is believed to preserve love!", "We also have plenty of other ways to add the brilliance of diamonds to your 30th anniversary celebration. Mark your thirtieth anniversary with a cake and surprise your spouse with an elegant serving set, accented with shimmering crystals. Toast the years with 30th anniversary gift ideas like signature Champagne flutes . These beautiful champagne flutes are accented with large sparkling crystals. We personalize the flutes with single initials – the perfect his and hers thirtieth anniversary gift.", "Interestingly, ruby is the traditional and modern official gift for this anniversary. The reason why we find this interesting is because other anniversaries have different official gifts for the traditional and modern theme. This, therefore, makes your work a lot easier.", "To commemorate this special occasion, why not choose the Personalised Pearl Anniversary Book. Simply provide the year they were married in and a fantastic book will be created made up of all the major news stories and events from that particular year. Equally an original newspaper from the exact date of their marriage also makes great pearl anniversary gifts.", "The most important thing, of course, is that you not forget your wedding anniversary. It matters so much to mark each milestone in your relationship: it strengthens bonds and creates trust, and moreover, it’s fun. At Jewels For Me, we try to make the experience of gift giving as personalized and special as possible. Happy Anniversary.", "Mabel & Richard Gibbons, On Your Diamond Wedding Anniversary 20th November 2004. Love, Michael, Margaret, Michelle, Paul, Micael, David & Marc.", "The wedding anniversary is a good moment for the couple to remember the love they have for one another. This is also nice time to show the love and blessing of couples' children, friends or relatives for couples.", "Historically, celebrations have been linked to life cycles: harvest-time, the turning of seasons, and life events, such as the birth of a child or a wedding. The anniversary of such events has always been a legitimate reason to celebrate: we remember the special day and we honor the time that has past since the event took place. With wedding anniversaries, there is so much to celebrate, and jewelry has come to represent some of our feelings for the occasion. Over time, each wedding anniversary has become linked to particular flowers and types of gifts, including particular gemstones. Here's a list of all of the gemstones that have become associated with anniversaries, plus a little history and advice to get you going.", "With each of these anniversaries there are wedding anniversary favors that will be appropriate. Flowers, crystal, jewels and precious metals are all nice to use as themes in celebrating the appropriate wedding anniversaries.", "*Wedding anniversaries are also often celebrated on the same day of the year as the wedding occurred.", "Diamond anniversary parties will probably include generations of family and friends and should be an event to remember. Make sure someone is on hand with the video camera to get it all on tape." ]

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[ "Troglobites are such specialized animals that they must live in the cave to survive. However, there are two other categories of animals that spend time in the cave environment.", "The term troglodyte doesn't necessarily apply just to prehistoric cave dwellers. It also describes someone who lives in a dingy domicile or people who are so socially inept or culturally deprived that they seem to have just emerged from a subterranean cavity into the \"blinding light of civilization\" or those whose thinking or behavior is considered to be uncivilized and backward.", "Troglodites, or cave-dwellers, often featured in medieval illustrations. On the map, four Troglodites are drawn in Africa. Three of them are illustrated inside caves (one is eating a snake), while the fourth, a bearded man, appears to be wearing only a helmet. He rides a goat-like beast. The text on the map says that Troglodites are ‘very swift; they live in caves, eat snakes and catch wild animals by jumping on them.’", "1. A prehistoric cave dweller or a primitive race of people who lived in caves, dens, or holes: Figuratively, a troglodyte is someone who lives in degradation or has a brutal and uncivilized nature.", "A creature which lives entirely in the dark parts of underground enclosuress: Troglobites are cave-dwelling creatures that navigate without eyes, go for weeks or months without food, and are believed to be able to exist for more than a hundred years.", "3. Creatures that live underground: Moles, worms, ants, etc. are considered to be troglodytes because they exist in the ground.", "Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species often show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphic, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, and cave salamanders such as the olm and the Texas blind salamander.", "Cave-inhabiting animals are often categorized as troglobites (cave-limited species), troglophiles (species that can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), trogloxenes (species that use caves, but cannot complete their life cycle fully in caves) and accidentals (animals not in one of the previous categories). Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (for example, stygobites, stygophiles, and stygoxenes).", "• They generally live in burrowed holes, under rocks or tree roots, and even in homes where beaver or muskrats once lived but deserted. [4]", "The scientific name is taken from the Greek word \"troglodytes\" (from \"trogle\" a hole, and \"dyein\" to creep), meaning \"cave-dweller\", and refers to its habit of disappearing into cavities or crevices whilst hunting arthropods or to roost. The taxonomy of the genus Troglodytes is currently unresolved, as recent molecular studies have suggested that Cistothorus spp. and Thryorchilus spp. are within the clade currently defined by Troglodytes.Rice, Nathan H; Peterson, A. Townsend; Escalona-Segura, Griselda (1999) \"Phylogenetic Patterns in Montane Troglodytes Wrens\" The Condor, Vol. 101, No. 2 (May, 1999), pp. 446-451 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici", "A tendency of organisms to live in subterranean coves or tunnels even on a temporary basis: Large brown bears have some troglocolid characteristics in that they hibernate in caves during the winter.", "2. An animal living entirely in the dark parts of caves: Many troglobionts have adapted to life in caverns and no longer have functional eyes; in other words, they are blind.", "“Latin troglodytae, plural, from Greek trōglodytai, from trōglē hole, cave (akin to Greek trōgein to gnaw, Armenian aracem I lead to pasture, graze) + dyein to enter”", "1. An organism found only in caves or subterranean passages: Jack, the scientific spelunker (cave explorer), was studying the plant troglobiont which was found in the deep recesses of the cave.", "Bats, such as the gray bat and Mexican free-tailed bat, are trogloxenes and are often found in caves; they forage outside of the caves. Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes, because they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.", "live in freshwater environments that are subject to seasonal drying. They live underground until next rainy season. Seal themselves in mercury cocoon, leaves them prone to fossilization.", "1. A reference to any creature having a cave-dwelling mode of life: Some species of bats are more troglobitic than others in terms of establishing a life cycle in caverns.", "2. Descriptive of an animal living entirely in the dark parts of underground dwellings: Most troglobitic creatures have become specifically adapted for life in total darkness and over time they have evolved to develop improved senses of smell, taste, and vibration detection, while losing anatomical features that are unnecessary without light; such as, eyes and pigmentation.", "They live in dens, spaces under rocks, crevices on the sea floor, or holes they dig under large rocks.", "Arboreal pangolins live in hollow trees, whereas the ground dwelling species dig tunnels underground, up to a depth of 3.5 m (11 feet). [3] Pangolins are also good swimmers. [3]", "It is thought the spider has evolved separately inside the caves and so has been given its own family within the Arachnid class of animals – naming it Trogloraptor due to its large claws.", "Little is known about the biology of the family; adults are seldom collected. The larvae live head-down in cavities that they excavate in waterlogged, bark-free logs that are continuously in contact with water or wet mud, apparently feeding on micro-organisms living within the cavity.", "Because they are so thoroughly adapted to an aquatic lifestyle, they do not have the ability to climb trees.  In order to get the food that is out of their reach, they chew around the base of the tree until it falls.  They do not know which way the tree will drop and are sometimes injured or killed by larger trees.", "Arboreal animals are animals that live in trees, and they include monkeys, sloths and tree snakes. These animals usually adapt to living in treetops by forming specialized limbs, such as tails for balancing or grasping.", "Goliath frogs live in small ranges in the rain forests at the equator of western Africa, near swift-moving rivers and waterfalls. These giant amphibians need to be near water much like the average frog.", "Large concentrations of gastropods and bivalves are found at hydrothermal vents in the deep sea. Living in these or other dysoxic habitats appears to be a plesiomorphic condition for the Mollusca and several outgroups . For example, the fauna of Palaeozoic hydrothermal vent communities includes the molluscan groups Bivalvia , Monoplacophora and Gastropoda as well as the outgroups Brachiopoda and Annelida.", "It is a karst cave, as are Cheve and Huatla in Mexico. Your really deep caves are all karstic, which makes sense if you think about it, cave-forming magma being largely a surface phenomenon.", "The underground world of the Coway can be reached through deep shafts known as Thrella Shafts (named after the Thrella, an extinct species known for their numerous underground tunnels and wells). Often these have side-tunnels that lead to Coway dwellings. The tribal government of the Coway consists of a triumvirate who make the major decisions for the tribe.", "Speoleologist - is a person who studies the geology, formations and environments of caves and cave systems.", "The Aye-aye is a mammal that lives in rain forests of Madagascar, a large island off the southeast coast of Africa. This solitary animal is nocturnal (most active at night). The Aye-aye spends most of its time in trees. During the day, the Aye-aye sleeps in a nest which is located in the fork of a tree. It builds the nest out of leaves and twigs. The Aye-aye is an endangered species.", "The octopuses of the genus Grimpoteuthis are also known as \"Dumbo octopuses\" from the ear-like fins protruding from the top of their head-like bodies, resembling the ears of Walt Disney's flying elephant. They are bathyal creatures, living at extreme depths: 3000-4000 meters, and are some of the rarest of the Octopoda species. They can flush the transparent layer of their skin at will, and are pelagic animals, as with all other cirrate octopuses.", "And while we’re underwater, what do we think of the plausibility of a gigantic underground submarine base in China?" ]

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[ "Each Player as 15 counters in a Backgammon. The counters are also known as checkers, draughts, stones, men or chips. Backgammon is one of the oldest board games, with archaeological evidence up to ... Read More »", "Backgammon has thirty pieces, or fifteen for each of the two players. The pieces in Backgammon are also known as checkers, draughts, pieces, men, stones or counters.", "Backgammon is a game played by two players, each with fifteen checkers , on a board consisting of 24 narrow triangles called point . The players move their checkers around the board according to rolls of the dice and the first player to get all their checkers off is the winner. The fun comes from hitting and blocking your opponent's checkers to impede their progress.", "Simply put, each player has 15 pieces or checkers as they are referred to and get all of them home before the other person. You can only start bearing off if all of your pieces are first in your home board. This is the same in online backgammon. Infact most of the backgammon rules are the same for online backgammon.", "The backgammon rules are pretty straight forward. Each player begins with their 15 pieces set up exactly the way as their opponent. In online backgammon you don’t have to worry about setting up the board as it is done for you.", "The way the checkers are initially set up for play is known as the starting position. Two checkers are on each players 24pt. , five on each players 13pt. , three on each 8pt. , and five on each players 6pt. . The direction of a backgammon play is from your opponents home board to their outer board, to your outer board to your home board.", "As in Backgammon, both players have fifteen pieces; however, all of them start off the board.", "Hypergammon is a variant of backgammon in which players have only three checkers on the board, starting with one each on the 24-, 23- and 22-points. The game has been strongly solved, meaning that exact equities are available for all 32 million possible positions.", "How Many Counters Does Each Player Have at the Start of a Game of Backgammon | uk.QACollections.com", "A backgammon board has 24 triangles in alternating colors called points. The board is divided into 4 quadrants and each quadrant has 6 points. Each backgammon player has a 'home' (inner) board and an outer board , which are separated by a raised section called the bar. The bar is where checkers are placed after they are hit. After a checker is been hit , it been placed on the bar and can only re-enter in the opponents inner board on a subsequent roll.", "Backgammon is an obstacle race between two armies of 15 men each, moving around a track divided into 24 dagger-like divisions known as ``points''.", "First things first. Backgammon is basically a game for two players and it's not practical to play less or more than 2 backgammon players. the players should bring with them basic equipment of backgammon game.", "Backgammon is one of the oldest board games known. It is a two player game where playing pieces are moved according to the roll of dice, and a player wins by removing all of his pieces from the board before their opponent. Backgammon is a member of the tables family, one of the oldest classes of board games in the world.", "If you bear off all 15 of your men before your opponent has borne off a single man, and he still has one or more men in your home board or on the bar, you win a backgammon, or a triple game.", "In older game books, instead, backgammon is scored against a player when, in addition to not having borne off any of his own men, all fifteen of his men are on the opponent's half of the board (note that this requires, at the least, that the eight men whose starting positions were on his own side of the board all have been sent back to the bar).", "backgammon game played by moving counters on a board or table, the object of the game being a race to a goal, with the movement of the counters being controlled by the throw of two dice. Elements of chance and skill are nicely balanced in backgammon so that each...", "If the loser has all of his checkers on the Backgammon board and at least one in the outer board, the winner will receive three points (Backgammon).", "Backgammon is one of the oldest board games for two players. The playing pieces are moved according to the roll of dice, and players win by removing all of their pieces from the board. There are many variants of backgammon, most of which share common traits. Backgammon is a member of the tables family, one of the oldest classes of board games in the world.", "in which the losing player has not borne off any checkers and still has one or more checkers on the bar or in the winner's home board . A backgammon is also called a triple game because the winner receives three times the value of the doubling cube .  Compare:  Single Game and Gammon .", "Players setup the board, and then they must decide who goes first by rolling the dice. The player with the higher number goes first and they play the dice that they already rolled. In Backgammon, each die must be played separately whenever possible. As they move around the board, players cannot move to any point that already has two of their opponent’s checkers on it, which is how strategy comes into play while one player tries to block the other from succeeding. The ultimate objective is not get all checkers to the home board and then remove the checkers from the board entirely by bearing off, which involves rolling the dice and getting the number that corresponds to each point that a checker is sitting on. There’s little strategy once players get to the point of bearing off.", "2) A completed game of backgammon in which the losing player has not \"borne off\" any \"checkers\" and still has one or more checkers on the \"bar\" or in the winner's \"home board\". A backgammon is also called a \"triple game\" because the winner receives three times the value of the \"doubling cube\".", "“Remove the cup from the box and place it on a table covered with a thick cloth. Each player takes one of the large counters and all the small ones of the same colour. The latter are placed in a row at an agreed distance from the cup and players take it in turn to flip them into the cup with the large counter. If a counter is covered by one of an opponent’s, it remains out of play until the opponent plays the covering counter and the player loses his turn if there is not another counter he can play. The player who first gets all his counters into the cup is the winner.”", "Also in the picture you may notice that the backgammon board is further subdivided in 2x2 areas, a home and an outer board for each player. Also the mid section of the board is called the bar. This is where the checkers taken out by you or by opponent are to be put.", "The Jacoby Rule. Gammons and backgammons count only as a single game if neither player has offered a double during the course of the game. This rule speeds up play by eliminating situations where a player avoids doubling so he can play on for a gammon.", "The roll of the dice indicates how many points, or pips (the unit of distance on a backgammon board ) the player is to move his checkers. Backgammon checkers can by no means move backwards, they only move forward towards their own home boards, meaning the white and black pieces are always moving in opposite directions around the backgammon board, one player moving his checkers clockwise while the other counter-clockwise.", "Note: in online Backgammon, many of the above advanced rules are applied to single games and match games. In single games, players have the option to resume another game with the same rules and stakes applied, or start fresh. In match play, the rules apply until the conclusion, the same as with tournaments", "There are many variants of standard backgammon rules. Some are played primarily throughout one geographic region, and others add new tactical elements to the game. Variants commonly alter the starting position, restrict certain moves, or assign special value to certain dice rolls, but in some geographic regions even the rules and directions of the checkers movement change, rendering the game fundamentally different.", "The most commonly quoted year for the introduction of doubling into backgammon is 1925. The following writers/publications reference that year:", "Like many games, backgammon has some rules which while aren’t official many players adhere to. If you contemplate playing with these please discuss them with your opponent beforehand so both players are clear on the rules.", "Put simply, if you want to play backgammon well, you must know, or have a good approximation of your take point and your opponent's take point every game you play. Few players do this, again, because it is complicated if you use exact numbers, and difficult to remember all those numbers. I hope to make this a little easier for you.", "If you don't know how to play Backgammon, then here is a beginner's introduction to the game explaining the basic rules.", "I am going to talk to you about something that I consider to be one of the most irritating things that can happen in backgammon. You are rolling the dice and playing along and having a really nice time, and then all of a sudden your opponent does something extremely irritating and rude: He doubles you! What a nasty thing to do, especially since you are probably not really happy about how the game has been going." ]

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[ "A hand (or handbreadth) is a unit of length measurement, usually based on the breadth of a male human hand and thus around 4 inches long (about 10 cm). It is abbreviated \"hh\" (standing for \"hands high\"). Today it is only used for the height of horses in the United States and the United Kingdom. In this context, one hand equals four inches (10.16 cm), and the horse is measured from the ground to the top of the withers. So a horse that is 15 hands high (abbreviated 15 hh) is 60 inches (152 cm) from the ground to the top of the withers. Instead of decimal or vulgar fractions, a hand comprises four inch-long steps, so a horse 62 inches (157 cm) tall would be 15.2 hh (said \"fifteen two hands high\").", "A hand is equal to 4 inches or 10.2cms. You should measure your horse from the point of the withers to the ground.", "hand: a unit of length equal to 4 inches (10.2 centimeters), most often used to specify the height of a horse", "As a result of deliberate breeding by humans, horses display a remarkable variation in size, body shape, and coat color. Traditionally, a horse�s size is measured at the withers�an elevated part of the spine between the neck and the back. The measurement is made in hands; one hand equals about 10 cm (4 in). Typical riding horses stand 14 to 16 hands high and weigh 400 to 500 kg (900 to 1,100 lb). The smallest horse on record, a Falabella miniature pony, stood 48 cm (19 in), or just under 5 hands, and weighed 14 kg (30 lb). The largest horse on record was a Belgian that stood 1.8 m (6 ft) tall, or 18 hands, and weighed 1,450 kg (3,200 lb).", "One hand equals 4 inches (10.2 cm), so divide the measurement by 4. For example, if the horse measures 71 inches (180.3 cm), divide 71 by 4 inches. The result is 17 hands with 3 inches (7.6 cm) left over. The final height would be recorded as 17.75 hands.", "The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in hands, abbreviated \"h\" or \"hh,\" for \"hands high,\" measured at the highest point of an animal's withers, where the neck meets the back, chosen as a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down. One hand is 4 inches (10 cm). Intermediate heights are defined by hands and inches, rounding to the lower measurement in hands, followed by a decimal point and the number of additional inches between 1 and 3. Thus a horse described as \"15.2 h,\" is 15 hands, 2 inches, or 62 inches (160 cm) in height. The size of horses varies by breed, but can also be influenced by nutrition. The general rule for cutoff in height between what is considered a horse and a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches (150 cm)). An animal 14.2h or over is usually considered a horse and one less than 14.2h as a pony. However, there are exceptions to the general rule. Some breeds which typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2h are considered \"horses\" regardless of height. Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2h, but are still considered to be ponies.", "4 inches or 10.16 cm. Derived from the width of the hand. Used for measuring the height of horses at withers.", "Step 4: Find out how tall your horse or pony is! A horse measuring stick offers tick marks in centimeters and hands. If you're measuring in centimeters, your horse's height is simply the number of centimeters he is tall at the withers. If you’re using a measuring tape in inches and feet, convert the measurement by dividing the total inches measured by 4. Any remaining inches are kept as inches. A horse that measures 62 inches is 15 hands 2 inches, or 15 and a half hands (2 inches is half of 4 inches). This height is written in shorthand as 15.2 H. Note that when describing a measurement of a horse in hands, the “.” is not a decimal point, and that 15.2 H meant to be read as 15 (hands) 2 (inches).", "Hand : The unit by which the height of a horse is measured. A hand equals 4 inches. see How to Measure a Horse", "1. A unit of length, used especially to measure horses’ height. 1 hand = 4 in.", "hand - a unit of length equal to 4 inches; used in measuring horses; \"the horse stood 20 hands\"", "Hand - Unit in which a horse's height is measured, at the shoulder. A hand is four inches", "The hand is a traditional unit in Britain. It was standardised at four inches by a statute of King Henry VIII in 1541, but some confusion between the various types of hand measurement, and particularly between the hand and the handsbreadth, appears to have persisted. Phillips's dictionary of 1706 gives four inches for the length of the handful or hand, and three inches for the handsbreadth; Mortimer gives the same, three inches for the Hand's-breadth, and four for the \"Handful, or simply, Hand\", but adds \"The hand among horse-dealers, &c. is four-fingers' breadth, being the fist clenched, whereby the height of a horse is measured\", thus equating \"hand\" with both the palm and the fist. Similarly, Wright's 1831 translation of Buffon mentions \"A hand breadth (palmus), the breadth of the four fingers of the hand, or three inches\", but the Encyclopædia Perthensis of 1816 gives under Palm (4): \"A hand, or measure of lengths comprising three inches\".", "Horses are beginning to be measured in cm however hands are still in common use. All miniature horses and ponies under 10 hands are always measured in either inches or cms.", "Hands are used to measure horses. You measure from the ground to the withers of the horse (its shoulder) since it won't keep its head still. 3 hands = 1 foot (which sounds slightly odd).", "There is dispute in medievalist circles over the size of the war horse, with some notable historians claiming a size of 17 to 18 hands (68 to 72 inches (170 to 180 cm)), as large as a modern Shire horse. However, there are practical reasons for dispute over size. Analysis of existing horse armour located in the Royal Armouries indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of 15 to 16 hands (60 to 64 inches (150 to 160 cm)), or about the size and build of a modern field hunter or ordinary riding horse.", "19. a linear measure equal to 4 inches (10.2 centimeters), used esp. in determining the height of horses.", "To measure your horse, have him stand square on a level surface. Hold the tape or stick so it is perpendicular to the ground and beside the horse so it is even with the top point of the horse’s withers. If you are using a proper measuring stick, lower the bar so it meets the top of the horse’s withers. Take note of the measurement. If you can only measure in inches, divide the inches by 4, and calculate the remaining inches. So, 62 inches would be 15 hands plus 2 inches or 15.2 HH.", "Used to measure the height of horses, how many inches are there in one hand? - Euask.com", "Light horses such as Arabians, Morgans, Quarter Horses, Paints and Thoroughbreds usually range in height from 14.0 (142 cm) to 16.0 hands (163 cm) and can weigh from 386 kilograms (850 lbs) to about 680 kg (1500 lbs). Heavy or draft horses such as the Clydesdale, Belgian, Percheron, and Shire are usually at least 16.0 (163 cm) to 18.0 hands (183 cm) high and can weigh from about 682 kg (1500 lb) up to about 900 kg (2000 lb). Ponies are less than 14.2h, but can be much smaller, down to the Shetland pony at around 10 hands, and the Falabella which can be the size of a medium-sized dog. The miniature horse is as small as or smaller than either of the aforementioned ponies but are classified as very small horses rather than ponies despite their size.", "The gray mare in the photo above is 58 inches from the ground to the top of her withers. When 58 is divided by 4, you have 14.5. The 14 is the number of hands, and the .5 means another half of a hand, or another 2 inches. This means she is 14 and one-half hands tall.", "Horses shown in-hand in Halter competition are larger yet, with a very heavily muscled appearance, while retaining small heads with wide jowls and refined muzzles. There is controversy amongst owners, breeder and veterinarians regarding the health effects of the extreme muscle mass that is currently fashionable in the specialized halter horse, which typically is 15.2 to 16 hands and weighs in at over 1200 pounds when fitted for halter competition. Not only are there concerns about the weight to frame ratio on the horse's skeletal system, but the massive build is also linked to HYPP.", "Equines have significant differences in size, though all are characterized by long heads and necks. Their slender legs support their weight on one digit (which evolved from the middle digits). The Grévy's zebra is the largest wild species, standing up to and weighing up to 405 kg. Domesticated horses have a wider range of sizes. Heavy or draft horses are usually at least high and can be as tall as and weigh from about 700 to. Some miniature horses are no taller than 30 in in adulthood. Sexual dimorphism is limited in equines. The penis of the male is vascular and lacks a bone (baculum). Equines are adapted for running and for traveling over long distances. Their dentition is adapted for grazing; they have large incisors that clip grass blades and highly crowned, ridged molars well suited for grinding. Males have spade-shaped canines (\"tushes\"), which can be used as weapons in fighting. Equines have fairly good senses, particularly their eyesight. Their moderately long, erect ears are movable and can locate the source of a sound. ", "To determine how tall a horse is measure the horse, in inches, from the ground in a straight line up to the highest point of the withers. This is illustrated in the photo below by the yellow line.", "Step 3: A horse is measured at its withers using the measuring stick or tape. A horse’s withers is located where the neck intersects the shoulder and is typically the highest point of the back. Hold the measuring stick or tape perpendicular with the ground. The goal is to have your measuring stick, tape, or plumb line perfectly vertical. Then use the level (either part of your measuring stick or a carpentry level) to mark the horse’s height on the stick, tape, or plumb line. A note of caution: Some horses might react to a long measuring stick, confusing it with a longe whip or natural horsemanship stick, so move slowly.", "The joint of a horse's front leg between the cannon and the forearm. Anatomically equivalent to the human wrist.", "The height of horses is usually measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back.Whitaker, p. 77 This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.", "Hooves: The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, \"no foot, no horse.\" The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae, with the exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole made essentially of the same material as a human fingernail. The end result is that a horse, weighing on average 1,000 pounds, travels on the same bones as a human on tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, just like a large fingernail, and needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every six to eight weeks.", "Below are a few examples of how to correctly write down a horse's height. Remember, the number in front of the period is for hands and the number after the period is the remaining inches.", "Here is a handy table that will convert your horse's height in hands to show you how many inches, feet, or meters tall your horse is.", "Here is a handy table that will convert your horse's height in hands to show you how many inches, feet, or meters tall your horse is.", "Withers: Point at the bottom of the horse's neck from which the horse's height is measured." ]

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[ "A terrible storm in 1859, which caused the loss of the Royal Charter, inspired FitzRoy to develop charts to allow predictions to be made, which he called \"forecasting the weather\", thus coining the term \"weather forecast\". Fifteen land stations were established to use the new telegraph to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times. The first daily weather forecasts were published in The Times in 1861. The 1859 storm resulted in the Crown distributing storm glasses, then known as \"FitzRoy's storm barometers\", to many small fishing communities around the British Isles. ", "A terrible storm in 1859, which caused the loss of the Royal Charter, inspired FitzRoy to develop charts to allow predictions to be made, which he called \"forecasting the weather\", thus coining the term \"weather forecast\". Fifteen land stations were established to use the new telegraph to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times. The first daily weather forecasts were published in The Times in 1861. The 1859 storm resulted in the Crown distributing storm glasses, then known as \"FitzRoy's storm barometers\", to many small fishing communities around the British Isles.", "The first ever daily weather forecasts were published in The Times on 1 August 1861, and the first weather maps were produced later in the same year. In 1911, the Met Office began issuing the first marine weather forecasts via radio transmission. These included gale and storm warnings for areas around Great Britain. In the United States, the first public radio forecasts were made in 1925 by Edward B. \"E.B.\" Rideout, on WEEI, the Edison Electric Illuminating station in Boston. Rideout came from the U.S. Weather Bureau, as did WBZ weather forecaster G. Harold Noyes in 1931.", "Nineteenth century researchers in meteorology were drawn from military or medical backgrounds, rather than trained as dedicated scientists. In 1854, the United Kingdom government appointed Robert FitzRoy to the new office of Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade with the task of gathering weather observations at sea. FitzRoy's office became the United Kingdom Meteorological Office in 1854, the first national meteorological service in the world. The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in The Times newspaper in 1860. The following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected.", "April 1 has further import in the history of meteorology. It was this day in 1875 that Francis Galton (cousin of Charles Darwin) published the first newspaper weather map in The Times (London). Galton's chart of conditions in northwestern Europe on the previous day had virtually all the elements of a modern weather map: isobars (lines of equal atmospheric pressure), temperatures, wind speed and direction, and sky and sea conditions.", "A storm in 1859 that caused the loss of the Royal Charter inspired FitzRoy to develop charts to allow predictions to be made, which he called \"forecasting the weather\", thus coining the term \"weather forecast\". Fifteen land stations were established to use the new telegraph to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times leading to the first gale warning service. His warning service for shipping was initiated in February 1861, with the use of telegraph communications. The first daily weather forecasts were published in The Times in 1861. In the following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at the principal ports when a gale was expected. The \"Weather Book\" which FitzRoy published in 1863 was far in advance of the scientific opinion of the time.", "In England, the scientist Francis Galton heard of this work, as well as the pioneering weather forecasts of Robert Fitzroy. After gathering information from weather stations across the country for the month of October 1861, he plotted the data on a map using his own system of symbols, thereby creating the world's first weather map. He used his map to prove that air circulated clockwise around areas of high pressure; he coined the term 'anticyclone' to describe the phenomenon. He was also instrumental in publishing the first weather map in a newspaper, for which he modified the pantograph (an instrument for copying drawings) to inscribe the map onto printing blocks. The Times began printing weather maps using these methods with data from the Meteorological Office. ", "August 4, 1934: The first weather map in the paper's history is published extending three-columns and accompanies a news story.", "The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register and became The Times on 1 January 1788. The Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times (founded in 1821) are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK , itself wholly owned by the News Corp group headed by Rupert Murdoch . The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967.", "The first BBC weather forecast was a shipping forecast broadcast on the radio on behalf of the Met Office on 14 November 1922, and the first daily weather forecast was broadcast on 26 March 1923.", "The introduction of country-wide weather maps required the existence of national telegraph networks so that data from across the country could be gathered in real time and remain relevant for subsequent analysis. The first such use of the telegraph for gathering data on the weather was the Manchester Examiner newspaper in 1847: ", "Permission to go ahead was given on 6 June 1860 and the first forecast was given on 6 February 1861. It is believed that this was the worlds first national forecasting system and the Storm Warnings went on to be known as the Shipping Forecast - the Shipping Forecast is therefore thought to be the earliest national forecasting system in the world. After the death of FitzRoy in 1865 the Storm Warnings were stopped in 1866 but there was such public outcry about the inevitable increased loss of life that parliament was forced to restart them in 1867.", "1950: The Weather Bureau begins issuing 30-day weather outlooks; authorizes release of “tornado alerts” to the public.", "Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of people performing the calculations and passing them to others. However, the sheer number of calculations required was too large to be completed without the use of computers, and the size of the grid and time steps led to unrealistic results in deepening systems. It was later found, through numerical analysis, that this was due to numerical instability. The first computerised weather forecast was performed by a team led by the mathematician John von Neumann; von Neumann publishing the paper Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation in 1950. Practical use of numerical weather prediction began in 1955, spurred by the development of programmable electronic computers.", "It was not until the invention of the electric telegraph in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began. Before that, the fastest that distant weather reports could travel was around 100 miles per day (160 km/d), but was more typically 40–75 miles per day (60–120 km/day) (whether by land or by sea). By the late 1840s, the telegraph allowed reports of weather conditions from a wide area to be received almost instantaneously, allowing forecasts to be made from knowledge of weather conditions further upwind.", "Saxby, S.M. 1868. Coming weather. To the editor. Standard of London, 25 December, 1868 (no. 13 851, p. 5, column 7).", "[402] Article: “Going to Extremes on Weather Information.” By Fred Singer. Washington Times, September 24, 1999. < lexisnexis.com >", "11th - The first televised weather broadcast featuring a presenter on screen was transmitted from the BBC's Lime Grove Studios in 1954", "Censorship commenced with the start of WWII. Weather was given a top-secret place. Only when Britain plunged into glacial conditions, not experienced for many decades, His Majesty�s Censor relaxed censorship on weather reporting and The New York Times was able to report as follows (excerpts): ", "1955 Mostly sunny, hot (17.7C CET), and very dry. Parts of Suffolk and Cornwall (e.g. around Camborne) had no rain at all this month. In contrast, there were some exceptional deluges in thunderstorms, particularly on the 18th, as very hot air (30C in the south) met a stationary cold front. In particular, there was 279.4mm at Martinstown, Dorset, on the 18th, in 15 hours; 190 mm of this fell in 4.5 hours. This is the British record for daily rainfall. The rain came with storms in two waves, the first starting at 2.30 pm and the second at 9 pm. Heavy rain fell over a large area of Dorset: Dorchester received 187.5 mm and Weymouth 178.8 mm. Flooding in Weymouth. 108 mm of rain at Maidstone and another lightning death at Ramsgate on the same day, which 84 mm of rain (see October this year). Serious flooding in Weymouth. Thunder first broke out on the 11th, as the high pressure slipped south. There were 5 lightning deaths across the country on the 14th, including 3 people sheltering under a tree in my native Southampton (Please do NOT shelter under trees in storms), and a woman leaning on a metal fence at Royal Ascot. It was Wales's sunniest ever month, with 354.3 hours of sunshine at Dale Fort, and probably the sunniest month on record in the NW generally.", "15 October – During a weather forecast, BBC meteorologist Michael Fish reports \"Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way; well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't, but having said that, actually, the weather will become very windy, but most of the strong winds, incidentally, will be down over Spain and across into France.\". Hours later, Britain is hit by the worst storm for 284 years. Fish later drew criticism for the comments, but has since claimed that they referred to Florida, USA, and were linked to a news story immediately preceding the weather bulletin, but had been so widely repeated out of context that the British public remains convinced that he was referring to the approaching storm.", "Richardson publishes Weather Prediction by Numerical Process. He is the first to apply mathematics, in particular the method of finite differences, to predicting the weather. The calculations are prohibitive by hand calculation and only the development of computers will make his idea a reality.", "There are many proverbs and stories concerning the weather from mediaeval England; for example, the notion that the weather on St. Swithin's Day (15th July) predicts the weather in England for the next 40 days:", "The weather map, or synoptic chart, shows isobars, highs and lows, fronts, temperature, winds and precipitation (a dot is rain, an asterisk is snow) by a complicated symbolism. A great deal of information is included, and the general course of the weather is easily deduced from it. American newspapers, and even TV reports, used to give weather maps, but the almost total inability of the public to make anything of them has led to their degeneration. My daily paper has only a useless map, with only temperatures and precipitation indicated. TV weather reports sometimes show lows and highs, and a front or two, but I sometimes doubt if the presenter can make much of it. The weather now comes already predicted by the Weather Bureau, and all you have to do is read it off for your location. This is rather unfortunate, since regular study of weather maps can make one a good weatherman.", "LEONARD PARKIN Plus weather forecast and Financial Times share index. PROGRAMME EDITOR ANDREW TILLEY ITN Production", "Regularly-scheduled operational computer forecasts begun by the Joint Numerical Forecast Unit. The Weather Bureau becomes a pioneer civilian user of computers along with the Census Bureau in Commerce; Bureau begins development of Barotropic model, a first for numerical predictions.", "Ha-llo, folks! Here's the old weather there. The old winds light to variable, going to have the sun in the day and gonna get dark at night. [Sings] The man from Coventry...", "Many forecasts are now available on the Internet. These include charts from the UK Met Office and other centres, some of the RTTY services from Offenbach, many GMDSS forecasts. This is fine if you are ashore with WiFi or land line broadband access.", "Below is a list of weather terms that are described in weather reports, forecasts and readings.", "So keep in mind that you can't just look at a weather map and expect to make totally accurate predictions. Lots of factors affect what happens in an area on any given day.", "Regardless of which time of the year, the weather in London could change quickly from sunny to rain and from hot to cold.", "The Met Office has been trying to answer this question for 150 years. Have Britain’s weather scientists now cracked it?" ]

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[ "The West Indies Federation (or just West Indies) consisted of around 24 main inhabited islands and approximately 220–230 minor offshore islands, islets and cays (some inhabited, some uninhabited). The largest island was Jamaica, located in the far northwest of the Federation. To the southeast lay the second largest island, Trinidad, followed by Barbados (in terms of population), located at the eastern extremity of the Federation.", "Jamaica is the largest of the English Speaking West Indian islands. It has an area of 11,424 square kilometres (4,411 square miles), more than twice the area of Trinidad, which is next in size, and measures 243 kilometres (146 miles) from east to west. Its greatest width is 80 kilometres (51 miles), from St. Ann's Bay to Portland Point. The distance from Kingston to the nearest point on the north coast, Annotto Bay, is 36 kilometres (22 miles).", "Jamaica is the largest of the English Speaking West Indian islands. It has an area of 11,424 square kilometres (4,411 square miles), more than twice the area of Trinidad, which is next in size, and measures 243 kilometres (146 miles) from east to west. Its greatest width is 80 kilometres (51 miles), from St. Ann's Bay to Portland Point. The distance from Kingston to the nearest point on the north coast, Annotto Bay, is 36 kilometres (22 miles).", "Trinidad and Tobago are the southernmost islands of the West Indies . With an area of 1,864 square miles (4,828 square kilometers), Trinidad is the largest island of the Lesser Antilles. Three mountain ranges stretch across the country from east to west. Tiny Tobago is only about 26 miles (42 kilometers) long and 7 miles (11 kilometers) wide. It consists of lowlands dominated by a chain of volcanic hills that runs the length of the island.", "Jamaica island country of the West Indies. It is the third largest island in the Caribbean Sea, after Cuba and Hispaniola. Jamaica is about 146 miles (235 km) long and varies from 22 to 51 miles (35 to 82 km) wide. It is situated some 100 miles (160 km) west...", "1. What is the largest of the West Indian islands? - Jade Wright - Liverpool Echo", "This archipelago in the Lesser Antilles, with a total area of 1,704 square km, is made up of six islands: Guadeloupe proper comprising Basse-Terre, dominated by the volcano of La Soufrière (1,484 metres), and Grande-Terre, with the adjacent islands of La Désirade, Îles des Saintes, Marie-Galante and, further to the north, St Barthélemy and the French part of St Martin. Guadeloupe proper is the largest island in the French West Indies with an area of 1,438 square km and a population of 453,000.", "Trinidad (Spanish: \"Trinity\") is the larger and more populous of the two major islands and numerous landforms which make up the island nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The island lies 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela and sits on the continental shelf of South America. Though part of the South American continent, from a socio-economic standpoint it is often referred to as the southernmost island in the Caribbean. With an area of , it is also the fifth largest in the West Indies.", "The Greater Antilles is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea: Cuba, Hispaniola (containing Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands. The Greater Antilles constitute over 90% of the land mass of the entire West Indies, as well as over 90% of its population, with the balance made of the archipelago of the Lesser Antilles, which is a chain of islands to the east (running north-south and encompassing the eastern edge of the Caribbean Sea where it meets the Atlantic Ocean) and south (running east-west off the northern coast of South America).", "The ABC islands[1] are Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao. They are the three western-most islands of the Leeward Antilles in the Caribbean, north of Falcón State, Venezuela. From west to east they are, in order: Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire.", "The Dominican Republic in the West Indies occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, which it shares with Haiti. Its area equals that of Vermont and New Hampshire combined. Duarte Peak, at 10,417 ft (3,175 m), is the highest point in the West Indies.", "The islands of the Caribbean Sea or West Indies are an extensive archipelago in the far west of the Atlantic Ocean, mostly strung between North and South America . They've long been known as a resort vacation destination for honeymooners and retirees and are a major area for cruise ships , but a small movement toward eco-tourism and backpacking has started to open up the Caribbean to more independent travel. With year-round good weather (with the occasional but sometimes serious exception of hurricane season in the late summer and early fall), promotional air fares from Europe and North America, and hundreds of islands to explore, the Caribbean offers something for almost everyone.", "Most of the islands in the Caribbean celebrate Carnival. The largest and most well-known celebration is held in Trinidad and Tobago . Dominican Republic , Antigua , Aruba , Cayman Islands , Barbados , Haiti , Dominica , Grenada , Jamaica , Sint Maarten , Saint Lucia , Saint Kitts , Saint Thomas and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines are also known for lengthy carnival seasons and large celebrations.", ", island nation (2005 est. pop. 166,000), 238 sq mi (616 sq km), West Indies, one of the Windward Islands. The capital is Castries. Morne Gimie (3,145 ft/959 m high) and the twin pyramidal cones known as the Pitons are the most imposing landmarks.", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | history - geography - islands and nation, West Indies | Britannica.com", ", British dependency and island (2011 pop. 4,922), 38 sq mi (98 sq km), West Indies, one of the Leeward Islands. It is a rugged, scenic island of volcanic origin.", "The British dependency of Anguilla was historically also a part of this union, which was then known collectively as Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla. To the north-northwest lie the islands of Sint Eustatius, Saba (the Netherlands), Saint Barthélemy, Saint-Martin/Sint Maarten and Anguilla. To the east and northeast are Antigua and Barbuda, and to the southeast is the small uninhabited island of Redonda, and the island of Montserrat, which currently has an active volcano (see Soufrière Hills).", "Historically, the British dependency of Anguilla was also a part of this union, which was then known collectively as Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla. Saint Kitts and Nevis are geographically part of the Leeward Islands. To the north-northwest lie the islands of Saint Eustatius, Saba, Saint Barthélemy, and Saint-Martin/Sint Maarten. To the east and northeast are Antigua and Barbuda, and to the southeast is the small uninhabited island of Redonda, and the island of Montserrat, which currently has an active volcano (see Soufrière Hills).", "About 100 miles to the west, St. Vincent and the Grenadines are the closest islands to Barbados. As a whole, more than 30 small islands are in this group. St. Vincent is the largest island, encompassing 133 square miles, while the Grenadines range in size from the largest at seven square miles to the smallest at about a quarter of a square mile. Activities available in this group of islands includes lagoon snorkeling, diving among coral reefs, hiking to waterfalls, wildlife watching and windsurfing. The least-expensive transportation option is through Bedy Oceanline (bedytravel.com), which offers ferry service from Barbados to St. Vincent at least once a day, up to five days a week. Travelers may also utilize one of several costlier inter-island airlines that fly out to a variety of islands multiple times per day.", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, island country lying within the Lesser Antilles , in the eastern Caribbean Sea . It consists of the island of Saint Vincent and the northern Grenadine Islands , which stretch southward toward Grenada . The island of Saint Vincent lies about 20 miles (32 km) southwest of Saint Lucia and 100 miles (160 km) west of Barbados . It is 18 miles long (30 km) and has a maximum width of 11 miles (18 km). The larger islands of the Grenadines associated with Saint Vincent are Bequia, Canouan, Mayreau, Mustique, Prune (Palm) Island, Petit Saint Vincent Island , and Union Island. The Tobago Cays, just to the east of Mayreau, have been designated a wildlife reserve.", "The Greater Antilles archipelago includes Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Haiti (which jointly share the isle of \"Hispaniola\"), Jamaica, Cuba and the three Cayman Isles.", "The Cayman Islands ( or) is a British Overseas Territory in the western Caribbean Sea. The 264 km2 territory comprises the three islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman located south of Cuba, northeast of Costa Rica, north of Panama and northwest of Jamaica. Its population is 57,000, and its capital is George Town.", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is an island nation in the Lesser Antilles which forms the eastern border of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean . Its 389-square-kilometre (150 sq miles) territory consists of the main island of Saint Vincent and the northern two-thirds of the Grenadines . To the north lies St Lucia , to the east Barbados , and to the south Grenada . It has an estimated population of 120,000 and the capital is Kingstown . The country has a French and British colonial history and is now part of the Commonwealth and CARICOM.", "The shape and alignment of the Greater Antilles are determined by an ancient chain of folded and faulted mountains that in Cretaceous times extended from Central America through the Caribbean. Running west-east, this system is now mostly submerged by the Atlantic and the Caribbean, but remnants of it are visible in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica and in the Sierra de los Órganos and the Sierra Maestra in Cuba. Duarte Peak, in the Dominican Republic, another component of this range, rises to 10,417 feet (3,175 metres) and is the highest point in the Caribbean. Besides interior mountain peaks, each Greater Antillean island has an encircling coastal plain.", "3. Jamaica is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, comprising the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island saw 2,008,409 visitors in 2013. ", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is an island country in the southern portion of the Windward Islands which lie at the southern end of the eastern border of the Caribbean Sea. The islands of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines include the main island of Saint Vincent and the northern two-thirds of the Grenadines. The large island Saint Vincent was originally called Hairouna by the native Caribs. The big island of St. Vincent has a rugged mountainous terrain, lush forests and many uncluttered beaches. The Grenadines include Bequia, Canouan, Mustique and Union, and a group of smaller (many unpopulated) islands. The capital of St. Vincent and the Grenadines and the main port is Kingstown which is one of the most picturesque in the Caribbean.", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is an island nation in the Lesser Antilles chain of the Caribbean Sea. Its 389-square-kilometre (150 sq mi) territory consists of the main island of Saint Vincent and the northern two-thirds of the Grenadines. The country has a French and British colonial history and is now part of the Commonwealth of Nations and CARICOM.", "The island, E of St. Vincent, in the Windward Islands, is the easternmost of the Caribbean islands.", "Is an island nation which consists of six hundred islands which cover a land area of 280 square kilometers. The constitutional monarchy makes up part of the Windward Islands Group located in the Caribbean Sea and has a population of 117,000 people. The country is best known for it's vast crops of bananas, which make up sixty per cent of the country's GDP.", "Besides the Caribbean Islands, which of the following is (are) also considered part of the Caribbean region?", "The island is 16 km (9.9 mi) long and 11 km (6.8 mi) wide, with rock cliffs rising 15 to 30 m (50–100 feet) above the sea and a number of smooth bottomed sandy beaches scattered among coves on the western (Caribbean) side of the island.", "The island lies in the heart of the Caribbean archipelago and is known for beautiful white sand beaches as well as 5 mountain ranges that stretch throughout the island. It is mountainous and forested, with plains and plateaux. High mountains and long white beaches surrounded by crystal blue sea make a spectacular view." ]

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[ "[ˈpʰɛuɾt̪] ) [4] is a city in central Scotland , located on the banks of the River Tay . It is the administrative centre of Perth and Kinross council area and the historic county of Perthshire . According to the preliminary 2011 census results Perth, including its immediate suburbs, has a population of 50,000. Perth has been known as The Fair City since the publication of the story Fair Maid of Perth by Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott in 1828. During the later medieval period the city was also called St John's Toun or Saint Johnstoun by its inhabitants in reference to the main church dedicated to St John the Baptist . This name is preserved by the city's football team, St Johnstone F.C.", "Perth is a city in central Scotland, located on the banks of the River Tay. It is the administrative centre of Perth and Kinross council area and the historic county of Perthshire. According to the preliminary 2011 census results Perth, including its immediate suburbs, has a population of 50,000. Perth has been known as The Fair City since the publication of the story Fair Maid of Perth by Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott in 1828. During the later medieval period the city was also called St John's Toun or Saint Johnstoun by its inhabitants in reference to the main church dedicated to St John the Baptist. This name is preserved by the city's football team, St Johnstone F.C.", "[ˈt̪uːn ˈɛːtʲɛɲ] ) is the capital city of Scotland , located in Lothian on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth . It is the second most populous city in Scotland and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom . The mid-year population estimate for 2014 is 492,680. [1] Edinburgh lies at the heart of a larger urban zone with a population of 778,000. [6] The Edinburgh city region has a population of 1,330,480. [7] Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and the seat of the monarchy in Scotland. The city is also the annual venue of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and home to national institutions such as the National Museum of Scotland , the National Library of Scotland and the Scottish National Gallery . It is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. [8]", "Perth has been known as The Fair City since the publication of the story Fair Maid of Perth by Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott in 1828. During the later medieval period the city was also called St John's Toun or Saint Johnstoun by its inhabitants in reference to the main church dedicated to St John the Baptist. This name is preserved by the city's football team, St Johnstone F.C.", "Scotland ( Scots Gaelic : Alba) is a nation in north-western Europe , the second largest of the constituent nations of the United Kingdom . It has a 60 mile (96km) land border with England to the south, and is separated from Northern Ireland by the North Channel of the Irish Sea. The capital is Edinburgh and the largest city is Glasgow .", ", city (1991 pop. 433,200) and council area, royal burgh, capital of Scotland, on the Firth of Forth. Leith, part of the city since 1920, is Edinburgh's port. The city is famous in Scottish legend and literature as Dunedin or \"Auld Reekie.", "Perth was the capital of Scotland from the 9th century until 1437, when King James I was murdered at Blackfriars convent. After the death, the royal household moved to Edinburgh, which was officially recognised as the capital in 1452.", "Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland, located on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth. It is the second largest city in Scotland and the seventh in the", "2. A town of central Scotland on the Tay River north of Edinburgh. It was the capital of Scotland from the 11th to the mid-15th century.", "Surrounded by spectacular mountain scenery, this ancient town - which was granted city status in 2001 - is the administrative centre for the Highlands of Scotland and the primary town and transport hub in the region. As the gateway to Loch Ness, and renowned for its monster 'Nessie', it is a major tourist destination, but also a vibrant commercial, retail and leisure centre. There are some notable historic sites, including the Auld Castlehill where once stood the castle in which King Duncan was murdered by Macbeth in 1039.", "The Old Town () is the name popularly given to the oldest part of Scotland's capital city of Edinburgh. The area has preserved much of its medieval street plan and many Reformation-era buildings. Together with the 18th-century New Town, it forms part of a protected UNESCO World Heritage Site. ", "St Andrews is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife in Scotland, named after Saint Andrew the Apostle. The town is home to the University of St Andrews, the third oldest university in the English-speaking world and the oldest in Scotland. The University is an integral part of the burgh, and during term time students make up approximately one third of the town's population.There has been an important church in St Andrews since at least the 8th century, and a bishopric since at least the 11th century. The settlement grew to the west of St Andrews cathedral with the southern side of the Scores to the north and the Kinness burn to the south. The burgh soon became the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland, a position which was held until the Scottish Reformation. The famous cathedral, the... read more", "Glasgow (; ; ) is the largest city in Scotland, and the third largest in the United Kingdom (after London and Birmingham). Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 Council Areas of Scotland. It is situated on the River Clyde in the country's West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are often referred to as Glaswegians.", ", the largest city in Scotland. Coatbridge has also been described as “uniquely populated largely by people of Irish descent”.", "Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and one of the largest in the UK. It grew from a small rural settlement to one of world's largest harbours. A university was established in the 15th century and in the 18th century the city was a major centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The city also grew as one of Great Britain's main hubs of transatlantic trade. During the Victorian era Glasgow came to be known as the ''Second City of the British Empire''. Today it is one of Europe's top financial centres.", "Robert I (11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329), popularly known as Robert the Bruce (Medieval Gaelic: Roibert a Briuis; modern Scottish Gaelic: Raibeart Bruis; Norman French: Robert de Brus or Robert de Bruys, Early Scots: Robert Brus), was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329. Robert was one of the most famous warriors of his generation, eventually leading Scotland during the Wars of Scottish Independence against England. He fought successfully during his reign to regain Scotland's place as an independent nation, and is today remembered in Scotland as a national hero.", "      n   the provost of one of the five major Scottish cities (Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Dundee, and Perth)  ", "Questions over the town's English name are various. The post-Glorious Revolution fort was named Fort William after William of Orange, and the settlement that grew around it was called Maryburgh, after his wife. This settlement was later renamed Gordonsburgh, and then Duncansburgh before being renamed Fort William, this time after Prince William, Duke of Cumberland; known to some Scots as \"Butcher Cumberland\". Given these origins, there have been various suggestions over the years to rename the town (for example, to Invernevis). These proposals have led to nothing yet.", "Edinburgh has also been known as Dunedin, deriving from the Scottish Gaelic , Dùn Èideann. Dunedin, New Zealand , was originally called \"New Edinburgh\" and is still nicknamed the \"Edinburgh of the South\". The Scots poets Robert Burns and Robert Fergusson sometimes used the city's Latin name, Edina. Ben Jonson described it as Britain's other eye, [20] and Sir Walter Scott referred to the city as yon Empress of the North. [21] Robert Louis Stevenson, also a son of the city, wrote, \"Edinburgh is what Paris ought to be\".", "Edinburgh Castle is a historic fortress which dominates the skyline of the city of Edinburgh, Scotland, from its position on the Castle Rock. Archaeologists have established human occupation of the rock since at least the Iron Age (2nd century AD), although the nature of the early settlement is unclear. There has been a royal castle on the rock since at least the reign of David I in the 12th century, and the site continued to be a royal residence until 1633. From the 15th century the castle's residential role declined, and by the 17th century it was principally used as military barracks with a large garrison. Its importance as a part of Scotland's national heritage was recognised increasingly from the early 19th century onwards, and various restoration programmes have been carried out over the past century and a half. As one of the most important strongholds in the Kingdom of Scotland, Edinburgh Castle was involved in many historical conflicts from the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 14th century to the Jacobite Rising of 1745. Research undertaken in 2014 identified 26 sieges in its 1100-year-old history, giving it a claim to having been \"the most besieged place in Great Britain and one of the most attacked in the world\". ", "Founded as a monastery in 1128, the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh is The Queen's official residence in Scotland. Situated at the bottom end of the historic Royal Mile, the Palace of Holyroodhouse is closely associated with Scotland's turbulent past. It has served as the principal residence of the kings and queens of Scots since the 16th century, and is still a setting for state occasions and official entertainment.", "During the Jacobite rising of 1745 , Edinburgh was briefly occupied by the Jacobite \"Highland Army\" before its march into England. [38] After its eventual defeat at Culloden , there followed a period of reprisals and pacification, largely directed at the rebellious clans . [39] In Edinburgh, the Town Council, keen to emulate London by initiating city improvements and expansion to the north of the castle, [40] reaffirmed its belief in the Union and loyalty to the Hanoverian monarch George III by its choice of names for the streets of the New Town : for example, Rose Street and Thistle Street; and for the royal family, George Street , Queen Street, Hanover Street, Frederick Street and Princes Street (in honour of George's two sons). [41]", "The push for this change was the reign of David I and the Davidian Revolution. Feudalism, government reorganisation and the first legally recognised towns (called burghs) began in this period. These institutions and the immigration of French and Anglo-French knights and churchmen facilitated cultural osmosis, whereby the culture and language of the low-lying and coastal parts of the kingdom's original territory in the east became, like the newly acquired south-east, English-speaking, while the rest of the country retained the Gaelic language, apart from the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland, which remained under Norse rule until 1468. The Scottish state entered a largely successful and stable period between the 12th and 14th centuries, there was relative peace with England, trade and educational links were well developed with the Continent and at the height of this cultural flowering John Duns Scotus was one of Europe's most important and influential philosophers.", "Perth is often called a city, the fair city of Perth. Additionally, St. Andrews, Brechin, and Elgin are often referred to as cities, as they have (ruined) pre-Reformation cathedrals. In the past Elgin, Brechin, and Perth were all cities.", "Coatbridge today is best described as a working class town anchored to Glasgow, the largest city in Scotland. It has also been described as \"populated largely by people of Irish descent\". ", "The small but thriving town of Tain, situated on the south shore of Dornoch Firth, is Scotland’s oldest royal burgh.", "Derry ( ), officially Londonderry (), is the second-largest city in Northern Ireland and the fourth-largest city on the island of Ireland. The name Derry is an anglicisation of the Irish name Daire or Doire meaning \"oak grove\". In 1613, the city was granted a Royal Charter by King James I and gained the \"London\" prefix to reflect the funding of its construction by the London guilds. While the city is more usually known colloquially as Derry, Londonderry is also commonly used and remains the legal name.", "Saint Mungo, also known as Saint Kentigern (Welsh: Cyndeyrn Garthwys; Latin: Kentigernus), was the late 6th-century apostle of the Britonnic Kingdom of Strathclyde, the founder and patron saint of the city of Glasgow.", "Saint Mungo, also known as Saint Kentigern, Cantigernus or Cyndeyrn Garthwys, lived from 528 to 13 January 614. He is the patron saint and founder of the City of Glasgow. The wider picture at the time is set out in our Historical Timeline.", "Baron of Renfrew is a dignity held by the heir apparent to the British throne, currently Prince Charles. It was held by the Scottish heir apparent beginning in 1404. It is closely associated with the title Duke of Rothesay. An act of the Scottish Parliament passed in 1469 confirmed the pattern of succession. Renfrew, a town near Glasgow, is sometimes called the \"cradle of the royal Stewarts.\"", "Had Glasgow Cathedral fallen in the Reformation , a thousand years of history would have been lost. The Cathedral's origins date back to about AD550 when St Mungo, also known as St Kentigern, founded a religious community here around a small church. Today this church is the site of the Blacader Aisle in the Lower Church of the cathedral, the structure that extends beyond the very short South Transept.", "Kentigern (Welsh: Cyndeyrn Garthwys; Latin: Kentigernus), known as Mungo, was an apostle of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde in the late 6th century, and the founder and patron saint of the city of Glasgow." ]

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[ "Zürich or Zurich (, Swiss Standard German: ', German Standard German ', Swiss German: ', , , ) is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. The municipality has approximately 400,028 inhabitants, the urban agglomeration 1.315 million, and the Zurich metropolitan area 1.83 million. Zürich is a hub for railways, roads, and air traffic. Both Zürich Airport and railway station are the largest and busiest in the country.", "Zurich is the largest city in Switzerland. It is the financial centre of Switzerland and houses the stock exchange and the headquarters of a large number of national and international companies. Most of the interesting sights are in the old town around the river and lakefront.", "Zürich or Zurich is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. The city is Switzerland's main commercial and cultural centre and sometimes called the Cultural Capital of Switzerland, the political capital of Switzerland being Berne. Zürich can be counted as one of the world's pre-eminent global cities. According to several surveys from 2006 to 2009, Zürich was named the city with the best quality of life in the world as well as the wealthiest city in Europe. Zürich is also ranked the sixth most expensive city in the world. In 2008, Zürich was ranked ninth. The city ranked behind Hong Kong and ahead of Copenhagen. It is the third most expensive city in Europe and second most expensive city in Switzerland after Geneva. The Zürich metropolitan area has a population of about 1.68 million people.", "Explore Zurich, Switzerland's largest city. The old town, Altstadt, is especially picturesque. See the gothic Fraumünster, with its stained-glass windows by Chagall; the imposing twin-towered Grossmünster cathedral; the Swiss National Museum; and the modern art collections at the Kunsthaus Zurich. The Dada artistic movement began in Zurich, enjoy its quirky output at Cabaret Voltaire.", "In Switzerland, isolated from the rest of Europe by mountainous barriers, location in relation to traffic patterns has played an important role in urban development. The keys to a series of mountain passes are the towns of Chur (to the passes of San Bernardino, Julier, and Albula), Martigny (Great Saint Bernard), and Bellinzona (Saint Gotthard). Lugano was sited on a small delta south of which the Gotthard route crossed Lake Lugano on a glacial causeway. Basel�s location, first at a bridge crossing the Rhine and then at the head of modern Rhine navigation, has been of particular significance, since this was the basis of its early prominence as a city of scholars and bankers and of its present international importance as an industrial and transportation node. A number of cities are also important tourist destinations. Interlaken, on a delta that separates Thun and Brienz lakes, is the best-known example. Others include Geneva, Lucerne, Z�rich, and Bern. In the mountains, Saint Moritz (Sankt Moritz), Zermatt, and Davos, all with vast areas of ski slopes and scores of lifts, are the most significant resorts. Switzerland�s largest cities are Z�rich, Basel, Geneva, Bern, Lausanne, Winterthur, Sankt Gallen, and Lucerne.", "Geneva is the second most populous city in Switzerland, after Zurich, and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French speaking part of Switzerland. The municipality (city) of Geneva has a population of approximately 196,000 while the Canton (city plus the suburbs) has a population of approximately 480,000. Geneva hosts the highest number of international organisations in the world including agencies of the United Nations and the headquarters of the International Red Cross. Geneva was ranked as the 9th most important financial city, ahead of Frankfurt, and third in Europe behind London and Zurich. Geneva was ranked as the fifth most expensive city in the world during 2011.", "   Bern is a placid city whose name derives from the bear pits the canton's medieval rulers established there as a heraldic symbol; the bear pits are now part of the city's popular zoo. A metropolis extending along a large lake where the mountains meet the plains, Zürich is by far the country's largest and most cosmopolitan city, its famed Bahnhofstrasse rivaling shopping districts found in other leading cities in the world. Basel and Lucerne are major German-speaking cities, Geneva and Lausanne the centres of the country's French-speaking cantons, and Bellinzona and Lugano the principal cities in the Italian-speaking Ticino .", "Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation (, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic in Europe. While still named the \"Swiss Confederation\" for historical reasons, modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities, called '\"federal city\" (, , ).According to the Swiss constitution there is intentionally no capital ruling the Swiss Confederation, but in Bern there are governmental institutions, such as the parliament and the Federal Council. The Federal Court, however, is situated in Lausanne. The Federal Court of Criminality is in Bellinzona. The Federal Court of Administration and the Federal Court of Patents are in St Gallen. The country is situated in Western and Central Europe,There are several definitions. See Geography of Switzerland#Western or Central Europe?. and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41285 km2. While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately eight million people is concentrated mostly on the plateau, where the largest cities are to be found: among them are the two global and economic centers Zürich and Geneva.", "Switzerland is a landlocked country whose territory is geographically divided between the Alps, the Central Plateau and the Jura that yields a total area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). The Swiss population of approximately 7.8 million people concentrates mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them are the two global cities and economic centres of Zürich andGeneva. Switzerland is one of the richest countries in the world by per capita gross domestic product, with a nominal per capita GDP of $67,384.Zürich and Geneva have respectively been ranked as having the second and third highest quality of life in the world.", "Berne [1] (German: Bern), the capital of Switzerland , is a small to medium sized city with a population of about 130,000 in the city proper and roughly 350,000 in the agglomeration area. It sits on a peninsula formed by the meandering turns of the river Aare. The remarkable design coherence of the Berne's old town has earned it a place on the UNESCO World Heritage List . It features 4 miles of arcaded walkways along streets decked out with fountains and clock-towers. Bern was one of the eight host cities in the 2008 European Football Championships .", "The city of Bern or Berne (; ; ; Bernese German: Bärn) is the de facto capital of Switzerland, referred to by the Swiss as their (e.g. in German) Bundesstadt, or \"federal city\". According to the Swiss constitution, there is intentionally no capital in the Swiss Confederation, but Bern has governmental institutions such as the Swiss parliament and the Federal Council of Switzerland. However, The Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland is in Lausanne, the Federal Criminal Court of Switzerland is in Bellinzona and the Federal Administrative Court of Switzerland and the Federal Patent Court of Switzerland are in St. Gallen. That exemplifies the very federal nature of the Swiss Confederation With a population of 141,107 (April 2016), Bern is the fourth most populous city in Switzerland. The Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000. Bern is also the capital of the Canton of Bern, the second most populous of Switzerland's cantons.", "Basel is Switzerland's third-most-populous city (behind Zürich and Geneva) with about 195,000 inhabitants. Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. In 2014, the Basel agglomeration was the third largest in Switzerland with a population of 537,100 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland and an additional 53 in neighboring countries (municipal count as of 2000). The tri-national Basel metropolitan area has around 830,000 inhabitants in 226 municipalities. ", "With over 132,000 residents (urban agglomeration 351,000), the Swiss capital Bern is now the fourth largest city in Switzerland. Its location near the language border to French-speaking Switzerland makes it a cultural melting pot.", "In 1900 there were 19 towns in Switzerland which had a population exceeding 10,000 souls, all having increased very much within the 50 previous years. The following are the six largest, the figures for 1850 being enclosed within brackets: Zurich, 150,703 (35,483); Basel, 109,161 (27,844); Geneva, 104,796 (42,127), Bern, 64,227 (27,558); Lausanne, 46,732 (17,108), and La Chaux de Fonds , 35,968 (13,659). Thus Geneva was first in 1850, but only third in 1900. Thirteen of these nineteen towns are cantonal capitals, though La Chaux de Fonds, Winterthur , Bienne, Tablat (practically a suburb of St Gall), Le Lode and Vevey are not, while no fewer than twelve cantonal capitals (Sion, Bellinzona , Aarau , Altdorf , Schwyz, Frauenfeld , Glarus, Liestal , Sarnen , Stans , Appenzell and Zug) are below this limit. It is reckoned that while the 19 Swiss towns having over 10,000 inhabitants had in 1850 a population of 255,722, that number had swollen in 1900 to 742,205.", "The only Swiss cities that exist in the public consciousness are Zürich and Geneva. The latter city is famous for being the birthplace of Calvinism and the center of the World Health Organization and World Council of Churches, among other institutions. The Geneva Conventions were also signed here, concerning the treatment of wartime non-combatants and prisoners of war. Usually one of these two cities is thought to be the capital, instead of Bern.", "Lugano is a city in the south of Switzerland , in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino , which borders Italy . It is the 9th largest city of Switzerland by population and the largest Italian-speaking city outside of Italy . And is known for its multitude of European culture and friendly hospitality. [2]", "Geneva (, , , , , ) is the second most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva.", "Template:Flag : Bern is the Federal City of Switzerland and functions as de facto capital. However, the Swiss Supreme Court is located in Lausanne .", "Bern (ger ; eng/fre: Berne; ita/roh: Berna) — capital of Switzerland at the shores of the crystal-clear green-blue Aare river with an amazingly well preserved old-town with arcades along almost every street; great restaurants abound, as do bars and clubs.", "Over the years Lugano has grown and absorbed several suburbs that were previously not included in the city boundary. For example, in 2003 Gandria was officially incorporated into the city and this along with several other changes has meant that Lugano is now the 8th largest city in Switzerland.", "Between the Jura and main Alpine ranges lies the hilly Mittelland, accounting for nearly one-fourth of the country and enclosed by the two mountain ranges and the two largest lakes, Lake Geneva (Lac L�man) in the west and Lake Constance (Bodensee) in the east. The fertile rolling land of the Mittelland is the agricultural heartland of the country and is where the majority of Swiss settlements, population, and industry are situated. Furthermore, vital east-west highway and rail routes bind the urban areas. As a result, the Mittelland is highly urbanized, with large chunks of land sterilized by shopping centres, housing estates, motorways, oil-storage tanks, container depots, warehouses, automobile distribution centres, and industrial complexes.", "The city of Basel functions as the capital of the Swiss half-canton of Basel-Stadt, though several of its suburbs are located in the half-canton of Basel-Landschaft or the canton of Aargau. Others are even located in France and Germany.", "Lugano is a city in southern Switzerland in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino bordering Italy. It has a population of 71,500, and an urban agglomeration over 145,000. The 9th largest Swiss city, it is the largest in Ticino and largest with an Italian speaking majority outside Italy. ", "The Canton of Valais (; ,) is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland, situated in the southwestern part of the country, around the valley of the Rhône from its headwaters to Lake Geneva, separating the Pennine Alps from the Bernese Alps. The canton is simultaneously one of the driest regions of Switzerland in its central Rhône valley and among the wettest, having large amounts of snow and rain up on the highest peaks found in Switzerland. The canton of Valais is widely known for the Matterhorn and resort towns such as Crans-Montana, Saas Fee and Zermatt. It is composed of 13 districts (hence the 13 stars on the flag) and its capital is Sion.", "Switzerland's most cosmopolitan city. It sits at the southwestern end of Lac Léman (the country's largest lake), astride the River Rhône, with foreground hills rising against a magnificent backdrop of mountains.", "Switzerland, (German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Svizzera, Romansh: Svizra), officially Swiss Confederation (\"Confoederatio Helvetica\" in Latin and when abbreviated: CH), is a landlocked nation of 7.5 million people in Western Europe. Switzerland is bordered by Germany , France , Italy , Austria and Liechtenstein . Switzerland is multilingual—it has three official languages: German, French and Italian, while a fourth national language, Romansh, is official only for communicating with persons of Romansh language. Switzerland is divided into 26 cantons, six of which are sometimes referred to as \"half-cantons,\" since they have less representation in the Council of States. Switzerland has had a long history of being neutral (it has not been in a foreign war since 1815) and therefore hosts various international organizations, such as the United Nations , which, though headquartered in New York City , has many departments in Switzerland.", "Davos (, archaic Italian: Tavate, local German pronunciation, German pronunciation ) is a municipality in the district of Prättigau/Davos in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland. It has a permanent population of (). Davos is located on the river Landwasser, in the Rhaetian Alps, between the Plessur and Albula Range. At 1560 m, it is the highest \"town\" in Europe.", "Switzerland’s oldest city charms visitors with its fine mountain setting, twisting alleys and historic buildings. Numerous boutiques, restaurants, bars, museums and galleries in the largely traffic-free Old Town create a Mediterranean-style atmosphere.", "It includes the entire Old Town, which is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and many sites within and around it. Some of the most notable in the Old Town include the Cathedral which was started in 1421 and is the tallest cathedral in Switzerland, the Zytglogge and Käfigturm towers, which mark two successive expansions of the Old Town, and the Holy Ghost Church, which is one of the largest Swiss Reformed churches in Switzerland. Within the Old Town, there are eleven 16th century fountains, most attributed to Hans Gieng, that are on the list.", "Landesmuseum, Museumstrasse 2, ☎ +41 44 218 65 11, [40] . Tu-Su 10AM-5PM and most public holidays including M. The biggest Swiss history museum. You can also learn about the various traditions of the cantons comprising Switzerland. 10CHF.   edit", "Q5: What is the name of the largest lake in Switzerland and what is its size ?", "The map below shows the major highways in Switzerland and their names plus some major cities." ]

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[ "The watershed divide of the Ural Mountains forms the natural land boundary between the continents of Europe and Asia. The range, averaging 3,000–4,000 ft. in height, extends about 1,640 miles north-south from the Arctic Ocean to the northern steppe of Kazakhstan. At 6,214 ft., Mount Narodnaya in the northern Urals is its highest peak. The densely forested central portion of the range, the Middle Urals, is broader and lower in altitude, a plateau region of 1,000–2,000 ft.", "The Ural Mountains run north to south in western Russia. The eastern side of these mountains is often considered the boundary line or border between the continents of Europe and Asia.", "The Ural Mountains form the natural boundary between Europe and Asia; the range extends about 2100 km from the Arctic Ocean to the northern border of Kazakhstan. Several low passes provide major transportation routes through the Urals eastward from Europe. The highest ", "The Urals are 1,640 miles (2,640 km) in length and extend from the northern-edge of the Russian Federation down through Kazakhstan. They form a natural border between Asia and Europe Russia. The highest point in this mountain range is Mt. Narodnaya at 1,895 m (6,217 ft).", "The Urals rise like a long and narrow spine across western Russia, forming a natural divide between Europe and Asia. The mountain range spans 2,500 kilometers (1,550 miles) passing through Arctic tundra to the north and through forested and semi-desert landscapes to the south.", "The Urals are perhaps the best known of Russia's mountain ranges, as they define the boundary between Asia to the east and Europe to the west. A lengthy range, the Urals extend 2,100 kilometers (1,300 miles) from the northern border of Kazakhstan all the way to the Arctic Ocean. The highest peak, Mount Narodnaya, is only 1,894 meters (6,212 feet) in elevation, however. The Urals have never offered any significant barrier to travel.", "The Urals Mountains separate Europe from Asia. They range from the Arctic Ocean to the border between Russia and Kazakhstan. The highest mountain in the range is Mount Narodnaya in Russia. It is 6,214ft (1,894m) high. The Urals are a narrow mountain range, at its widest point they are only 125 miles (200km) wide.", "Further east is the Ural River, which flows south from the Ural Mountains into Kazakhstan before reaching the Caspian Sea. The Ural River is traditionally considered part of the boundary between Europe and Asia.", "The European continent, bordered by numerous bodies of water, is separated from Asia by Russia's Ural Mountains and by the Caspian and Black Seas. It is separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea.", "Definition of correct border between two continents was a big question for geographers and politicians. Nowadays it is commonly delineated by the Ural Mountains in Russia, the Caspian Sea and Caucasus Mountains.", "The highest peak of the Ural Mountains is 6,217 feet (1,895 meters), far shorter than the peaks of the Alps in Europe or the Caucasus Mountains in southern Russia. The Urals have served as a marker between Europe and Asia for generations but it is not a natural division between land masses. Additionally, the Ural Mountains do not extend very far south at all, they stop well short of the Caspian Sea and throw the Caucasus region into question as to whether they are \"European\" or \"Asian\" countries. (For example, see the hundreds of heated comments on my post, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan in Asia or Europe? )", "By physical geography, Europe and Asia form a single continent. Europe is geographically divided from Asia by Ural and Caucasus ranges and some water bodies. Russia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Kazakhstan are countries which are part of both Asia and Europe.", "Western extremity of the vast Eurasian continent that, by convention, is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains; it covers a relatively small area.", "The Ural Mountains, which extend more than 2,200 kilometers from north to south, form the boundary separating the unequal European and Asian sectors of Russia. The continental divide continues another 1,375 kilometers from the southern end of the Ural Mountains through the Caspian Sea and along the Caucasus Mountains. Asian Russia is about as large as China and India combined, occupying roughly three-quarters of the nation's territory. But it is the European western quarter that is home to more than 75 percent of Russia's inhabitants. This acutely uneven distribution of human and natural resources is a striking feature of Russian geography and population. Despite government attempts to settle people in sparsely populated Asian areas abundant in resources, this imbalance persists. Meanwhile, depletion of water and fuel resources in the European part outpaces exploitation of resource-rich Siberia, the famously forbidding land stretching from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean. From 1970 to 1989, the campaign to settle and exploit western Siberia's plentiful fuel and energy supplies was expensive and only partially successful. Since glasnost ( see Glossary ), revelations of extreme environmental degradation have tarnished the image of the Siberian development program.", "Most of Soviet Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly steppe to the south and heavily forested to the north, with tundra along the northern coast. Soviet Russia possesses 10% of the world's arable land. Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the Caucasus (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest point in both Soviet Russia and Europe) and the Altai (containing Mount Belukha, which at the 4,506 m (14,783 ft) is the highest point of Siberia outside of the Soviet Russian Far East); and in the eastern parts, such as the Verkhoyansk Range or the volcanoes of Kamchatka Peninsula (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at the 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia as well as the highest point of Asian Soviet Russia). The Ural Mountains, rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia.", "* : Europe, west of the Ural Mountains watershed and the Ural River (until it reaches Kazakhstan's border for the first time); to the east, Asia.", "The land boundary between Asia and Europe is a historical and cultural construct that has been defined variously; only as a matter of agreement is it tied to a specific borderline. The most convenient geographic boundary—one that has been adopted by most geographers—is a line that runs south from the Arctic Ocean along the Ural Mountains and then turns southwest along the Emba River to the northern shore of the Caspian Sea ; west of the Caspian, the boundary follows the Kuma-Manych Depression to the Sea of Azov and the Kerch Strait of the Black Sea. Thus, the isthmus between the Black and Caspian seas, which culminates in the Caucasus mountain range to the south, is part of Asia.", "The term \"Siberia\" has a long history. Its meaning has gradually changed during ages. Historically, Siberia was defined as the whole part of Russia to the east of Ural Mountains, including the Russian Far East. According to this definition, Siberia extended eastward from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific coast, and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the border of Russian Central Asia and the national borders of both Mongolia and China. ", "Truly alpine terrain appears in the southern mountain ranges. Between the Black and Caspian seas, the Caucasus Mountains rise to impressive heights, forming a boundary between Europe and Asia. One of the peaks, Mount Elbrus, is the highest point in Europe, at 5,642 meters. The geological structure of the Caucasus extends to the northwest as the Crimean and Carpathian Mountains and southeastward into Central Asia as the Tian Shan and Pamirs. The Caucasus Mountains create an imposing natural barrier between Russia and its neighbors to the southwest, Georgia and Azerbaijan.", "* Russia/Soviet Union spans the continents of Europe and Asia. However, the Russian National Olympic Committee is part of the European Olympic Committees. Also, Moscow is on the European side of the most commonly recognized boundary between Europe and Asia. (Sochi is in Asia per the usual geographic boundary, being just south of the Greater Caucasus' western end; but political approximations of the continental boundary place it in Europe.)", "The existence of the Riphean and Hyperborean mountains at the eastern fringe of Europe in antiquity was regarded as being more mythical than real. Not until the 10th century ce does the first mention of the Urals occur, in Arabic sources. At the end of the 11th century the Russians discovered the northernmost part of the Urals, but they did not complete the discovery of the entire range until the beginning of the 17th century, when the mineral wealth of the Urals was discovered. The first geographic survey of the chain was made in the early 18th century by the Russian historian and geographer Vasily N. Tatishchev , who undertook the survey for Peter I (the Great) . Systematic extraction of iron and copper ore also began at that time, and the Urals rapidly became one of the largest industrial regions of Russia.", "What is Europe, my deputies? There is no geographical definition of our continent, but only an ethnic-national [volkliche] and cultural one. The frontier of this continent is not the Ural mountains, but rather the line that divides the Western outlook on life from that of the East. ", "If one was to draw the EU’s final frontier from a purely physical geography perspective, one would consider the frontiers to be the coastlines to the North, West and South, and the Ural Mountains and The Bosphorus to the East. Whilst the Urals are deep into Russian territory and with Russia clearly not planning to join the EU, some scholars have even stated that the Eastern frontier of EU should finishing at the Dnieper and Don river, which borders Russian territory whilst including The Baltic countries, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova and Romania. However, these physical features of the European territory have never officially been recognised as formal boundaries, making the drawing of a final frontier harder than expected.", "The Urals divide into five sections. The northernmost Polar Urals extend some 240 miles (400 km) from Mount Konstantinov Kamen in the northeast to the Khulga River in the southeast; most mountains rise to 3,300–3,600 feet (1,000–1,100 metres) above sea level, although the highest peak, Mount Payer, reaches 4,829 feet (1,472 metres). The next stretch, the Nether-Polar Urals, extends for more than 140 miles (225 km) south to the Shchugor River. This section contains the highest peaks of the entire range, including Mount Narodnaya (6,217 feet [1,895 metres]) and Mount Karpinsk (6,161 feet [1,878 metres]). These first two sections are typically Alpine and are strewn with glaciers and heavily marked by permafrost.", "Russia (; ), also officially known as the Russian Federation (), is a sovereign state in northern Eurasia. At 17075200 km2, Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of Earth's inhabited land area, and the ninth most populous, with over 146.6 million people at the end of March 2016. Extending across the entirety of northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait.", "The Mughalzhar Hills , themselves part of the Uralian orogenic belt, are a broad, arrowhead-shaped southern extension in northwestern Kazakhstan that form the divide between the Caspian and Aral basins. The north–south course of the Urals is relatively narrow, varying from about 20 to 90 miles (32 to 145 km) in width, but it cuts across the vast latitudinal landscape regions of the Eurasian landmass, from Arctic waste to semidesert. The Urals also are part of a highly developed industrial complex closely tied to the mineral-rich Siberian region and are the home of peoples with roots reaching deep into history.", "The Carpathians are a mountain system located in eastern Europe, and the source of the Dniester, Tisza and Vistula Rivers. They form the natural border between Slovakia and southern Poland, and then extend southward through Ukraine and into Romania.", "Rift structures, such as the Rhine graben and the depressions of Lake Baikal and the Dead Sea, play an important role in fhe topography of Eurasia. Very high seismicity is especially characteristic of recent folded zones and structures of regenerated mountains; only South America compares with Eurasia in terms of the intensity and frequency of destructive earthquakes. Volcanic activity (lava sheets and volcanic cones of Iceland and the Armenian Highland, active volcanoes of Italy, Kamchatka, and the island arcs in the eastern and southeastern parts of Asia, and extinct volcanoes of the Caucasus, Carpathians, and Elburz) often played a part in creating the topography of young elevations.", "Most of Russia lies east of the Ural Mountains. What is the name for this region?", "Extending for 57,792 kilometers, the Russian border is the world's longest--and, in the post-Soviet era, a source of substantial concern for national security. Along the 20,139-kilometer land frontier, Russia has boundaries with fourteen countries. New neighbors are eight countries of the near abroad--Kazakstan in Asia, and, in Europe, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. Other neighbors include the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), China, Mongolia, Poland, Norway, and Finland. And, at the far northeastern extremity, eighty-six kilometers of the Bering Strait separate Russia from a fifteenth neighbor--the United States.", "On the infinite a steppes of Russian territory lay Eastern Europe. A sharp contrast is noticed when comparing central Europe with this enormous space. On both sides of the border is the same earth but not the same man.", "European Russia and the Caucasian States:   12 Ultra-Prominences in the Urals, Novaya Zemlya, and the Caucasus (both the \"European\" and the \"Asian\" sides of the ridges. " ]

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[ "The Capital City of Iraq (officially named Republic of Iraq) is the city of Baghdad. The population of Baghdad in the year 2007 was 29,267,000.", "The capital of Iraq is Baghdad. Covering a total area of 872.7 square miles, Baghdad is the largest city in Iraq and the second-largest in western Asia. As estimated in 2011, the city has a population of approximately 7,216,040. It is located in center-east of Iraq.", "Iraq, officially known as the Republic of Iraq, is a country that is located in Western Asia. It is one of the countries that make up the Middle East. As of 2014, the population in Iraq was 36,004,552, 97 percent of which are Muslims, mainly Shias, Sunnis and ethnic Kurds. The capital of Iraq is Baghdad. The city, located in the center of the country, has a total area of 872.7 square miles. Baghdad is Iraq's largest city and the second-largest in western Asia.", "In conclusion, the capital of Iraq is Baghdad, the largest city. The official languages of the people are Arabic, and Kurdish. The Government is Parliamentary republic as the President is Jalal Talabani and the Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.", "Iraq is located in the Middle East , between Iran and Saudi Arabia . Iraq is also bordered by Jordan and Syria to the west, Kuwait to the south, and Turkey to the north. A very small sliver of the Persian Gulf (58 kilometers, or 36.04 miles) abuts Iraq on its southeast border. With an area of 437,072 square kilometers (168,753 square miles), Iraq is slightly more than twice the size of Idaho . Iraq's capital city, Baghdad , is located in the center of the country. Other major cities include al- Basra in the south and Mosul in the north.", "Major present-day cities within the Mesopotamia region include Baghdad and Basra. Baghdad is the capital of Iraq and is situated by the Tigris River in the central part of the country. Basra is the capital of the Basra Governate and is Iraq's main port. The Basra Governate is located in southern Iraq between Kuwait and Iran. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers meet north of Basra and flow into the Persian Gulf.", "Iraq is bounded by as many as six neighbors, and has recently had adversarial relationships with most of them. The heart of Iraq is the area centered on the capital, Baghdad, situated on the Tigris River amid the productive farmlands of the Tigris-Euphrates Plain.", "Baghdad is both a national and a provincial capital. The governor (muḥāfiẓ) of the Baghdad governorate traditionally has been responsible to the minister of interior, and the city has been administered by a mayor. As the seat of the national government, Baghdad also contained the offices of the president, the Council of Ministers, and the National Assembly . During the Iraq War, the civil and military administration of the occupying forces was headquartered there pending reestablishment of Iraq’s government.", "Most of Iraq’s manufacturing, finance, and commerce is concentrated in and around Baghdad. At least half of the country’s large-scale manufacturing and much of its smaller manufacturing is located in the Baghdad governorate. The exception is heavy industry (petroleum, iron, steel, and petrochemicals), which is situated near the oil fields in the north (Karkūk) and the south (in Al-Baṣrah and Al-Zubayr). Most economic activities are owned or controlled by the government, which both stimulates and monopolizes the country’s economic activities. War and economic sanctions contributed to the steady erosion of the city’s economic base beginning in the 1980s.", "Baghdad accounts for 20 per cent of Iraq's population and 40 per cent of the country's gross domestic product (PPP). Iraqi Airways, the national airline of Iraq, has its headquarters on the grounds of Baghdad International Airport in Baghdad. Al-Naser Airlines has its head office in Karrada, Baghdad. ", "      US troops enter Iraq from Kuwait and rapidly advance north to Baghdad, reaching the city's outskirts by 02 April 2003, while British trooops concentrate on Basra. They encounter little opposition from Hussein's crumbling and disconsolate forces. On 07 April a bombing raid again attempts to kill Hussein, without success, it seems. The last purported public appearance of Hussein occurs on 09 April 2003, at the Adhamiya Mosque in a pro-Hussein northern Baghdad neighborheed. Hussein (or his double?) says to the cheering crowd, \"I salute the Iraqi people and I ask them to defend themselves, their homes, their wives, their children, and their holy shrines. ... I am fighting alongside you in the same trenches.\"", "The region is officially governed by the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), with the capital being Erbil. Kurdistan is a parliamentary democracy with its own regional Parliament that consists of 111 seats. Masoud Barzani, who was initially elected as president in 2005, was re-elected in 2009. In August 2013 the parliament extended his presidency for another two years. His presidency concluded on 19 August 2015 after the political parties failed to reach an agreement over extending his presidency term. The new Iraqi constitution defines the Kurdistan Region as a federal entity of Iraq, and establishes Kurdish and Arabic as Iraq's joint official languages. The four governorates of Duhok, Hawler, Silemani, and Halabja comprise around and have a population of 5.5 million (2015) (2015 estimate). In 2014, during the 2014 Iraq Crisis, Iraqi Kurdistan's forces also took over much of the disputed territories of Northern Iraq.", "On 20 June, Iraq's Central Bank was bombed in an attack that left 15 people dead and brought much of downtown Baghdad to a standstill. The attack was claimed to have been carried out by the Islamic State of Iraq. This attack was followed by another attack on Iraq's Bank of Trade building that killed 26 and wounded 52 people. ", "Baghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015. The city historically had a predominantly Sunni population, by the early 21st century around half of the city's population were Iraqi Shia. Following ethnic cleansing campaigns by Sunni and then Shia militia groups during the U.S. occupation of Iraq the city's population became overwhelmingly Shia and despite the government's promise to resettle Sunnis displaced by the violence, little has been done to bring this about. The Iraqi Civil War following ISIS' invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city. The city currently has Shia, Sunni, Christian and mixed neighborhoods but is the world's second largest Shia city after Tehran. ", "Between 661 and 750, Iraq was a dominion of the Umayyad Caliphate , which ruled from Damascus (now in Syria ). The Abbasid Caliphate , which ruled the Middle East and North Africa from 750 to 1258, decided to build a new capital closer to the political power hub of Persia. It built the city of Baghdad, which became a center of Islamic art and learning.", "[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/Iraq.htm \"Cities and urban areas in Iraq with population over 100,000\"], Mongabay.com the second largest city in the Arab world (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran). According to the government, the population of the country has reached 35 million, with 9 million in the capital. ", "BAGHDAD, Iraq - Nearly two years after American troops captured Baghdad, Haifa Street is like an arrow at the city's heart. A little more than two miles long, it runs south through a canyon of mostly abandoned high-rises and majestic date palms almost to the Assassin's Gate, the imperial-style arch that is the main portal to the Green Zone compound, the principal seat of American power.", "Most Iraqi reconstruction efforts have been devoted to the restoration and repair of badly damaged urban infrastructure. More visible efforts at reconstruction through private development, like architect and urban designer Hisham N. Ashkouri's Baghdad Renaissance Plan and the Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Center have also been made.", "One of the first changes the Abbasids made after taking power from the Umayyads was to move the empire's capital from Damascus, in the Levant, to Iraq. The latter region was influenced by Persian history and culture, and moving the capital was part of the Persian mawali demand for Arab influence in the empire. The city of Baghdad was constructed on the Tigris River, in 762, to serve as the new Abbasid capital. ", "On 20 August 2014 Renzi traveled to Iraq, in the midst of the insurgency led by the Islamic State. There he met with the Head of State, Fuad Masum, Prime Minister Haider al-Abadi and his immediate predecessor Nouri al-Maliki. On the same day, 20 August 2014, Renzi travelled north to Erbil to meet the President of Iraqi Kurdistan, Mas'ud Barzani, and Prime Minister Nechervan Barzani. Renzi later told an American journalist that what he witnessed during his trip to Iraq reminded him of the images of the Srebrenica massacre that had horrified him as a child. While Renzi was in Iraq, the Italian Parliament approved a proposal to arm the Peshmerga soldiers fighting against the Islamic State. ", "Archaeological evidence shows that the site of Baghdad was occupied by various peoples long before the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia in 637 ce, and several ancient empires had capitals located in the vicinity. (See Babylon ; Seleucia on the Tigris ; Ctesiphon .) The true founding of the city, however, dates to 762, when the site, located between present-day Al-Kāẓimiyyah and Al-Karkh and occupied by a Persian village called Baghdad, was selected by al-Manṣūr , the second caliph of the ʿAbbāsid dynasty , for his capital. His city, Madīnat al-Salām (“City of Peace”), was built within circular walls and called “the Round City.” More a government complex than a residential city, it was about 3,000 yards (2,700 metres) in diameter and had three concentric walls. Its four equal quarters were used mainly to house the caliph’s retinue. Four main roads led from the caliph’s palace and the grand mosque at the centre to various parts of the empire.", "Iraq, Pogodinskaya street, 12 (Kievskaya or Sportivnaya metro station), ☎ +7 (499) 246-5506, 246-5507, 246-5508, 248-3813 ( mosemb@iraqmofamail.net , fax: +7 (499) 246-2734).   edit", "Identification. Modern Iraq covers almost the same area as ancient Mesopotamia, which centered on the land between the Tigres and the Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamia, also referred to as the Fertile Crescent, was an important center of early civilization and saw the rise and fall of many cultures and settlements. In the medieval era, Iraq was the name of an Arab province that made up the southern half of the modern-day country. In today's Republic of Iraq, where Islam is the state religion and claims the beliefs of 95 percent of the population, the majority of Iraqis identify with Arab culture. The second-largest cultural group is the Kurds, who are in the highlands and mountain valleys of the north in a politically autonomous settlement. The Kurds occupy the provinces of As Sulaymaniyah, Dahuk and Irbil, the area of which is commonly referred to as Kurdistan.", "In April, an Iraqi-led military effort retook the city of Tikrit, the symbolically-important hometown of Saddam Hussein. The subsequent return of 80 percent of internally displaced persons to the city by the end of the year was a major milestone in the effort against ISIL, and the Iraqi government coordinated closely with the international community to stabilize the city. In November, Peshmerga forces retook the town of Sinjar, a city that came to the world’s attention with brutal attacks by ISIL against the Yezidi community in the summer of 2014. At the end of the year, newly-empowered Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) units, accompanied by local Sunni fighters, liberated large parts of Ramadi, the capital of Anbar Province and a strategically important hub.", "Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in 1932. A \"republic\" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series of military strongmen ruled the country, the latest was SADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions over a period of 12 years resulted in the US-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. Coalition forces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degraded infrastructure and facilitating the establishment of a freely elected government, while simultaneously dealing with a robust insurgency. The Coalition Provisional Authority transferred sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim Government (IG) on 28 June 2004.", "Iraqi jets have bombed targets in the capital and special forces have landed at the defence ministry and at the Emir's palace. Road blocks are in place and there are reports of looting in the city's shops.", "In 1985, Saddam Hussein started rebuilding the city on top of the old ruins (because of this, artifacts and other finds may well be under the city by now), investing in both restoration and new construction. He inscribed his name on many of the bricks in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: \"This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq\". This recalls the ziggurat at Ur , where each individual brick was stamped with \"Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, who built the temple of Nanna \". These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after the downfall of Hussein, and the ruins are no longer being restored to their original state. He also installed a huge portrait of himself and Nebuchadnezzar at the entrance to the ruins, and shored up Processional Way, a large boulevard of ancient stones, and the Lion of Babylon , a black rock sculpture about 2,600 years old.", "The government of Iraq is spending $6 billion to rebuild this city at almost head-spinning speed, turning a town left virtually demolished by the war with Iran into \"Iraq's most beautiful and elegant city.\" Workers have built bridges, replaced buildings, fixed roads, added new water and electricity systems and have even begun replacing palm trees decapitated by artillery fire. Officials plan to erect nearly 100 statues of war heroes, with their fingers pointing forbiddingly in the direction of neighboring Iran.", "A parliamentary election, held in Iraq on 7 March 2010, resulted in a partial victory for the Iraqi National Movement, led by former Interim Prime Minister Ayad Allawi, which won a total of 91 seats. The State of Law Coalition, led by incumbent Prime Minister Nouri Al-Maliki, was the second largest grouping with 89 seats. Although the parliament opened on 14 June 2010, formation of a new government did not occur until 11 November. The usual suspects returned; Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani as president, Nouri al-Maliki as prime minister and a disillusioned Ayad Allawi as head of a new security council. Allawi, in an editorial in the Washington Times, Apr 9, 2012, claimed, \"Mr. al-Maliki presides over an increasingly Kafkaesque bureaucracy characterized by corruption and brutality, relying on the compromised judiciary as a weapon against political opponents while concealing the crimes of his cronies.\" Allawi's statement comes after U.S. troops formally left Iraq in accord with the December 2011 schedule and previous al-Maliki supporter, cleric Moqtada al-Sadr called for the dissolution of the countrys parliament and asked for new elections.", "Depart after breakfast for the city of Babylon. Upon arrival tour the ancient city and one of the largest of Mesopotamia. Totally rebuilt under Saddam who practically resurrected a site which was nothing but crumbling hills. The entire central palace of Babylon shines in 20th century fired bricks and yes, it is impressive to walk through these vast courts and to think that Alexander the Great died in this same throne room, surrounded by his mourning generals.", "The city has been rebuilt or reconstructed in Iraq . The actual ruins and artifacts are likely buried under the reconstruction.", "The report from the Information Service of the Iraqi Parliament is available here . The flag-relevant paragraph is at the end of the document." ]

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[ "Examples include Houghton Regis in Bedfordshire, Salcombe Regis in Devon, Bere Regis, Melcombe Regis and Lyme Regis in Dorset, Milton Regis in Kent, Beeston Regis in Norfolk, Grafton Regis in Northamptonshire, Brompton Regis in Somerset, Newton Regis in Warwickshire and Rowley Regis in the West Midlands.", "Lyme Regis is a coastal town in West Dorset, England, situated 25 miles west of Dorchester and 25 miles (40 km) east of Exeter. The town lies in Lyme Bay, on the English Channel coast at the Dorset-Devon border. It is nicknamed \"The Pearl of Dorset.\" In the 13th century it developed into one of the major British ports. The town was home to Admiral Sir George Somers, its one time mayor and parliamentarian, who founded the Somers Isles, better known as Bermuda. Lyme Regis is twinned with St. George's, in that Atlantic archipelago. The town has a population of 4,406, 45% of whom are retired.[2]. Lyme is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086. The Royal Charter was granted by King Edward I in 1284, with the addition of 'Regis' to the town's name. This charter was confirmed by Elizabeth I in 1591.", "On the south coast of West Sussex in the lea of Selsey Bill is the seaside town of Bognor Regis. Bognor was given the title \"Regis\" in 1929 by King George V, who convalesced here. This is one of the sunniest places in Britain, with lovely clean beaches, parks and gardens, lively cafes, restaurants and pubs.", "Bognor Regis is a seaside resort town and civil parish, administratively in the Arun district of the non metropolitan county of West Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex, on the south coast of England. It is south-west of London, 24 mi west of Brighton, and south-east of the city of Chichester. Other nearby towns include Littlehampton east-north-east and Selsey to the south-west. The nearby villages of Felpham, and Aldwick are now suburbs of Bognor Regis, along with those of North and South Bersted.", "Lyme Regis is a coastal town in West Dorset, England, situated 25 miles west of Dorchester and 25 miles (40 km) east of Exeter. The town lies in Lyme Bay, on the English Channel coast at the Dorset–Devon border. It is nicknamed \"The Pearl of Dorset.\" The town is noted for the fossils found in the cliffs and beaches, which are part of the Heritage Coast—known commercially as the Jurassic Coast—a World Heritage Site. The harbour wall, \"The Cobb\", features in Jane Austen's novel Persuasion, and in the film and novel, The French Lieutenant's Woman, by local writer John Fowles.", "Lyme Regis is a coastal town in West Dorset, England, situated 25 miles (40 km) west of Dorchester and 25 miles (40 km) east of Exeter. The town lies in Lyme Bay, on the English Channel coast at the Dorset–Devon border. It is nicknamed \"The Pearl of Dorset.\" The town is noted for the fossils found in the cliffs and beaches, which are part of the Heritage Coast—known commercially as the Jurassic Coast—a World Heritage Site.", "Lyme Regis is a coastal town in West Dorset, England, situated 25 mi west of Dorchester and 25 mi east of Exeter. The town lies in Lyme Bay, on the English Channel coast at the Dorset–Devon border. It is nicknamed \"The Pearl of Dorset.\" The town is noted for the fossils found in the cliffs and beaches, which are part of the Heritage Coast—known commercially as the Jurassic Coast—a World Heritage Site.", "Riding, or as in Lincolnshire, a Trithing, jurisdiction of a third part of a county, the government of a Reeve or under placed Sheriff. Originally the officer who presided over a Trithing was known as a Tri thing-man. \" the largest divisional area, the Ga \" Originally \" Scir or (that is, the Shire) was probably always defined by some natural boundary, as a river, a and it is tolerably forest, or a mountain range certain that some of the Shires bore the names by which they are still known quite a century in advance of Alfred's time. At the present day certain of the geographical counties are divided into smaller administrative In Yorkshire they are the Ridings, counties. and in Lincolnshire the Trithings, each having In Yorkshire, the the jurisdiction of a county. the divisions are known largest English county, as North East the the Riding, Riding, respectively and the West Riding. The extensive area of Lincolnshire is par\" \" titioned into three ; they are known as parts Holland, Kesteven, and Lindsey. There is an East and a West Sussex, with Quarter Sessions at Lewes for the former, and at Horsham and Chichester for the latter, though the Assizes are held at Lewes only. There is also an East and a West Suffolk, administered from Ipswich and Bury St. Edmunds bly.", "    *ALDBOROUGH, Suffolk; *BEAUMARIS; BERWICK, (North); *BIDEFORD, Devon; BRISTOL; BURNTISLAND; CAMBRIDGE; *CARDIGAN; DARTMOUTH, Devon; *DUNWICH, Suffolk; *EAST LOW, Cornwall, *FOWEY, Cornwall; *HARWICH, Essex(crest); HASTINGS, Sussex; *HYTHE, Kent; IPSWICH, Suffolk; LYDD, Kent; *LYMINGTON, Hants; *MALDON, Essex(rev.); *NEWTOWN, Hants; PLYMOUTH, Devon; QUEENSFERRY, Scotland; RENFREW, Scotland; SANDWICH, Kent; TENTERDEN, Kent; TRURO, Cornwall; WATERFORD, Ireland; WEXFORD, Ireland; WEYMOUTH, Dorset; WINCHELSEA, Sussex; *YARMOUTH, Hants.", "Cambridgeshire ( or; abbreviated Cambs.), formerly known as the County of Cambridge, is an East Anglian county in England, bordering Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the north-east, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, and Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire to the west. The city of Cambridge is the county town. Modern Cambridgeshire was formed in 1974 as an amalgamation of the counties of Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely and Huntingdon and Peterborough, which had been created in 1965 from the historic counties of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, the Isle of Ely and the Soke of Peterborough. It contains most of the region known as Silicon Fen.", "The name of a county often gives a clue to how it was formed, either as a division that took its name from a centre of administration, an ancient kingdom, or an area occupied by an ethnic group. The majority of English counties are in the first category, with the name formed by combining the central town with the suffix \"-shire\", for example Yorkshire. Former kingdoms, which became earldoms in the united England did not feature this formulation; so for Kent, the former kingdom of the Jutes, \"Kentshire\" was not used. Counties ending in the suffix \"-sex\" are also in this category and are former Saxon kingdoms. Many of these names are formed from compass directions. The third category includes counties such as Cornwall and Devon where the name corresponds to the tribes who inhabited the area. County Durham is anomalous in terms of naming and origin, not falling into any of the three categories. Instead it was a diocese that was turned into the County Palatine of Durham, ruled by the Bishop of Durham. The expected form would otherwise be \"Durhamshire\", but it has never been used.", "With a population of 400,000, and metropolitan area of 550,000, it is England's sixth, and the United Kingdom 's ninth, most populous city, and one of England's core cities. It received a royal charter in 1155 and was granted county status in 1373. For half a millennium it was the second or third largest English city, until the rapid rise of Liverpool , Manchester and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution of the 1780s. It borders on the unitary districts of Bath and North East Somerset, North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, and has a short coastline on the Bristol Channel.", "Somerset may possibly have been named from the Saxon Sumerton, because of the summerthe Welsh for the like temperature of the locality Dorset is same reason called it Glad-arhaf. believed to reveal the name of the Durotriges, or dwellers by the water.\" In the will of Alfred the Great, Dorset, SomerDevon are enumerated as set, Wilts, and a Wealhcynne,\" phrase which proves that these counties were then Celtic in blood and language, although politically they belonged to the Wiltshire may Anglo-Saxon Commonwealth. be Wilton Wilton-shire, being a conpossibly traction of Wily-town, a town inhabited by a mixed race, on the river Wiley. Worcester, the British name for which was In Wigorn, was the country of the Hwiccas. the name charters Anglo-Saxon appears as '", "Cheshire (archaically the County Palatine of Chester; abbreviated Ches.) is a ceremonial county in northwest England , in the United Kingdom . The western edge of the county forms part of England's border with Wales . Cheshire's county town is the city of Chester , although the largest town is Warrington , which until 1974 was in Lancashire . Other major towns include Widnes , Congleton , Crewe , Ellesmere Port , Runcorn , Macclesfield , Winsford , Northwich , and Wilmslow . Until the nationwide municipal reorganization of 1974 the county contained the Wirral , Stockport , Sale , Altrincham and other towns which are now part of Merseyside or Greater Manchester .", "Winchester is a historic city and former capital city of England. It is the county town of Hampshire, in South England. The city lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a local government district, and is located at the western end of the South Downs, along the course of the River Itchen. At the time of the 2001 Census, Winchester had a population of 41,420.", "The suffix -bury or sometimes byrig\"; byrig is the Anglo-Saxon word meaning \"fort\" or \"town\", which is frequently, but not exclusively, used to refer to hill-forts. The first part of the name may come from the River Cam as with nearby villages the villages of West Camel and Queen Camel. Other scholars suggest a derivation from some figure named \"Cador\" or \"Cada\". It is one of three sites in Somerset to include the Cadbury name, the others being Cadbury Camp, near Tickenham and Cadbury Hill which is also known as Cadbury-Congresbury to distinguish it from the other sites.", "    ABERDEEN; BARNSTAPLE; BEDFORD; BERKHAMSTEAD, (Hertford); BISHOPS CASTLE, (Salop); BOSNEY, (Cornwall); BRIDPORT; BRIDGEWATER, (Somerset), BRIDGENORTH, (Salop); BRISTOL; CARDIGAN; CARLISLE; CARMARTHEN; CLITHERO, (Lancashire); CORFE, (Dorset); DENBIGH; DEVIZES; DONCASTER; DORCHESTER, (Dorset); DUBLIN; DUNBAR; EDINBURGH; EXETER; FORFAR, (Scotland); GUILDFORD, (Surrey); HAVERFORDWEST; KINGHORN, (Scotland); KNARESBOROUGH; LANCASTER; LAUNCESTON, (Cornwall), LINCOLN, LUDGERSHALL; MALMESBURY; NEWBURY; NEWCASTLE under Lyne; NEWCASTLE under Tyne, (three); NORTHAMPTON; NORWICH; ORFORD; PEMBROKE; PLYMOUTH; PONTEFRACT; QUEENBORO'; SAFFRON WALDEN; STAFFORD; TAUNTON; TEWKESBURY; THETFORD; TIVERTON; WARWICK; WINCHESTER(five); WORCESTER; YARMOUTH, (Hants).", "St Helens () is a large town in Merseyside, England. It is the largest settlement and administrative centre of the Metropolitan Borough of St Helens with a population of 102,629, while the entire metropolitan borough had a population of 176,843 at the 2001 Census. The town was incorporated as a municipal borough in 1868, responsible for the administration of four townships, Eccleston, Parr, Sutton and Windle, and as a county borough in 1887 (superseded in 1974 by the metropolitan borough).", "Alan Abbey is convinced there is little doubt the town had its origins in the Anglo-Saxon period when ‘Saeda’ or ‘Ceda’ was a common name element so it can be presumed that Sittingbourne acquired its name at that time and that the stream flowing through the settlement played an important role in naming it. In support of this Alan refers to a reference to ‘Sidyngbourn’ which can be found in Saxon documents dated A.D. 989 as well as in contemporary records of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Judith Glover mentions the town in her book The Place Names of Kent when she spelt it ‘Saedingaburne’ and suggested it translated to ‘the stream of the slope dwellers’. Yes, the town had a stream and yes, it was partly on a slope. Ms Glover’s suggestion is endorsed by the Oxford Dictionary of Placenames which spells the name as Sidingeburn and dates it to AD 1200.", "Cambridgeshire includes two shires or separate jurisdictions, the shire proper and Ely. The shire proper has its county town at Cambridge, where the assizes and quarter sessions are held, and is divided into six petty sessional divisions, viz.: - Arrington and Melbourne (sittings at Arrington and Melbourne), Bottisham (sittings at Bottisham), Cambridge (sittings at Chesterton), Caxton (sittings at Caxton), Linton (sittings at Linton), Newmarket (sittings at Newmarket). The Isle of Ely has separate coroners.", "At the time of the Domesday Survey Kent comprised sixty hundreds, and there was a further division into six lests, probably representing the shires of the ancient kingdom, of which two, Sutton and Aylesford, correspond with the present-day lathes. The remaining four, Borowast Lest, Estre Lest, Limowast Lest and Wiwart Lest, existed at least as early as the 9th century, and were apparently named from their administrative centres, Burgwara (the burg being Canterbury), Eastre, Lymne and Wye, all of which were meeting places of the Kentish Council. The five modern lathes (Aylesford, St Augustine, Scray, Sheppey and Sutton-at-Hone) all existed in the time of Edward I., with the additional lathe of Bedding, which was absorbed before the next reign in that of St Augustine. The Nomina Villaruin of the reign of Edward II. mentions all the sixty-six modern hundreds, more than two-thirds of which were at that date in the hands of the church.", "The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest town and administrative seat of the county which includes the principle settlements of Bromsgrove, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, Malvern, and Redditch, and a number of smaller towns such as Pershore, Tenbury Wells, and Upton upon Severn. The northern part of the county includes the beginnings of the vast urban sprawl of the industrial Midlands agglomeration, while the remainder and the south of the county is largely rural.", "Kendal was the largest town in the County of Westmorland (though not the capital which was  Appleby ), before it became part of Cumbria. It was a one of the country’s main manufacturing towns from the 14th Century until the 19th Century, with many mills on the River Kent. There are four  road bridges  in Kendal over the River Kent.", "Bottisham, Burwell, Cheveley, Dullingham Villages, Ely East, Ely North, Ely South, Ely West, Fordham Villages, Haddenham, Isleham, Soham North, Soham South, Stretham, The Swaffhams.", "The main coastal towns are, from the west to the north-east, Minehead, Watchet, Burnham-on-Sea, Weston-super-Mare, Clevedon and Portishead. The coastal area between Minehead and the eastern extreme of the administrative county's coastline at Brean Down is known as Bridgwater Bay, and is a National Nature Reserve. ", "\" A key to English place names \" provides an up-to-date guide to the interpretation of the names of England's cities, towns and villages. This site uses the same pre 1974 county boundaries as this GENUKI.site.", "Almost all of the county is covered by the lowest/most local form of English local government, the civil parish, with either a town or parish council (a city council in the instance of Wells) or a parish meeting; some parishes group together, with a single council or meeting for the group. The city of Bath (the area of the former county borough) and much of the town of Taunton are unparished areas.", "In the Saxon period Hatfield was known as Hetfelle, but by the year 970, when King Edgar gave 5,000 acres (20 km2) to the monastery of Ely , it had become known as Haethfeld. Hatfield is mentioned in the Domesday Book as the property of the Abbey of Ely, and unusually, the original census data which compilers of Domesday used still survives, giving us slightly more information than in the final Domesday record. [4] No other records remain until 1226, when Henry III granted the Bishops of Ely rights to an annual four-day fair and a weekly market. The town was then called Bishop's Hatfield .", "\"Shire\" also refers, in a narrower sense, to ancient counties with names that ended in \"shire\". These counties are typically (though not always) named after their county town.", "L Lacey origin = british \"of lassy, france origin = ='home of the man from the lacian district of italy'\" or, form of lacy.", "The Anglo-Saxons called the town Baðum, Baðan or Baðon, meaning \"at the baths,\" and this was the source of the present name. In 675, Osric, King of the Hwicce, set up a monastic house at Bath, probably using the walled area as its precinct. King Offa of Mercia gained control of this monastery in 781 and rebuilt the church, which was dedicated to St. Peter. Bath had become a royal possession. The old Roman street pattern was by now lost, and King Alfred laid out the town afresh, leaving its south-eastern quadrant as the abbey precinct. Edgar of England was crowned king of England in Bath Abbey in 973.", "The Anglo-Saxons called the town Baðum, Baðan or Baðon, meaning \"at the baths,\" and this was the source of the present name. In 675, Osric, King of the Hwicce, set up a monastic house at Bath, probably using the walled area as its precinct. King Offa of Mercia gained control of this monastery in 781 and rebuilt the church, which was dedicated to St. Peter. Bath had become a royal possession. The old Roman street pattern was by now lost, and King Alfred laid out the town afresh, leaving its south-eastern quadrant as the abbey precinct. Edgar of England was crowned king of England in Bath Abbey in 973." ]

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[ "Maldives, officially the Republic of Maldives and also referred to as the Maldives Islands, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean consisting of a double chain of twenty-six atolls, orientated north-south, that lie between Minicoy Island (the southernmost part of Lakshadweep, India) and the Chagos Archipelago. The chains stand in the Laccadive Sea, about 700 kilometers (430 mi) south-west of Sri Lanka and 400 kilometers (250 mi) south-west of India.", "The Maldives (,, or), officially the Republic of Maldives (, Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), is an island country in the Indian Ocean. It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka. The chain of twenty six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu Atoll in the south. Comprising a territory spanning roughly 90000 km2, the Maldives is one of the world's most geographically dispersed countries, as well as the smallest Asian country by both land area and population, with a little over over 393,500 inhabitants. Malé is the capital and largest city, traditionally called the \"King's Island\" for its central location. ", "The Maldives is an archipelago (pronounced ar-keh-PELL-ah-go; a group or chain of islands) of almost 1,200 coral islands in the Indian Ocean, located about 420 miles (675 kilometers) southwest of Sri Lanka. The archipelago is 511 miles (823 kilometers) long and 81 miles (130 kilometers) at its greatest width. The total area including land and sea is approximately 34,750 square miles (90,000 square kilometers). About 2 percent of this is land.", "The Maldives, a group of about 1,200 islands, separated into a series of coral atolls, is just north of the Equator in the Indian Ocean . Only 200 of the islands are inhabited. It has a population of 393,988 and celebrates their National Day on July 26th.", "The Maldives is an island nation in the Indian Ocean consisting of about 1,200 islands. Covering an area of 300 square kilometers, it is the smallest country in Asia. With an average ground level of 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) above sea level, it is the planet's lowest country. Rich in coral reefs and endangered fish, the Maldives makes for the perfect holiday and diving destination. However, the sea level in the area rises some 3.5 inches every year due to global warming. Many atolls in the area have already permanently disappeared from the world map. It is estimated that this \"Last Paradise on Earth\" will no longer be inhabitable in another 100 years.", "The Maldives is a fascinating place; an island state marked by a mysterious past and incomparable natural beauty. Everything here revolves around one thing: the ocean. A geological eccentricity nestled in the middle of the Indian Ocean, the Maldives are a series of ancient coral reefs that grew up around the sides of towering prehistoric volcanoes. These immense structures have long since sunk into the ocean, leaving behind coral islands of incredible natural beauty, now themselves being colonised by travellers seeking unbridled pampering and romance.", "The Maldives consists of 1,192 coral islands grouped in a double chain of 26 atolls, along the north-south direction, spread over roughly 90000 km², making this one of the world's most dispersed countries. It lies between latitudes 1°S and 8°N, and longitudes 72° and 74°E. The atolls are composed of live coral reefs and sand bars, situated atop a submarine ridge 960 km long that rises abruptly from the depths of the Indian Ocean and runs north to south.", "If you are lucky enough to sail south and west of Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean, you'll find the Maldives, a group of about 1,200 coral islands and sandbanks that form the Republic of Maldives. Many islands in that independent nation demonstrate the archetypal atoll, and geographers often use them to point out the characteristic features of such coral islands. Given how prevalent atolls are there, it isn't surprising that atoll comes from the name for that kind of island in Divehi, the official language of the Maldives.", "The government of the Maldives held a cabinet meeting underwater on Friday in an attempt to bring attention to the dire consequences of global warming. The Maldives, located in the Indian Ocean, is the lowest-lying nation on earth. It could be submerged by rising sea levels. For the underwater meeting, President Mohamed Nasheed and eleven of his government ministers, wore scuba gear and plunged nearly twenty feet into the Indian Ocean. Maldives President Mohamed Nasheed: We are actually trying to send our message, let the world know what is happening and what might—what will happen to the Maldives if climate change is not checked. This is a challenging situation. And we want to see that everyone else is also occupied as much as we are and would like to see that people actually do something about it.", "A popular tourist destination in the Indian Ocean, the Maldives is the smallest country in Asia in terms of area and population. There are over 1,192 coral islands in the Maldives, which are spread over 90,000 sq.km, making it one of the world's most dispersed countries. The country was once the colony of many empires, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the British, but became an independent country in 1965. Today, the Maldives has a vibrant tourism economy due to its famous white sand beaches and crystal blue waters.", "The Maldives archipelago located in the Indian ocean comprises 1090 Islands in total. But there is only 200 inhabited Islands in Maldives. This beautiful country only has a land area of 298 square kilometers and a population of 3,93,500. The Maldives have been inhabited since the 5th century B.C. The Portuguese, Dutch and British empires have dominated this country respectively in 16th, 17th and 19th century. Finally Maldives became an independent country in 1965.", "Republic of Maldives, a republic occupying an archipelago of 1087 coral islands in the Indian Ocean, southwest of Sri Lanka: came under British protection in 1887; became independent in 1965 and a republic in 1968; a member of the Commonwealth. The economy and infrastructure were severely damaged in the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004. Official language: Divehi. Official religion: (Sunni) Muslim. Currency: rufiyaa. Capital: Malé. Pop: 393 988 (2013 est). Area: 298 sq km (115 sq miles) Also known as the Maldive Islands", "Just north of the Equator in the Indian Ocean to the southwest of India lie the Maldives, a group of low-lying islands that consists of twenty-six atolls encompassing a territory of only about 115 square miles. Within the atolls are approximately 1,200 small islands, of which about 200 are inhabited. Portugal controlled the Maldives from 1558 during their colonial expansion into Asia. Holland took over from the Portuguese in 1654. The Maldives became a British protectorate in 1887, which lasted until 1965, when independence was achieved. Three years later the country became a republic. The Maldives is a country with many extremes. It is Asia’s smallest nation in both physical area and population. The island nation has the smallest physical area of any country with a majority Muslim population. The average elevation—four feet, eleven inches above sea level—is the lowest in the world for any country.", "The Maldives archipelago is located atop the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge, a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean, which also forms a terrestrial ecoregion, together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep. With an average ground-level elevation of above sea level, it is the world's lowest country, with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world, at . Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels, the government has pledged to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019. ", "Republic of the Maldives is a chain of around 1200 islands stretching 750km across the Indian Ocean with the northernmost island at 7° 06\" N and the southernmost island just crossing the Equator at 04° 42\" S.", "For many people around the world, the Indian Ocean archipelago of the Maldives is a famous tourist destination renowned for its pristine beaches and scenic beauty. The Maldives, which is made up of around 1200 islands, has several records to its name. It is the smallest nation in Asia in terms of not only area, but also of population with just some 350,000 inhabitants.", "The azure islands of Maldives make up the smallest nation in Asia in both the population and the area. It is not only one of the tiniest countries in the world but also one of the most disparate countries as the Maldivian atolls are spread over 90,000 km² in the Indian Ocean. Moreover, the Maldives is the lowest country on the globe, with an average ground level of 1.5 m (4.11 ft) above sea level. The official language of around 400,000 citizens inhabiting the islands is Divehi (Mahl), though English is widely spoken.", "              Republic of the Maldives, or Divedhi Raajjeyge Jumburiya, lying about 675 km south-west of Sri Lanka, consists of more than 1200 small coral islands (199 inhabited), grouped in 19 atolls, in the northern Indian Ocean.", "The Indian Ocean also contains numerous atoll formations. Examples are found in the Maldive and Chagos island groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island group.", "Discover over a thousand iridescent islands glistening amongst the indigo lagoons of the Indian Ocean. Suspended off the southern tip of India, the Maldives is the epitome of pure escapism. Here world-class luxury is set amidst white sands and the turquoise calm belies the burst of colour and life of the underwater gardens below. ", "On the East. The Western limit of the Laccadive Sea [A line running from Sadashivgad Lt. on West Coast of India () to Corah Divh () and thence down the West side of the Laccadive and Maldive Archipelagos to the most Southerly point of Addu Atoll in the Maldives].", "The republic of Seychelles is an island state comprised of an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean about 1500km. off the coast of East Africa, northeast of Madagascar . The 115 islands are divided into the following six groups: the inner Seychelles, Aldabra Islands, Amirante islands, Alphonse group, Farquhar group, and southern coral group.", "Maldives Islands is an archipelago comprising 1,190 low-lying coral islands scattered across the equator, in groups of 26 naturally occurring atolls which are divided into 20 for administrative purposes.", "‘The Maldives include nearly 1,200 islands in 15 major atolls spanning approximately 470 miles to just south of the equator.’", "Tourism is the largest economic industry in the Maldives. A tourist resort in the Maldives consists of an exclusive hotel on its own island, with its population entirely based on tourists and work force, with no local people or houses. These islands developed for tourism are approximately 800 by 200 metres in size and are composed of sand and coral to a maximum height of about 2 metres above the sea. In addition to its beach encircling the island, each island has its own \"house reef\" which serves as a coral garden and natural aquarium for scuba divers and snorkelers. The shallow water enclosed by the house reef also serves as a large natural swimming pool and protects swimmers from the ocean waves and strong tidal currents outside the house reef. (Source: Wikipedia)", "The Maldives is the smallest Asian country in both population and land area. With an average ground level of 1.5 meters (4 ft 11 in) above sea level, it is the planet’s lowest country. It is also the country with the lowest natural highest point in the world, at 2.4 meters (7 ft 10 in). Not surprisingly, forecasts of Maldives’ inundation are a great concern for the Maldivian people", "It is believed that Maldives is formed atop inactive super volcanoes, each atoll is such a volcano with islands formed on the rim. That could be the reason the islands in each atoll is somewhat circular in shape.", "The atolls consist of live coral reefs and sand bars, and land with an average elevation of 1.5m above sea level - making the archipelago the lowest country on earth. The highest point in the Maldives is only at 2.4 meters.", "On the Maldives map atoll names are on both sides in large font size. The dotted white line separates each atoll from the rest of atolls. Some parts of the map show atolls one by one (from top to bottom), in other places the atolls are located side by side which is often referred as double-chain formation. In rough weather the outer atoll seas are more choppy, but in fine weather it is unnoticeable.", "Paradise awaits you… If your idea of paradise is a pristine tropical island with swaying palm trees and pure white beaches surrounded by crystalline lagoons of varying shades of blue – then the Maldives Islands will definitely fit the bill.", "The Maldives also has its own Local Government, comprised of the Atoll Council that administers each of the 26 atolls. Each inhabited island is governed by an Island Council, whose members are elected into office by the residents of the island that they handle. The Atoll Council members, however, are elected by the Island Council members.", "In February 1989, I had the pleasure of visiting about 20 islands in the Republic of Maldives along with Dr. Colin Woodroffe and a number of engineers from Delft Hydraulics Laboratory over a period of about 10 days. Particularly useful was Dr. Woodroffe's decision to bring along a rod and transom, which made it possible to measure the elevations of a typical transect across several of the islands. The following sections recount some of my observations and courses of action that seem reasonable given what I was able to learn." ]

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[ "The Grand Canyon is a large canyon with steep-sides located in the state of Arizona in the United States. The 446km (277 mi) long Grand Canyon is up to 29 km (18 mi) wide and has a maximum depth of about 1,800 m (6,000 ft). The impressive natural structure was carved by the Colorado River, which runs through the canyon. The Grand Canyon was made a National Monument in 1908 and eventually a National Park in 1919. It has long been a popular destination for local and international tourists and it remains one of the most popular tourist destinations in the country to this day. If you have ever wondered who discovered this popular landmark, keep reading to find out.", "The Grand Canyon ( Hopi : Ongtupqa; [2] Yavapai : Wi:kaʼi:la, Navajo : Tsékooh Hatsoh, Spanish : Gran Cañón) is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in the state of Arizona in the United States. It is contained within and managed by Grand Canyon National Park , the Kaibab National Forest , Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument , the Hualapai Tribal Nation, the Havasupai people and the Navajo Nation . President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery.", "The Colorado River is the major body of water that flows through the Grand Canyon. Two dams affect the flow of the river through the canyon: the Hoover Dam at the lower end of the canyon and the Glen Canyon Dam at the upper end, according to Arizona State University.", "The Grand Canyon is 277 miles (446 km) long, up to 18 miles (29 km) wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6,093 feet or 1,857 meters). [3] Nearly two billion years of Earth's geological history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut their channels through layer after layer of rock while the Colorado Plateau was uplifted . [4] While some aspects about the history of incision of the canyon are debated by geologists, [5] several recent studies support the hypothesis that the Colorado River established its course through the area about 5 to 6 million years ago. [1] [6] [7] Since that time, the Colorado River has driven the down-cutting of the tributaries and retreat of the cliffs, simultaneously deepening and widening the canyon.", "The Colorado River, which flows through the canyon, drains water from seven states, but the feature we know as Grand Canyon is entirely in Arizona. Most of the Grand Canyon lies within Grand Canyon National Park and is managed by the National Park Service. Jump to a larger map.", "The diversity of terrain and outstanding scenic qualities of this region provide innumerable recreational opportunities to visitors. One of the most beloved of American pastimes—river running—can be found on the Colorado River as it churns on its million-year old path through the Grand Canyon. Wilderness hiking, backpacking, bird watching, and other low-impact recreation is unparalleled in the Grand Canyon region and its new monuments.", "The Colorado River winds through the Grand Canyon, February 19, 2016, near the Desert View Watchtower, Arizona.", "The Grand Canyon, is a steep-sided canyon carved by the Colorado River in the state of Arizona in the United States. It is contained within and managed by Grand Canyon National Park, the Hualapai Tribal Nation, the Havasupai Tribe and the Navajo Nation. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery.", "Carved out by the Colorado River, the Grand Canyon (nearly 1,500 m deep) is the most spectacular gorge in the world. Located in the state of Arizona, it cuts across the Grand Canyon National Park. Its horizontal strata retrace the geological history of the past 2 billion years. There are also prehistoric traces of human adaptation to a particularly harsh environment.", "North America’s Colorado River is famous for forming the Grand Canyon in Arizona. For millions of years, the river has cut its way through layers of rock to carve the canyon. Long ago, the river flowed through a flat plain. Then the Earth’s crust began to rise, lifting the land. The river began cutting into the land. The Grand Canyon is now about one and a half kilometers (one mile) deep at its deepest point, and 29 kilometers (18 miles) wide at its widest.", "The Colorado River carved the Grand Canyon over the course of millions of years, creating 277 river miles of deep gorge landscape across the Colorado Plateau in northwestern Arizona. The area is semi-arid, with some sections of the upper plateau of the Grand Canyon dotted with forests, while the canyon bottoms comprise a series of desert basins. The entirety of the national park lies in Arizona, reaching to the state's border with Nevada to the west and Utah to the north.", "In 1963 Glen Canyon Dam and other dams farther upstream started to regulate the flow of the Colorado River through Grand Canyon. Pre-dam but still historic flows of the Colorado through Grand Canyon ranged from 700 to per second with at least one late 19th century flood of 300000 cuft per second. Discharge from Glen Canyon Dam exceeds 48200 cuft per second only when there is danger of overtopping the dam or when the level of Lake Powell otherwise needs to be lowered. An interim conservation measure since 1991 has held maximum flows at 20000 cuft per second even though the dam's power plant can handle 13200 cuft per second more flow.", "The Colorado River cuts deeply into the geologic history of the Grand Canyon. The canyon’s depth varies from almost a vertical mile from Grand Canyon Village along the South Rim to the river to almost 6,000 feet at other locations along the canyon. The canyon’s width ranges from an average of 10 miles across near Grand Canyon Village but may be as wide as 18 miles across from rim to rim.", "Prior to European emigration, the area was inhabited by Native Americans who built settlements within the canyon and its many caves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon (\"Ongtupqa\" in Hopi language) a holy site and made pilgrimages to it. The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon was Garc�a L�pez de C�rdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.[3] In 1869, Major John Wesley Powell, a one-armed Civil War veteran with a thirst for science and adventure, made the first recorded journey through the canyon on the Colorado River. Powell referred to the sedimentary rock units exposed in the canyon as \"leaves in a great story book\".", "Higher flows of river water through Grand Canyon planned The federal Bureau of Reclamation will again increase flows of Colorado River water through the Grand Canyon. Check out this story on azcentral.com: http://azc.cc/2f5ffFB", "Come face to face with 2 billion years of history. It took millions of years for the rushing tides of the Colorado River to cut through prehistoric rock, creating the Grand Canyon. Here, at Horseshoe Bend, the Colorado River makes a sweeping U-turn.", "In 1869, Major John Wesley Powell led the first expedition down the Canyon. Powell set out to explore the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Gathering nine men, four boats and food for 10 months, he set out from Green River, Wyoming on May 24. Passing through (or portaging around) a series of dangerous rapids, the group passed down the Green River to its confluence with the Colorado River, near present-day Moab, Utah and completed the journey with many hardships through the Grand Canyon on August 13, 1869. [25] In 1871 Powell first used the term \"Grand Canyon\"; previously it had been called the \"Big Canyon\". [26]", "The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico (the other being the Rio Grande). The 1,450-mile (2,330 km) Colorado River drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states. Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S., the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona–Nevada border, where it turns south toward the international border. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the large Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora.", "In Arizona, the river passes Lee's Ferry, an important crossing for early explorers and settlers and since the early 20th century the principal point where Colorado River flows are measured for apportionment to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the basin. Downstream, the river enters Marble Canyon, the beginning of the Grand Canyon, passing under the Navajo Bridges on a now southward course. Below the confluence with the Little Colorado River, the river swings west into Granite Gorge, the most dramatic portion of the Grand Canyon, where the river cuts up to 1 mi into the Colorado Plateau, exposing some of the oldest visible rocks on Earth, dating as long ago as 2 billion years. The 277 mi of the river that flow through the Grand Canyon are largely encompassed by Grand Canyon National Park and are known for their difficult whitewater, separated by pools that reach up to 110 ft in depth. ", "The Colorado River is the most significant river of the southwestern United States. Beginning in Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado, the Colorado River runs southwest for 1,450 miles to the Gulf of California in northwestern Mexico. The Colorado formed numerous canyons along much of its length, most notably the Grand Canyon in Arizona. The Colorado also has significant dams such as Hoover Dam near Las Vegas (forming Lake Mead) and Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona (forming Lake Powell).", "For more than a thousand miles of its course, the Colorado has cut a deep gorge. Where the river system is joined by lateral streams—the Virgin, Kanab, Paria, Escalante, Dirty Devil, and Green rivers from the west, and the Little Colorado, San Juan , Dolores, and Gunnison from the east—a transverse system of narrow, winding deep canyons has been cut. Each entering river and each lateral creek has cut another canyon, and thus the upper and middle parts of the Colorado basin are traversed by a labyrinth of deep gorges. The longest of these unbroken trunk canyons through which the Colorado flows is the spectacular Grand Canyon , extending from the mouth of the Paria to the Grand Wash Stream. Other canyons cut by the river include Marble Canyon, Glen Canyon, and Cataract Canyon. Canyonlands National Park encompasses another of these regions at the juncture of the Green and Colorado rivers in southeastern Utah.", "The Colorado River within the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park drains an area of approximately 41,070 square miles. The major perennial streams feeding into the Colorado (such as Kanab and Havasu creeks, the Little Colorado River and the Paria River) are related to large perennial spring systems on both the north and south sides of the Canyon. However, the majority of water sources are intermittent or ephemeral in nature. The availability of water in these individual systems is closely related to geologic structure, seasonality and annual precipitation. Knowledge of all water sources within Grand Canyon is incomplete. A partial inventory was done in 1979 over a 1,881 square mile area of the park which found 57 perennial water sources, 21 of which are streams and 36 which are seeps. Specific geologic layers, such as the Muav limestone, are the most common sources for these perennial waters.", "The canyon can be seen from the Toroweap (or Tuweep) Overlook situated 3000 vertical feet above the Colorado River, about 50 miles downriver from the South Rim and 70 upriver from the Grand Canyon Skywalk. This region — \"one of the most remote in the United States\" according to the National Park Service — is reached only by one of three lengthy dirt tracks beginning in from St. George, Utah, Colorado City or near Pipe Spring National Monument (both in Arizona). Each road traverses wild, uninhabited land for 97, 62 and 64 miles respectively. The Park Service manages the area for primitive value with minimal improvements and services.", "2. The Colorado River below Grand Canyon Village is 2,400 feet above sea level. Along its 1,450-mile cascade from the Rocky Mountains (near Rocky Mountain NP) to the Gulf of California (although the river no longer gets this far due to over-tapping and trapping of its resource), the Colorado cuts and carves a series of deep canyons, as does its sister drainage, the Green River. The Colorado River drops in elevation some 2,000 feet inside GCNP, creating nearly one hundred and twenty fair-sized to major rapids (not counting some sixty other minor rapids). Some forty to sixty of the rapids are gnarly whitewater, rated Class V (with Class VI considered non runnable). The number of highest-rated rapids also varies and depends on the level of c.f.s. (cubic feet per second). Some rapids either wash out in high or low water, or else worsen.", "The great depth of the Grand Canyon and especially the height of its strata (most of which formed below sea level) can be attributed to 5,000 to 10,000 feet (1500 to 3000 m) of uplift of the Colorado Plateau, starting about 65 million years ago (during the Laramide Orogeny). This uplift has steepened the stream gradient of the Colorado River and its tributaries, which in turn has increased their speed and thus their ability to cut through rock (see the elevation summary of the Colorado River for present conditions).", "The Grand Canyon is a river valley in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the 19 distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world (Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal is much deeper). However, the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically, it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are well preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent.", "The Grand Canyon is a river valley in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the 19 distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world ( Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal is much deeper). However, the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically, it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are well preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent.", "The Green River flows through the western part of the United States and serves as the main tributary of the Colorado River. It is 1,175 kilometers long and is one of the important rivers in North America. Originating from the Wind River Mountain Range of the Rocky Mountains, the river flows through three states – Wyoming, Utah and Colorado. It joins the Colorado River at the Canyonlands National Park located in the state of Utah.", "The two largest rivers are the Rio Grande and Pecos.  The Pecos is actually a tributary of the Rio Grande.", "Previous versions of this article were published in Nature Notes (http://www.grandcanyon.org/canyonviews/NNWinter05.pdf and http://www.grandcanyon.org/canyonviews/NNSpring05.pdf), published by Grand Canyon National Park in cooperation with the Grand Canyon Association, and in Boatman’s Quarterly Review, published by Grand Canyon River Guides.", "In Black Canyon spanning the Colorado River between Arizona and Nevada, about 30 miles southeast of Las Vegas, Nevada.", "Prior to 1921, the upper Colorado River above the confluence with the Green River in Utah had assumed various names. Fathers Dominguez and Escalante named it Rio San Rafael in 1776. Through the mid-1800s, the river between Green River and the Gunnison River was most commonly known as the Grand River. The river above the junction with the Gunnison River, however, was known variously as the Bunkara River, the North Fork of the Grand River, the Blue River, and the Grand River. The latter name did not become consistently applied until the 1870s. " ]

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[ "Hibernia is the Classical Latin name for the island of Ireland . The name Hibernia was taken from Greek geographical accounts. During his exploration of northwest Europe (circa 320 BC), Pytheas of Massilia called the island Ierne (written Ἰέρνη). In his book Geographia (circa 150 AD), Claudius Ptolemaeus (\"Ptolemy\") called the island Iouernia (written Ἰουερνία). It is likely that the Romans saw a connection between these historical names and the Latin word hibernus meaning wintry .", "The proofs are brought forward in the \"Enquiry\" in a chapter devoted to the origin of the name Scotland.� They all proceed upon the assumption that Hibernia was the ancient name of Ireland, although only one of the authors cited, Orosius, identifies the western island with the country he designates Hibernia. But this writer cannot be taken as an authority on such a matter unsupported by more reliable evidence. Pinkerton�s first duty was to prove that Hibernia was the ancient name of the country now known by the name of Ireland, before he undertook to prove that Scotia was an ancient name for the same country. In the first volume of the \"Enquiry,\" when speaking of the references in early Greek and Roman writers to Britain, he does attempt to do this, but the proofs he brings forward in support of it are by no means clear; in fact, they are contradictory, as will be shown below, when an endeavour will be made to prove that Iceland or Scotland was the ancient Hibernia. There is apparently reason for believing that Hibernia was sometimes called Scotia, or vice versa, by early writers; but it is quite a different assertion to say that present Ireland was also called Scotia. The chapter containing the proofs begins thus :�", "Hibernia, the Roman name for Ireland, was taken from Greek geographical accounts, particularly Claudius Ptolemy 's Geographia , where it appears as Iouernia. The spelling Hibernia was likely influenced by the unrelated Latin word hibernus meaning \"wintry.\" Several variant forms of the name existed in Latin.", "The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco-Roman geographers. In his 2nd century work Geography , Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Ivernia ( Greek : Ἰουερνία, Iouerníā)—a Greek alteration of the Q-Celtic name *Īveriū from which eventually arose the Irish names Ériu and Éire—and recorded its geography , as well as sixteen tribes inhabiting every part of the island. The Romans referred to Ireland as Hibernia and later as Scotia. Scoti or Scotti being the common Late Latin term for the Irish Gaels: Ireland was usually referred to in Latin as Scotia Major while Scotland was referred to as Scotia Minor. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used solely to refer to Gaelic-speaking Scotland, known as Dál Riata (modern Argyll), which Gaels from Ireland had begun to colonize starting some time around the 5th century. The Gaelic settlers in Caledonia soon spread out to most of the rest of the country, merging with the Picts to later form the Kingdom of Scotland ( Scottish Gaelic : Alba). The Isle of Man ( Manx : Ellan Vannin) also came under massive Gaelic influence in its history.", "The Romans would later refer to Ireland by this name too in its Latinised form, Hibernia, or Scotia. Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD. The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear. However, a number of finds of Roman coins have been made, for example at the Iron Age settlement of Freestone Hill near Gowran and Newgrange.", "By the classicising 18th century the use of Hibernia had revived in some contexts, just as had the use of Caledonia, one of the Latin terms for Scotland, and Britannia for Britain. \"Hibernia\" was used on Irish coins and companies such as the Hibernian Insurance Company were established (later renamed the Hibernian Group). The name took on popularity with the success of the Irish Patriot Party. At a time when Palladian classical architecture and design were being adopted in northern Europe, Hibernia was a useful word to describe Ireland with overtones of classical style and civility, particularly by the prosperous Anglo-Irish Ascendancy who were taught Latin at school. \"Hibernian\" was used as a term for people, and a general adjective. The Royal Exchange in Dublin was built in 1769–79 with the carved inscription \"SPQH\" for Senatus PopulusQue Hibernicus – The senate and people of Ireland. The Royal Hibernian Academy dates from 1823.", "By the eighteenth century Hibernia was used on Irish coins and companies such the Hibernian Insurance Company were established (now the Hibernian Group ). The name took on popularity with the success of the Irish Patriot Party . At a time when Palladian classical architecture and design were being adopted in northern Europe, Hibernia was a useful word to describe Ireland with overtones of classical style and civility, particularly by the prosperous landed gentry who were generally taught Latin at school. The Royal Exchange in Dublin was built in 1769-79 with the carved inscription \"SPQH\" for Senatus Populusque Hibernicus - The senate and people of Ireland. [15] The Royal Hibernian Academy dates from 1823.", "Hibernia is a word that is rarely used today with regard to Ireland, except in long-established names. It is occasionally used for names of organisations and various other things; for instance: Hibernia National Bank, Hibernian Insurance Group, Ancient Order of Hibernians, The Hibernian magazine, Hibernia College, Hibernian Football Club, HMS Hibernia, and modern derivatives, from Latin like Respublica Hibernica (Irish Republic) and Universitas Hiberniae Nationalis (National University of Ireland). In Canada, Hibernia lends its name to the Hibernia oil field off Newfoundland, and to a large sea oil platform there, the Hibernia.", "However, unlike many Roman geographical names, the Latin \"Hibernia\" did not become the basis for the name for Ireland in any modern languages, with even Italian using Irlanda. Apart from the Celtic languages all modern languages use a local variant of the English \"Ireland\". This is presumably because direct medieval contacts between Ireland and continental Europe were at too low a level to embed use of the Hibernian root, or the original Irish Éire, in local vernaculars. This contrasts with Wales, which is still \"Pays de Galles\" in French, with similar terms in other Romance languages.", "Other early classical geographers (and native sources in the post-Roman period) used the general term ', which meant \"islands of the ocean\". Great Britain was called \"Britannia\"; Ireland was known as \"Hibernia\" and, between about the 5th and 11th centuries, \"Scotia\". The Orkney Islands (\"Orcades\") and the Isle of Man were typically also included in descriptions of the islands. No collective term for the islands was used other than \"islands of the Ocean\".", "It is not until the works of Latin authors mention Ireland that we receive a clearer picture. There is no doubt that the Romans knew of the existence of ‘Hibernia’, long before any direct contact, as the Greeks did of ‘Ierne’, their name for Ireland. Better knowledge was prompted by better communication, mainly as a result of trade. The later, and probably most famous of early geographers, Claudius Ptolemy, also notes that the ports and coasts of Ireland were well-known by traders.", "The post-conquest Romans used Britannia or Britannia Magna (Large Britain) for Britain and Hibernia or Britannia Parva (Small Britain) for Ireland. The post-Roman era saw Brythonic kingdoms established in all areas of Britain except the Scottish Highlands, but coming under increasing attacks from Picts, Scotti and Anglo-Saxons. At this time Ireland was dominated by the Gaels or Scotti, who subsequently gave their names to Ireland and Scotland.", "In 54 and 55 B.C., Julius Caesar won some skirmishes with the natives he encountered in Britain . His documentary writing preserved his experiences, and schoolboys in England and America at one time translated them for practice. Caesar referred to Ireland as Hibernia, translated literally as the place of winter.", "Our author�s second proof is easily disposed of. It is as follows :�\"Ethicus, the cosmographer, or whoever wrote the work in his name, belongs to time same period; and says, Hibernia a Scotorum. gentibus Coliture�, �Ireland is inhabited by the nations of the Scots.\" This is open to the same objection as the preceding. Although there is no reason to disbelieve Ethicus� assertion that Hibernia was inhabited by Scots at the time he wrote, this does not necessarily imply that Ireland was also peopled by them. It is very likely that Iceland was inhabited by Scots at the time Ethicus wrote, as an opportunity may afterwards be taken to show, and that this was the Hibernia of that writer.", "The Romans were vaguely aware of this edge of the world territory, likely due to Phoenician traders, but contact, at least knowingly wouldn't occur until the mid to late first century AD. To the Romans, Hibernia was an almost mystical place, thought to have been located somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean, between Britain and Spain. When the Emperor Claudius sanctioned the invasion of Britain in AD 43, which was followed by several years of native resistance, the Hibernians likely played a part in defending against Roman advancement. The Gaels, however, weren't simply just allies of British Celts because of cultural similarity; they also preyed on the western coasts of Britain, raiding native and Roman establishments alike.", "The first written record of contact with 'Albion' (by a Greek writer) names both Britain/Alba and Ireland as the 'Prettanik' islands. This is the oldest known name, which then leaves them to be distinguished from each other by Alba (meaning 'white', probably named after the chalk cliffs of Dover), and Hibernia, which is the rather sloppy Latin translation of 'Ierne' as written by the Greeks. Ierne is fairly obviously a mispronunciation of 'Er Inis' or 'Eire Innis' (various spellings are available), meaning 'West Island' in common Celtic. Er Inis became shortened to Erin. The name remains in use today in its full form - Eireann.", "Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of exploratores in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the island of Hibernia is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland. The successes and failures of the Romans in subduing the peoples of Britain are still represented in the political geography of the British Isles today.", "Also present at this time were the people whom the Romans called the Hiberni. These Hiberni were the Irish of the time. In Southern Scotland there were also the various tribes of the Britons. Both the Hiberni and the Britons were of Celtic origin.", "The earliest known names for the islands come from ancient Greek writings. Though some of the original texts have been lost, excerpts were quoted or paraphrased by later authors. Parts of the Massaliote Periplus, a merchants' handbook describing searoutes of the sixth century BC, were used in translation in the writings of Avienus around AD 400. Ireland was referred to as Ierne (Insula sacra, the sacred island, as the Greeks interpreted it) \"inhabited by the race of Hiberni\" (gens hiernorum), and Britain as insula Albionum, \"island of the Albions\". Several sources from around 150 BC to AD 70 include fragments of the travel writings of the ancient Greek Pytheas around 320 BC, use the terms Albion and Ierne Greek , and have been described as referring to the British Isles, including Ireland, as the Prettanic or Brettanic Islands () or as , literally \"the Britains\".", "According to Phillip Rance some tribes of Hibernia, called Attacotti ( Old Irish term: aithechthúatha), from southern Leinster were Foederati (allies) of the late Roman Empire, and fought together with the Roman legions in the second half of the fourth century [13]", "The classical writer Claudius Ptolemy, referred to the larger island as great Britain (megale Bretannia) and to Ireland as little Britain (mikra Brettania) in his work, Almagest (147–148 AD). In his later work, Geography (c. 150 AD), he gave these islands the names Alwion[sic], Iwernia, and Mona (the Isle of Man), suggesting these may have been native names of the individual islands not known to him at the time of writing Almagest. The name Albion appears to have fallen out of use sometime after the Roman conquest of Great Britain, after which Britain became the more commonplace name for the island called Great Britain.", "The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco-Roman geographers. Ptolemy in his Almagest refers to Ireland as Mikra Brettania (Little Britain), in contrast to the larger island, which he called Megale Brettania (Great Britain). In his later work, Geography, Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Iouernia and to Great Britain as Albion. These \"new\" names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time. The earlier names, in contrast, were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made.", "Northern Ireland is \"nae so far\" from Scotland, and as early as 258 AD the Romans complain of Scots from the north sweeping down upon them. The ancient Irish kingdom of Dalriada (race of Riada) traces its legendary lineage from the High Kings of Tara. About 500 AD, the sons of Erc, King of Dalriada, Fergus, Loarn, and Angus, established kingdoms in the Western Isles and Argyll, with their seat at Dunadd.", "According to Phillip Rance some tribes of Hibernia, called Attacotti ( Old Irish term: aithechthúatha), from southern Leinster were Foederati (allies) of the late Roman Empire, and fought together with the Roman legions in the second half of the fourth century", "Ulster is the Northerly Province of the island of Ireland. Encompassing the Counties of Donegal, Cavan, Monaghan, Fermanagh, Tyrone, Derry, Antrim, Down and Armagh, Ulster was originally known by the Celtic name of Ulaid (Ulster in English). The earliest written sources about the history of Ulster date back to the 7th century.", "After he became emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Maximus would return to Britain to campaign against the Picts and Scots (i.e., Irish), probably in support of Rome's long-standing allies the Damnonii, Votadini, and Novantae (all located in modern Scotland). While there he likely made similar arrangements for a formal transfer of authority to local chiefs: the later rulers of Galloway, home to the Novantae, would claim Maximus as the founder of their line, the same as did the Welsh kings.", "Rome often projected its power beyond its boundaries. Beyond the West coast of Britannia was the Irish Sea, with many easy crossings, and many distinctive mountain landmarks to ease navigation. The spread of Roman power to Ireland's neighbours would have had significant effects on Ireland.", "A final note: in what follows, \"Britannia\" refers to the area shown on the maps. That is, the Island south of the Forth-Clyde line. This is the area occupied by Rome and its federate allies for most of the first four centuries A.D.", "After his death, Saint Patrick was NEVER canonized by Rome, or officially declared a saint by the Vatican. The first Hibernian to be canonized was \"Saint\" Malachy. Malachy, who lived from 1094 to 1148, visited Rome in the year 1139, to receive official Papal sanction to his work of destroying the Congregation founded by the faithful Saint Patrick.", "About four centuries after the Roman invasion, a colony of Scots (Irish) migrated to { 250} the opposite coast, under Fergus, and set up their little kingdom in Argyleshire, taking with them, perhaps, the sacred \"Stone of Destiny\" upon which a long line of Irish kings had been crowned, and which tradition asserts was \"Jacob's Pillow.\" The Picts and the Irish Scots were both of the Celtic race, and if they fought, it was as brothers do, ready in an instant to embrace and make common cause, which they first did against the Romans. A common enemy is the surest healer of domestic feuds, and there were many of these to bring together the two Celtic branches dwelling on the same soil after the fifth century. Then came the more peaceful fusion through a common religious faith. St. Columba had been preceded by St. Nimian. But it was the Irish saint from Donegal who did for the Picts what St. Patrick had done for the Irish Scots. In the history of the Church there has never been an awakening of purer spiritual ardor than that which irradiated from Columba's monastery at Iona.", "Iouernia was a Greek alteration of the Q-Celtic name *Īweriū from which eventually arose the Irish names Ériu and Éire . The original meaning of the name is thought to be \"abundant land\".", "Iouernia was a Greek alteration of the Q-Celtic name *Īweriū from which eventually arose the Irish names Ériu and Éire. The original meaning of the name is thought to be \"abundant land\"." ]

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[ "Alfred J. Pennyworth is a fictional character who appears throughout the DC Universe. The character first appears in Batman #16 (April�May 1943), and was created by writers Bob Kane & Bill Finger and artist Jerry Robinson. Alfred serves as Bruce Wayne�s tireless valet, assistant, butler, confidant, and surrogate father figure. In modern interpretations, this has gone to the point where Alfred was Bruce's legal guardian following the death of his parents. He has sometimes been called \"Batman's batman.\"[1][2] Alfred also provides comic relief, as his sometimes sarcastic and cynical attitude often adds humor to dialogue occurring between himself and Batman. Alfred is a vital part of the Batman mythos, and appears in most other media adaptations of the character.", "Alfred Thaddeus Crane Pennyworth is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, most commonly in association with Batman. The character first appears in Batman #16 (April 1943), and was created by writers Bob Kane and Bill Finger, and artist Jerry Robinson. Alfred serves as a loyal, tireless butler who assists his employer's secret life as Batman. In modern interpretations, he is depicted as Bruce Wayne's butler, legal guardian, best friend, aide-de-camp, and surrogate father following the murders of Thomas and Martha Wayne. He sometimes has been called \"Batman's batman\". He also provides comic relief, as his sometimes sarcastic and cynical attitude often adds humor to dialogue between himself and Batman. A vital part of the Batman mythos, Alfred was nominated for the Wizard Fan Award for Favorite Supporting Male Character in 1994. ", "Batman is a fictional character, a comic book superhero appearing in comic books published by DC Comics. Batman was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, and first appeared in Detective Comics #27. Originally referred to as \"the Bat-Man\" and still referred to at times as \"the Batman,\" the character is additionally known as \"the Caped Crusader,\" \"the Dark Knight,\" and \"the World's Greatest Detective,\" among other titles. Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, an American billionaire playboy, industrialist, and philanthropist. Having witnessed the murder of his parents as a child, he swore revenge on criminals, an oath tempered with the greater ideal of justice. Wayne trains himself both physically and intellectually and dons a bat-themed costume in order to fight crime. Batman operates in the fictional Gotham City, assisted by various supporting characters including his crime-fighting partner, Robin, his butler Alfred Pennyworth, the police commissioner Jim Gordon, and occasionally the heroine Batgirl. He fights an assortment of villains, often referred to as the \"rogues gallery,\" which includes the Joker, the Penguin, the Riddler, Two-Face, Ra's al Ghul, Scarecrow, Poison Ivy, and Catwoman, among others. Unlike most superheroes, he does not possess any superpowers; he makes use of intellect, detective skills, science and technology, wealth, physical prowess, martial arts skills, an indomitable will, fear, and intimidation in his continuous war on crime.", "Additionally known as the Caped Crusader, the Dark Knight, the Dark Knight Detective, and the World's Greatest Detective; in the original version of the story and the vast majority of subsequent re-tellings, Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a billionaire playboy, industrialist, and philanthropist. Having witnessed the murder of his parents as a child, he swore revenge on crime, an oath tempered with the greater ideal of justice. Bruce trains himself both physically and intellectually and dons a bat-themed costume in order to fight crime. Batman operates in the fictional American Gotham City, assisted by various supporting characters including his main sidekick Robin, occasional assistance from former sidekick Batgirl and hero Nightwing, the police commissioner James Gordon, and his butler Alfred Pennyworth, and fights an assortment of villains influenced by the characters' roots in pulp magazines. Unlike most superheroes, he does not possess any superpowers; he makes use of intellect, detective skills, science and technology, wealth, physical prowess, and intimidation in his war on crime. In 2009, following Wayne's apparent death, the role of Batman has been taken up by his former ward and the first Robin, Dick Grayson.", "Fans of Batman's trusted butler, Alfred Pennyworth, may be surprised to learn that he didn't make his first appearance in the series until 1943 – four years after Batman began striking terror into the heart of Gotham City's criminals. When Alfred first showed up in the pages of Batman #16, the character wasn't quite the svelte, suave gentleman's gentleman of later adventures. Rotund and bowler-hatted, Alfred disembarked from a trans-Atlantic crossing to reveal himself as an amateur criminologist, offering his assistance to the dynamic duo. Join WatchMojo.com as we explore the comic book origin of Alfred Pennyworth.", "On the other hand Alfred is not only Bruce Wayne’s butler, but he aids in Batman’s endeavors a lot. Like he’s Batman/Waynes personal servant. Will do anything.", "Probably the best-known fictional butlers are Alfred from the Batman comic and films, Hudson of Upstairs, Downstairs television series, and Crichton from J.M. Barrie's The Admirable Crichton. Other characters include Mr. Belvedere from the Belvedere television series, Lurch, from The Addams Family television series, Beach, from the Wodehouse series about Blandings Castle, Benson from the series Soap and Benson, Geoffrey from the television series The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, and Niles from the television series The Nanny.", "Initially, Alfred discovered their identities by accident. While fighting a burglar in Batman #16 (Alfred's first appearance), he accidentally hit a switch and opened a sliding panel leading to the Batcave. This was revised in Batman #110 (September 1957). His first night at Wayne Manor, Alfred awoke to moaning and followed the sound to the secret door to the staircase to the Batcave and met his would be employers in their superhero identities (Batman had been injured while out in the field). As it turned out, the wounds were actually insignificant, but Alfred's care convinced the residents that their butler could be trusted. Since then, Alfred included the support staff duties of the Dynamic Duo on top of his regular tasks.", "Though Alfred introduced himself to the eight-year-old Bruce as his butler, it is obvious he never serves as a manservant in the story otherwise as Bruce's guardian and mentor. However, he is recruited by Thomas as his family's head of security prior of Thomas and his wife's deaths. He is also a skilled martial artist, and trains Bruce the combat skills he would eventually utilize as Batman. He has a daughter living in Seoul, South Korea with her mother, where Alfred had previously worked at a security firm, implying Julia Remarque's existence in this continuity.Batman: Earth One", "Alfred the butler had joined them in 1943, serving as a 24/7 chaperone. Now, between a Bat-Hound, a Batwoman, a Batgirl, a Bat-5th-Dimensional-Magical-Imp , and—all too briefly—a Bat-Ape , Batman and Robin could hardly find any time alone together. This was no coincidence. The shadow of Wertham lingered long into the ’60s, and Batman editors resolved to do what they could to dispel it, even if doing so came with a body count: When asked why Alfred the butler was killed off—briefly—in 1964 to be replaced by the dithering Aunt Harriet, editor Julius Schwartz averred, “There was a lot of discussion in those days about three males living in Wayne Manor.”", "* Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth The trusted butler for Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson. Alfred is dying of a rare disease from which Mr. Freeze's wife also suffers. He is later cured at the end.", "In the Post-Crisis comics' continuity , Alfred has been the Wayne Family butler all of Bruce's life, and had helped his master establish his superhero career from the beginning. Alfred's history has been retconned several times over the years, creating assorted versions. In one such version Alfred was hired away from the British Royal Family by Bruce's parents, and virtually raised him after they were murdered.", "In the Post-Crisis comics' continuity, Alfred has been the Wayne Family butler all of Bruce's life and had helped his master establish his superhero career from the beginning.", "The Pre-Crisis comics (i.e., comics published by DC Comics between 1938 and 1986) established Alfred as a retired actor and intelligence agent who followed the deathbed wish of his dying father, Jarvis, to carry on the tradition of serving the Wayne family. To that end, Alfred introduced himself to Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson at Wayne Manor and insisted on becoming their butler. Although the pair did not want one, especially since they did not want to jeopardize their secret identities with a servant in the house, they did not have the heart to reject Alfred.", "Alfred in his first appearance as an overweight, bumbling detective.Initially, Alfred discovered their identities by accident; while fighting a burglar in Batman #16 (Alfred's first appearance), he accidentally hit a switch and opened a sliding-panel leading to the Batcave. He is helpful to the Duo, following them to a theatre where they are captured, bound and gagged by a criminal gang, and rescues them after Batman attracts his attention by knocking a rope down before the crooks return. This was revised in Batman #110 (September 1957); during his first night at Wayne Manor, Alfred awoke to moaning (Batman had been injured out in a field) and followed the sound to the secret passage to the staircase leading to the Batcave and met his would-be employers in their superhero identities. As it turned out, the wounds were actually insignificant, but Alfred's care convinced the residents that their butler could be trusted. Since then, Alfred included the support staff duties of the Dynamic Duo on top of his regular tasks.", "Alfred later helps Bruce raise Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, and Tim Drake, all of whom were adopted by Bruce Wayne and became his partner Robin. He also had close friendships with other members of the Bat-Clan including Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain. Alfred often acts as a father-figure to Bruce, and a grandfather to Dick, Jason, and Tim. He is also highly respected by those heroes who are aware of his existence, including Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, and the original Teen Titans.", "During the Golden Age, Alfred was this bumbling, fat, amateur detective. He always tries to help Batman but ends up doing something stupid or messing up the case. However, in the 1943 Batman serial William Austin played Alfred as a thin man, with a mustache and spoke in a dignified English accent. So the writers wrote a story where they sent Alfred to a health spa where he lost his weight and grew a mustache. Alfred's origin was also in a jumble or mix up, and as Denny O'Neil once stated \"continuity wasn't a problem those days, the Batman I did and the one Julius Schwartz were very different\" (this was after the golden age). Alfred had two origins: One was that he raised Bruce Wayne since his parents were murdered and the second was that he came into Bruce Wayne's life after Bruce had adopted Dick. Alfred lived with the Waynes for months without knowing they were Batman and Robin. One night, Alfred heard a screaming coming from the old grandfather clock, he opened and discovered the entrance to the Batcave and Dick Grayson as Robin with an injured and unmasked Batman. Dick was yelling for Alfred and he helped Batman back to his full health (The latter one was used during the Silver Age with the addition of him being an actor and fought in World War 2).", "Alfred would later aid Bruce in raising Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, and Tim Drake, all of whom would be adopted by Bruce Wayne and become his partner Robin. He also had close friendships with other members of the Bat-Clan including Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain. Alfred often acts as a father-figure to Bruce, and a grandfather to Dick, Jason, and Tim. He is also highly respected by those heroes who are aware of his existence, including Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, and the original Teen Titans.", "Alfred's history was changed little after the Crisis On Infinite Earths. Alfred's real name is Alfred Beagle, during his days as a British Intelligent agent, he changes it to Alfred Pennyworth. Alfred later leaves the government and becomes an actor and a make-up artist. Alfred's mother approved of Alfred's decision of becoming an actor. However, his father wanted to continue the Pennyworth tradition of becoming a butler. Finally, Alfred's father was about to die and Alfred swore that he would continue the family tradition. Alfred left England to serve the Wayne Family.", "Meanwhile another version of Alfred's Post-Crisis life was slightly more closely linked to his pre-Crisis counterpart. In this version Alfred was an actor on the English stage, who agreed to become the Waynes' butler, only so as to honor the dying wish of his father. At the time he begins working for the Waynes, Bruce is but a young child. After several months, Alfred voices the desire to quit and return home to continue his life as an actor. However, these plans are momentarily forgotten when young Bruce returns home, after getting into a fight with a school bully. Alfred teaches Bruce to handle the bully strategically, rather than using brute force. Following Alfred's advice, Bruce manages to take care of his bully problem. Upon returning home, Bruce requests that Alfred stay, and Alfred agrees without a second thought. After the Waynes' murders, Alfred raises Bruce.", "In the Post-Crisis comics' continuity, Alfred has been the Wayne family valet all of Bruce's life, and had helped his master establish his superhero career from the beginning. In addition he was Bruce's legal guardian following the deaths of his parents. Alfred's history has been modified several times over the years, creating assorted versions. In one such version Alfred was hired away from the British Royal Family by Bruce's parents, and he virtually raised Bruce after they were murdered.", "The character has been consistently popular over the years, having received a nomination for the R.A.C. Squiddy Award for Favorite Supporting Character in 1994 and for Best Character in 2001. Alfred was also nominated for the Wizard Fan Award for Favorite Supporting Male Character in 1994.[3]", "Following the Infinite Crisis however it appears that Alfred's history has been merged to combine both his pre and post-Crisis histories. He spent years as a member of the British Guard and later became a member of MI-5 before retiring and taking up his love of acting. Following his father's death, he then became the Wayne Family Butler. Whether or not the rest of his history has remained the same or has been yet again altered has not yet been revealed, although it has been occasionally hinted at.", "Alfred would later aid Bruce in raising Dick Grayson, Jason Todd and Tim Drake, all of whom would be adopted by Bruce Wayne and become his partner Robin. He also had close friendships with other members of the Bat-Clan including Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain .", "Batman is a fictional character created by the artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger. A comic book superhero , Batman first appeared in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939 ), and since then has appeared primarily in publications by DC Comics . Originally referred to as \"The Bat-Man\" and still referred to at times as \"The Batman\", he is additionally known as \"The Caped Crusader\", \"The Dark Knight\", and the \"World's Greatest Detective,\" among other titles.", "Batman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger, and first appeared in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939). Originally named the \"Bat-Man\", the character is also referred to by such epithets as the Caped Crusader, the Dark Knight, and the World's Greatest Detective. ", "Occupation: Butler to Bruce Wayne as well as father figure, friend, and First Aid to the Caped Crusader", "Richard John \"Dick\" Grayson is a superhero in the DC Comics Universe . He is Bruce Wayne 's first ward (later on adopted son), and the original crimefighter to create the secret identity of Robin , the Boy Wonder, before evolving into the superhero Nightwing . After the events of Batman R.I.P. , Dick has moved back to Gotham City to take up his former mentor's identity once again as the new Batman . After the relaunch known as the New 52 Dick has once again become Nightwing and currently resides in Chicago.", "The \"big four\" are the Riddler, the Penguin, the Joker and Catwoman. In the comic books the Riddler's real name was Edward Nygma (or E. Nigma). The Penguin's real name was Oswald Chesterfield Cobblepot. Catwoman's real name was Selina Kyle. The Joker's real identity is uncertain. The television show and spin-off theatrical film did not make use of any of their real identities in any capacity, including flashbacks.", "Selina Kyle, widely regarded as the first and most popular Catwoman, also known as The Cat, is a comic book character created by Bob Kane first appearing in Batman #1 Spring 1940. She is probably the most famous comic book heroine and villainess, having a variety of appearances in other media.", "Panthor is Skeletor's evil feline companion, a giant purple panther who serves as an evil counterpart to Battle Cat. Panthor is portrayed as Skeletor's pet or familiar, being at the right of his throne. However, unlike He-Man's Battle Cat, Panthor only appears in a handful of stories in the original series. While his role is similarly limited in the 2002 series, he is more prominent in the episodes in which he appears compared to his appearances in the earlier series.", "A fictional hero of DC Comics whose name is Bruce Wayne and who uses a bat-themed costume and equipment and regularly has the assistance of his sidekick Robin." ]

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[ "Hypnophobia is the fear of sleep or of being hypnotized. The origin of the word Hupnos is Greek (meaning sleep) and phobia is Greek (meaning fear). They Greek God of Sleep is called Hypnos. Hypnophobia is considered to be a specific phobia, which is discussed on the home page. .", "Hypnophobia (from Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep), also known as somniphobia (from Latin somni, \"sleep\") or clinophobia, is the fear of going to sleep . This phobia is surprisingly common. Sleep disturbances like nightmares, work and relationship can leave a person more prone to developing hypnophobia. The subconscious world of dreams can give rise to all kinds of violent or disturbing images and usually those who have frequent nightmares experiences dreams of falling, dying or being humiliated.", "Hypnophobia, also known as Somniphobia, is fear of sleeping. ‘Hypno’ comes from a Greek word, which simply means sleep. Such fear of sleeping might occur due to scary and repetitive nightmares and from the fear of losing control over the mind.", "Hypnophobia - fear of the sleep, fear of being hypnotized, sleep fear, sleep phobia, hypnotized fear, hypnotized phobia", "Welcome to my site for Hypnophobia. In hopes of trying to provide some helpful information, I have searched the Internet looking for information on Hypnophobia (fear of the sleep, fear of being hypnotized, sleep fear, sleep phobia, hypnotized fear, hypnotized phobia). Please note I am not a doctor and only provide this site for informational purposes. I hope you will find some benefit in the site. Best wishes! ~Edd~", "J.: Hypnophobia is to be afraid to sleep. It's one of the most specific, sensitive, and difficult to understand phobias as it occurs in very few cases, but seriously affects the physical and psychological health of those affected.", "Hypnophobia is typically thought to have numerous symptoms which affect the body. These symptoms can affect the patient both physically and mentally. Many feel anxiety when talking about the subject of sleep or even thinking about it. Although hypnophobia is a relatively common form of anxiety disorder it can be difficult to treat.[http://www.ivy-rose.co.uk/References/glossary_entry824.htm Hypnophobia : Phobia : Fears and Phobias (Health Glossary Category)]", "Hypnophobia is created by the unconscious thoughts as a protecting mechanism. There was likely an episode linking sleep or being hypnotized sooner or later in your past. The condition can be triggered by movies, tv or seeing another person experience trauma.", "Living with hypnophobia means you can never concentrate on your house work, job work and cannot give your best. The opportunities are lost due to poor performance. Hypnophobia costs hundreds and thousands of dollars over your lifetime it also costs your health and well-being.", "The use of hypnotherapy which is a combination of hypnosis and therapeutic intervention, may help to control or improve the fear of sharp objects, specifically needles. A technique called systematic desensitization exposes patients to the feared stimuli in gradual degrees while under hypnosis. This technique has met with mixed levels of success. ", "Hypnosis is a great way of finding the root of the fear. Once the phobic understands the roots, s/he is in a better position to overcome it.", "Hylophobia, also known as xylophobia, ylophobia, and dendrophobia, is a psychological disorder defined by an irrational fear of wood, forest or trees. It is a type of specific phobia.", "Phasmophobia is the fear of ghosts. The origin of the word phasmo is Greek (meaning apparition or phantom) and phobia is Greek (meaning fear). Phasmophobia is considered to be a specific phobia, which is discussed on the home page. Phasmophobia is also called Spectrophobia and related to Pneumatiphobia or Pneumatophobia (fear of spirits), Demonophobia and Daemonophobia (which both mean fear of demons), Bogyphobia (fear of the bogeyman), Satanophobia (fear of Satan, Satanic control or devils), Hadephobia, Stygiophobia and Stigiophobia (which all mean fear of Hell), and Wiccaphobia (fear of witches or witchcraft).", "The symptoms may be different for different patients and they experience the symptoms in their own way. There are many drugs prescribed for hypnophobia.", "Samhainophobia is an intense fear of something that poses little or no actual danger. While adults with samhainophobia realize that these fears are irrational, they often find that facing, or even thinking about facing, the feared situation brings on a panic attack or severe anxiety.", "Trypanophobia is the extreme and irrational fear of medical procedures involving injections or hypodermic needles . It is occasionally referred to as aichmophobia, belonephobia, or enetophobia, names that are technically incorrect because they simply denote a “fear of pins/needles” and do not refer to the medical aspect of trypanophobia. The term aprilophobia may also be used to refer to the specific fear of hypodermic needles[ citation needed ], though this term also does not refer to the medical aspect. The name that is in common usage is simply needle phobia.", "The side effects and withdrawal symptoms can be severe. The drugs cannot completely cure hypnophobia. They can temporarily suppress the symptoms.", "Eisoptrophobia is a fear of mirrors in the broad sense, or more specifically the fear of being put into contact with the spiritual world through a mirror. Sufferers experience undue anxiety even though they realize their fear is irrational. Because their fear often is grounded in superstitions, they may worry that breaking a mirror will bring bad luck or that looking into a mirror will put them in contact with a supernatural world inside the glass.", "Many kids and adults are known to suffer from the fear of darkness or night phobia. Several non-clinical terminologies are used for describing this phobia, namely: Nyctophobia, Scotophobia, Lygophobia as well as Achluophobia.", "  For many, being surrounded by beautiful trees or taking a walk through the woods is a relaxing and rejuvenating experience, however, for those with dendrophobia, this experience can be an anxiety inducing episode. Dendrophobia is defined as the fear of trees and is derived from the Greek words, “dendro\", meaning tree, and “phobia\", meaning fear. Dendrophobia is related to several other phobias centered around nature such as nychtohylophobia, which is the fear of dark woods, hylophobia, which is the fear of forests and xylophobia, the fear of objects made from wood.", "Bathophobia is an irrational and overwhelming fear of depth. The person suffering with this phobia may experience intense fear when they encounter an area with an unknown depth such as a long hallway, wells, mountain valleys and/or deep bodies of water. The person with extreme symptoms of bathophobia may become overwhelmed or extremely anxious in situations such as being near a swimming pool. The fear will often become so overwhelming that it begins to interfere with daily activities including personal relationships, employment and school.", "Entomophobia is having an excessive or persistent fear of insects, whether the insects are harmful or not. This includes fear of spiders, bugs, mites, cockroaches or other small creatures that creep and crawl. They experience extreme anxiety at the mere sight of an insect. Sufferers usually find themselves cleaning rooms, floors, doors, and windows. Causes may be linked from past traumatic events during childhood. Being stung by a bee may be a trigger to the fear or knowing someone to be allergic to bees. Individuals may also get this fear of insects from parents who are afraid of insects.", "Selenophobia, also sometimes referred to as lunaphobia, is the persistent and irrational fear of the moon, which is most usually brought on due to a traumatic experience, especially in early childhood. The fear can manifest in several ways and extend to include not just fear at the sight of the moon, but also the moonlight, and in very severe cases, the darkness of the night itself.", "Apiphobia is the extreme and irrational fear of bees or bee stings. While it is normal for anyone to want to avoid being stung by a bee, for someone with apiphobia, that fear is much more pronounced and pervasive. Someone with this disorder reacts in a much more uncontrollable and frantic manner, becoming fearful at the mere sight or mention of bees. Furthermore, the apiphobic will change his or her plans in order to avoid any kind of exposure to bees.", "Entomophobia, sometimes known as insectophobia, is the fear of insects. The fear is relatively common in the US, particularly in urban areas where coming into contact with a bug is fairly unusual because of the lack of interaction with nature. Urban dwellers' fears of insects often serve as fodder for situation comedies and reality shows that depict their sudden transition to rural or island life.", "Trypanophobia refers to the extreme fear that some people have for injections or hypodermic needles. It is normal to feel some amount of discomfort when it comes to medical procedures involving injections, but a trypanophobic has such an extreme and irrational fear of injections that he/she either avoids any medical treatment or exhibits anxious or avoidance behavior. Some of them suffering from this disorder may even faint when they are exposed to injections though the procedure may not require them.", "Phobias develop as a result of an association between trauma and the subject of the phobia. For many people, a sleep phobia has an underlying cause that relates to their sleeping habits or to an event that happens while they are sleeping. For example, a child might develop clinophobia if he or she wets the bed or has frequent nightmares. Similarly, an adult might develop this phobia if he or she suffers from sleep apnea . Sometimes the condition has a psychological cause; for example, an individual might develop clinophobia if he or she knew someone who died in their sleep.", "Usually the cause for any phobia is a traumatic experience associated with the feared object. In the case of Cynophobia being chased by a dog when you were a kid may have resulted in acquiring Cynophobia.", "An really disturbing incident from the past, is often (though, not always) the root cause of Tocophobia. The mind will, in some situations, generate the fear without an apparent cause. By exposing the root cause, you will be able to remedy the problem by easily exchanging harmful triggers. Persons that find themselves at greatest risk:", "It is currently unknown precisely what causes this phobia. It may be partly due to our own innate expectations of human behavior.", "The root cause of Clinophobia is often (but not always) traumatic incident in the past. In some cases, it appears the brain has produced the fear with no instigation. The answer if to uncover the deep-down source and replace those negative connections with positive ones. Persons that find themselves at greatest risk:", "What it is that makes a person so fearful of a natural body function that they are willing to upend their lives to avoid it? What is going on under the surface that drives this phobia (yes, it’s a recognized phobia called emetophobia)?" ]

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[ "Tiger Woods (born Eldrick Tiger Woods, December 30, 1975 ) is an American professional golfer whose achievements to date rank him among the most successful golfers of all time. Currently the World No. 1, Woods was the highest paid professional athlete in 2006, having earned an estimated $100 million from winnings and endorsements. Golf Digest predicts Woods will become the world's first billionaire athlete in 2010.", "(Biography) Tiger, real name Eldrick Woods. born 1975, US golfer: youngest US Masters champion and first Black golfer to win a major championship; winner of the US Masters (1997, 2001–02, 2005), US Open (2000, 2002, 2008), British Open Championship (2000, 2005–06), and the PGA Championship (1999, 2000, 2006–07); in 2001 he became the only player to hold all four major titles at once", "Eldrick Woods: This American golfer’s real name is Eldrick Woods, but a long time ago, he started going by the nickname “Tiger.”", "Eldrick Tont “Tiger” Woods (born December 30, 1975 in Cypress, California, U.S.A.) is an American professional golfer among the most successful of all time. Currently the World No. 1, he was the highest-paid professional athlete in 2008, having earned an estimated $110 million from winnings and endorsements. www.GutterUncensored.com", "Tiger Woods was first given the legal name Eldrick Woods but that is no longer his name.", "Tiger Woods (born Eldrick Tont Woods on December 30, 1975 in Cypress, California) is an American professional golfer. Tiger turned pro in 1996 and was ranked number one in the world in June 1997. He remained at the top of his game for years. After issues surfaced in his personal life, he took a break from golfing and dropped to number 58 in the rankings in November 2011. He made a small comeback when he won the Chevron World Challenge in December 2011. In February 2013 he was ranked number 2 in the world after winning the Farmers Insurance Open for the seventh time. Throughout his career Tiger has broken a tremendous amount of golf records and has been the world number one for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any other golfer. He has won 16 World Golf Championships.", "Tiger Woods ' real first name is \"Eldrick.\" I can find no source that explains why his parents gave him the name \"Eldrick.\" There doesn't necessarily have to be a reason (such as Woods being named after a relative), of course, beyond it being a name his parents liked and selected.", "is a 40 year old American Golfer. Born Eldrick Tont Woods on 30th December, 1975 in Long Beach, California, USA and educated at Western High School, Anaheim, CA, he is famous for Currently the World No. 1. His zodiac sign is Capricorn.", "First, Woods' real name is \" Eldrick ,\" but Tiger's father Earl began calling him Tiger very early on. Earl Woods served in the United States Army during the Vietnam War, where one of his best friends was a South Vietnamese soldier, Col. Vuong Dang Phong.", "OK, so this one was probably known by most of you out there, but what's more interesting than knowing Tiger Woods' first name is really Eldrick is how he got the nickname Tiger.", "Funny thing is, there doesn't appear to be any point in Woods' life when he was actually called by his given name. He's always been \"Tiger\" to family and friends. In the earliest days of his fame as a golfer, while still a teen, some news reports did identify him as \"Eldrick (Tiger) Woods,\" but the Eldrick quickly disappeared once Woods became truly famous.", "Eldrick “Tiger” Woods was born in a suburb of Los Angeles, California, on December 30, 1975. The only child of an African-American father and a Thai mother, Woods was encouraged from infancy by his father for a career in golf. At the age of two, he teed off against comedian Bob Hope on television’s Mike Douglas Show. At five years old, he was featured on the television show That’s Incredible. At age eight, Tiger won his first junior world championship, and in 1991, at age 15, he became the youngest player ever to win the U.S. Junior Amateur Championship. He also captured the 1992 and 1993 Junior Amateur titles, and in 1994 accepted a scholarship to attend Stanford University. That year, he came from six holes behind to win the first of his three consecutive U.S. Amateur championships. He was 18 years old and the youngest Amateur champion in history.", "“He was just too good to be true,” was my first thought after hearing of Eldrick’s “transgressions.”  Eldrick Tont Woods was a man, an athlete, who was so campaigned and endorsed as the consistent front-runner and face of an entire sport for the past 15 years.  He has taken the game of golf and its profits to new heights, breaking - not just crossing - barriers of age and race along the way.", "Born Eldrick T. Woods on Dec. 30 in Southern California to Earl Woods, a retired U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel, and Kultida, a native of Thailand . Given the nickname “Tiger” after Earl's friend Vuong Dang Phong, a Vietnamese soldier with the same nickname.", "Born Eldrick Tont Woods in Cypress, California. He is the only child of Earl and Kultida Woods. The only child of Earl Woods, a retired US Army lieutenant colonel who fought in Vietnam, and his wife Kutilda, a native of Thailand. He was nicknamed Tiger after his father’s friend, Vuong Dang Phong, a Vietnamese soldier whom Earl had also called Tiger.", "Eldrick Tont Woods: given the name by his father Earl in memory of a Vietnamese soldier friend, Vuong Dang Phong, whom Earl had also nicknamed 'Tiger'. 'Tont' is a traditional Thai name, given by Tiger's Thai mother, Kultida.", "Elvis Aaron Presley (Tupelo, Mississippi, January 8, 1935 - Memphis, Tennessee, August 16, 1977), was an American singer, song producer and actor. A cultural icon, he is widely known by the single name Elvis. Elvis Presley began his music career at Sun Records in the spring of 1954 when Sam Philips recorded Elvis performing several of Elvis' favorite songs with Scotty Moore (guitar) and Bill Black (bass). One of these covers was a country and western song, \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\".", "His parents identified their son's talent at an unusually early age. They said that he was playing with a putter before he could walk. The boy was gifted not only with exceptional playing abilities, but he also possessed a passion for the sport. Woods first gained national attention on a talk show when he beat the famed comedian and avid golfer Bob Hope (1903–) in a putting contest. The young boy was only three at the time, and he was quickly hailed as a prodigy, or a child with remarkable talent. Not long after that, when he was five years old, Woods was featured on the popular television show That's Incredible!", "Rob Thomas, American singer-songwriter (Matchbox Twenty); Michael Chang, American tennis player; Antonio Sabato Jr., Italian actor; Shaquille O'Neal, African-American basketball player; Elvis Stojko, Canadian figure skater; Jennie Garth, American actress; Jennifer Garner, American actress; Carmen Electra, American actress and singer; Dwayne Johnson, American professional wrestler and actor; Busta Rhymes, African-American rapper and actor; The Notorious B.I.G., African-American rapper (d. 1997); Wayne Brady, African-American comedian; Marlon Wayans, African-American actor, comedian and producer; Maya Rudolph, African-American actress, comedian; Wil Wheaton, American actor; Ben Affleck, American actor; Cameron Diaz, American actress; Chris Tucker, American actor; Gwyneth Paltrow, American actress; Eminem, American rapper and actor; Brad Paisley, American singer-songwriter and musician; Jenny McCarthy, American actress and model; Alyssa Milano, American actress; Jude Law, British actor; Joey McIntyre, American actor and singer (New Kids on the Block)", "In November 2003 , Woods became engaged to Elin Nordegren, a Swedish model. They were introduced during The Open Championship in 2001 by Swedish golf star Jesper Parnevik, who had employed her as a nanny. They married on October 5, 2004 at the Sandy Lane resort on the Caribbean island of Barbados and live at Isleworth, a community in Windermere, a suburb of Orlando, Florida . They also have homes in Jackson, Wyoming, California, and Sweden . In January 2006, Woods and his wife purchased a US$39 million residential property in Jupiter Island, Florida , which they intend to make their primary residence. Woods' Jupiter Island neighbors will include fellow golfers Gary Player, Greg Norman and Nick Price, as well as singers Celine Dion and Alan Jackson. In 2007, a guest house on the Jupiter Island estate was destroyed in a fire caused by lightning.", "Squeaky-clean, 26-year-old golf superstar Woods first appeared on Oprah in 1997, just a year after emerging on the professional golf scene and long before his divorce and public scandal. When Oprah introduced him, she raved, “He is just what our world needs right now … I call him America’s son.” He famously declared in that interview that it bothered him when people described him as African American, and had coined the term ”Cablinasian” to describe his black, Indian, Asian and Caucasian heritage.", "From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Ernest Jennings Ford (February 13, 1919 â October 17, 1991), better known as Tennessee Ernie Ford, was an American recording artist and television host who enjoyed success in the country and Western, pop, and gospel musical genres. Early years Born in Bristol, Tennessee, to Clarence Thomas Ford and Maud Long, Ford began his radio career as an announcer at WOPI-AM in Bristol, Tennessee. In 1939, he left the station to pursue classical music and voice at the...", "With the announcement, \"Hello World,\" Tiger Woods became a professional golfer in August 1996, and immediately signed endorsement deals worth $40 million from Nike and $20 million from Titleist. He played his first round of professional golf at the Greater Milwaukee Open. He tied for 60th place in his pro debut, but would go on to win two events in the next three months, and qualified for the Tour Championship. Woods was named 1996's \" Sportsman of the Year\" by Sports Illustrated for the impact he had on the game of golf, and PGA Rookie of the Year by the PGA Tour. He is the only golfer to win the PGA Player of the Year award in the year following his rookie season. The following April, Woods won his first golf major, The Masters, by a record margin of 12 strokes, became the youngest Masters winner, and the first winner of African or Asian descent. He set a total of 20 Masters records and tied 6 others, and has been the highest-profile golfer in the world ever since. He would go on to win an additional three PGA Tour events that year, and On June 15, 1997, Woods rose to the number one spot in the Official World Golf Rankings for the first time. He achieved this in only his 42nd week as a professional -- the fastest ever ascent to the No. 1 ranking.", "Tiger Woods became the first sportsman to earn a billion dollars following his unrivaled success in golf during the late 1990’s and early 2000’s. He married Elin Nordegren in 2004 and the couple had two children together but the relationship imploded in 2010 when a car crash involving Woods became public, an event that had been caused by an argument with his then wife over his affairs. The golfer later admitted to the infidelities and agreed to a quick and painless divorce that saw Elin get a settlement of $100 million.", "James Woods is a leanly built, strangely handsome actor-producer-director with intense eyes and a sometimes untrustworthy grin, who has been impressing audiences for over three decades with his compelling performances. James Howard Woods was born on April 18th, 1947 in Vernal, Utah, the son of Martha A. (Smith) and Gail Peyton Woods, a United States Army intelligence officer who died during Woods' childhood. James is of Irish, English, and German descent. He grew up in Warwick, Rhode Island, with his mother and stepfather. He graduated from Pilgrim High School in 1965, near the top of his class. He earned a scholarship to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; dropping out during his sophomore year in 1967, he then headed off to New York with his fraternity brother Martin Donovan to pursue aspirations to appear on the stage. After appearing in a handful of New York City theater productions, Woods scored his first film role in All the Way Home and followed that up with meager supporting roles in The Way We Were and The Choirboys .", "Slim, lovely, and sexy African-American knockout Elan Carter was born on July 3, 1969 in Nutley, New Jersey. Her step-father Otis Williams is one of the founding members of the famous R&B group the Temptations. Carter has modeled all over the world in such places as Mexico, Europe, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. Among the artists she has appeared on stage with are the Jacksons, Duran Duran, Bobby Brown, Richard Marx, and Tone-Loc. Elan was the Playmate of the Month in the June, 1994 issue of \"Plauyboy.\" She went on to appear in several \"Playboy\" videos. Moreover, Carter made guest appearances on episodes of a handful of TV shows that include \"Seinfeld,\" \"Team Knight Rider,\" \"Mike Hammer, Private Eye,\" and \"Black Scorpion.\" Elan and her husband Keith Austin are the proud parents of a son named Trace.", "Black Athletes: Tiger Woods (1974- ) wins the PGA Championship becoming the first player since Ben Hogan in 1953 to win three majors in one year.", "During his late teens, in the two years he spent at Stanford University, Tiger was called \"Urkel\" by his teammates. Steve Urkel was a nerdy character on the American television sitcom Family Matters that aired from 1989 to 1997. In his teens, Woods was skinny and gangly, and sometimes wore glasses, giving him a nerdy appearance to some. Teammates - particularly male teammates - love to tease, so his Stanford pals tagged Tiger \"Urkel.\"", "During a press interview for Kingdom Hearts II, Woods noted that he is an avid video game player. He is a dealer of antiques in Rhode Island. On December 14, 2015, while Woods was driving alone westbound through an ice storm on Interstate 70 in Glenwood Canyon, Colorado, a driver who was speeding lost control and crashed into five other cars. Woods swerved his Jeep Grand Cherokee to avoid the accident and collided with a retaining wall, but slid backwards into a guard rail 100 ft above the Colorado River. Woods suffered a minor concussion from the accident. ", "Evander Holyfield (born October 19, 1962 USA). He is a former Undisputed World Champion in both the cruiserweight and heavyweight divisions, earning him the nickname \"The Real Deal.\" After winning the bronze medal in the Light Heavyweight division at the 1984 Summer Olympics, he debuted as a professional at the age of 21.", "Woods won the \"World Sportsman of the Year\" award at the Laureus World Sports Awards in 2000 and 2001. He is the only individual two-time winner of Sports Illustrated magazine's \" Sportsman of the Year\" award (1996, 2000).", "James Woods is not a park-like area of vertical foliage as depicted in \"The Fat Guy Strangler,\" but a real person, an actor who grew up in Warwick, Rhode Island. He has appeared in numerous films including" ]

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[ "Wilma Flintstone (maiden name Pebble or Slaghoople—see below) is a fictional character in the television animated series The Flintstones . She is the beautiful red-headed wife of caveman Fred Flintstone , daughter of Pearl Slaghoople , mother of Pebbles Flintstone and grandmother to Roxy and Chip Rubble. Her best friends were her next door neighbors, Betty and Barney Rubble .", "Frederick \"Fred\" Flintstone, also known as Fred W. Flintstone or Frederick J. Flintstone,  is the protagonist of the animated sitcom The Flintstones, which aired during prime-time on ABC during the original series' run from 1960 to 1966. Fred is the husband of Wilma Flintstone and father of Pebbles Flintstone. His best friends are his next door neighbors, Barney and Betty Rubble, who have an adopted son named Bamm-Bamm.", "Wilma Flintstone (née Slaghoople see below) is a fictional character in the television animated series The Flintstones . She was the red-headed wife of caveman Fred Flintstone , daughter of Pearl Slaghoople , mother of Pebbles Flintstone and a grandmother. Her best friends are her next door neighbors, Betty and Barney Rubble . [5]", "Wilma Flintstone is the wife of Fred Flintstone and best friend of neighbors Betty and Barney Rubble. She is always seen wearing her pearl necklace and cavewife dress. She has beady black eyes. During the end credits of most episodes, Fred is locked out and she never hears him when he shouts for her. Her best friend is Betty Rubble , the wife of Fred's best friend, Barney Rubble . Though no age is ever given, all four of them appear to be somewhere in their late twenties in the original television series, adults but still a little unseasoned by life and occasionally prone to daydreams, fan crushes on popular movie stars, and youthful misadventures.", "Fred Flintstone was the prehistoric dad in the animated comedy The Flintstones, a prime-time TV series that aired from 1960-66. Fred was a blustery, egotistical Stone Age family man who lived in the town of Bedrock and worked in a rock quarry. (The show had many parallels to Jackie Gleason 's hit show The Honeymooners.) The show's running gag was its caricatures of modern conveniences; Fred's construction crane was actually a long-necked dinosaur, a phonograph needle was actually a bird with a pointed beak, and so forth. Other characters included Fred's skeptical wife Wilma and daughter Pebbles, the neighbors Barney and Betty Rubble, and their boy Bam Bam. (In later episodes Fred was sometimes joined by the Great Gazoo, a tiny but powerful green being from outer space.) The Flintstones continued for decades in reruns and spun off several related cartoon series, and Fred's shout of \"Yabba dabba doo!\" was TV's most popular cartoon catch-phrase until Homer Simpson 's \"D'oh!\"", "Fred, of the Flintstones cartoon, is the head of the \"Modern Stone Age Family,\" with Wilma as his wife, Pebbles as his daughter, and Dino as his pet dinosaur. Fred is an everyman sort of guy with a really big mouth.", "Pearl Slaghoople is a fictional character on the animated TV show The Flintstones . She is the mother of Wilma Flintstone , who is married to Fred Flintstone .", "2. The characters of The Flintstones were greatly influenced by the 1954-56 hit TV series The Honeymooners , starring Jackie Gleason and Art Carney as working class neighbors. Blowhard Fred Flintstone was very like Gleason's character Ralph Kramden, goofy sidekick Barney Rubble resembled Carney's character Ed Norton, and their wives Wilma and Betty had the practical personalities of the wives in The Honeymooners. Jackie Gleason considered suing Hanna-Barbera, but did not want to go down in history as \"the guy who yanked Fred Flintstone off the air\".", "Join the fun in the town of Bedrock with the this fabulously famous modern Stone-Age family. Mowing the lawn with a saw-toothed dinosaur, showering with water sprayed from a woolly mammoth's trunk and eating brontosaurus burgers are everyday events for the lovable Fred and Wilma Flintstone and their friends Barney and Betty Rubble. Living in prehistoric times has its drawbacks, but the Flintstones and their neighbors survive in style. So have a yabba-dabba-doo time with the The Flintstones.", "The Flintstones is a 1994 American buddy comedy film directed by Brian Levant and written by Tom S. Parker, Jim Jennewein, and Steven E. de Souza. It is a live-action adaptation of the 1960s animated television series of the same name. The film stars John Goodman as Fred Flintstone, Rick Moranis as Barney Rubble, Elizabeth Perkins as Wilma Flintstone, and Rosie O'Donnell as Betty Rubble, along with Kyle MacLachlan as a villainous executive-vice president of Fred's company, Halle Berry as his seductive secretary (named after a famous actress), and Elizabeth Taylor (in her final theatrical film appearance), as Pearl Slaghoople, Wilma's mother. The B-52's (as The BC-52's in the film) performed their version of the cartoon's theme song.", "Fred and Wilma Flintstone and their next door neighbours, Barney and Betty Rubble, live in the modern stone age town of Bedrock. The Flintstones reside at 323 Cobblestone Lane, athough in the Season Two epidode, \"The X-Ray Story\", their address is given as 25 Stone Cave Rd.  In some episodes, their residence is also identified as 222 Rocky Way.  Fred Flintstone is a \"bronto crane operator\" for a quarry cave construction company.  His boss is Mr. Slate.", "Fred and Wilma Flintstone and their best friends, Barney and Betty Rubble, lived in the prehistoric city of Bedrock but faced the problems of contemporary working-class life. After a day at the rock quarry, Fred and Barney arrived home in a vehicle with stone wheels and a fringe on top. Their lives revolved around their home, friends, and leisure activities: a world of drive-ins, bowling, and their \"Water Buffalo\" lodge. A baby dinosaur and a saber tooth tiger replaced the family dog and cat. In 1962 and 1963, Pebbles and Bamm Bamm appeared as the daughter and adopted son of the Flintstones and Rubbles respectively.", "In The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas , the prequel to the aforementioned film, she is played by Joan Collins and is one of the film's primary antagonists. In the prequel, Pearl repeatedly attempts to push Wilma into a relationship with rich playboy Chip Rockefeller, and does her best to sabotage Wilma's budding romance with Fred due to her believing that Wilma should not engage with \"commoners\" like Fred, Barney and Betty. Despite realizing later on that Chip was merely scheming to get his hands on the Slaghoople fortune in order to pay off a debt to gangsters, Pearl still disapproves of Wilma's relationship with Fred, and even faints when Wilma says \"I do\" at their wedding. Nevertheless, she is seen later on dancing in the wedding party as Fred and Wilma leave for their honeymoon.", "Needled by Wilma about his lack of romanticism, Fred takes his wife on a second honeymoon to Rock Mountain Inn, accompanied by the Rubbles. When the Flintstones learn that the official, Judge Wedrock, who married them was never licensed, Wilma takes advantage of the situation by making Fred court her all over again.", "Fred Flintstone is the forerunner to Homer Simpson and Peter Griffin . The Flintstones premiered in 1960, modeled after The Honeymooners, the first made-for-TV primetime cartoon. Fred was the first portly animated husband who had a hot wife, not enough brains for his schemes and a bad temper. Yet, he loved his family.", "Jean Vander Pyl supplied the voice of Wilma Flintstone from the show’s beginning to the day she died, in 1999. Though Wilma and Fred argued a lot, they did have a rock-solid relationship. “I loved the bum,” Pyl told the Los Angeles Times in 1989. “Sure, Fred was a yahoo and I got mad at him all the time. But we really loved each other. Our romance was one of the things that made us so popular. We were real.”", "Mother-in-law visits to help get Wilma ready for the new baby and Fred is miserable. Fred takes a job as a cab driver in disguise and makes all his money for a night driving his mother-in-law around and she finds out in the end and beats him up.  Verna Felton  is \"Mrs. Slaghoople\". Note: Just like in \"The Flintstone Flyer\", Barney gives away the disguise. ", "Fred's wife. She is more intelligent and level-headed than her husband, though she often has a habit of spending money (with her and Betty's catchphrase being \"Da-da-da duh da-da CHARGE IT!!\"). She often is a foil to Fred's poor behavior.", "Air thethe flintstones were the assigns to know Clip from hisfeb , called yabba-dabba is flistones Dolls have wilmas gift with pebbles flintstone Surprise birthday party for fred, prior to fred around the first animated Which the wilma, prior to know Has one day the blessed event fred, been created Flintstone thefred flintstone and beyond Variousit was portrayed as pregnant with Bye baby yes another scene Bamm-bamm rubble, as pregnant with herBelow is preroll ad for the cat wouldmay", "In the subsequent made-for-TV movies, Pebbles attended Bedrock High School and was an excellent baseball player. She eventually married the boy-next-door, Bamm-Bamm Rubble, who had become a car mechanic. After their wedding, the couple moved to prehistoric version of Hollywood, Hollyrock, so Bamm-Bamm could realise his dream of becoming a scriptwriter. The couple had twins, a blonde-haired daughter named Roxy, who was as strong as her daddy, and an auburn-haired son named Chip. After Bamm-Bamm left home, Betty started a successful catering business with, you've guessed it, Wilma Flintstone.", "The Flintstone family's paternal side originally came from the prehistoric U.S. state of Arkanstone, where they had been engaged in a feud similar to the Hatfield-McCoy feud. The feud was originally started by an ancestor of Fred's making a joke about a Hatrock family portrait (\"I don't know what the artist got for doing that painting, but he should've gotten life!\"). In the fourth season episode \"Bedrock Hillbillies,\" the feud is ended when Fred helps rescue Pebbles and a Hatrock baby, only to start up again when Fred makes the same joke as his ancestor. The Hatrocks later appear in the follow-up fifth season episode \"The Hatrocks and the Gruesomes\", where they visit Bedrock. The last of the Arkanstone Flintstones was Fred's great-great-uncle Zeke Flintstone.", "Fred Flintstone was the prehistoric dad in the animated comedy The Flintstones, a prime-time TV series that aired from 1960-66.", "*In an episode of The Flintstones entitled \"The Girls' Night Out\" Fred becomes a teen idol after cutting an album at an amusement park. His manager, voiced by Mel Blanc, is referred to simply as The Colonel and is an exaggerated caricature of Parker and his relationship with Elvis. He refers to another client with \"long sideburns,\" whose name he can't recall. ", "1994's The Flintstones brought the modern Stone Age family - immortalized in the longest-running animated series in prime-time history - to the live-action big screen. After an aptitude test mix-up, Fred Flintstone (John Goodman) trades his job as Slate & Company Bronto-crane operator for a vice presidency. But there's trouble brewing in Bedrock: An evil executive (Kyle MacLachlan) and his sinister secretary (Halle Berry) are now plotting to use Fred as the fall guy in an embezzlement scheme!", "Hailee Steinfield as Velma Dinkley, a science wiz and computer nerd. She is highly intelligent and is often the one to solve the mystery of the people behind the masks. In season 7, she began dating Shaggy. She often wears orange, with red skirts, and has glasses that she is very prone to losing.", "Identical Stranger : Fred's lookalikes J.L. Gotrocks (in \"The Tycoon\") and Rock Slag (in The Man Called Flintstone movie). Plus there's his robot doppelgangers in \"Ten Little Flintstones\".", "Elizabeth \"Miz Liz\" Strickland (voiced by Kathleen Turner ) - Elizabeth is the deep-voiced, long suffering wife of Buck Strickland. Buck claimed in \"Hanky Panky\" that \"she could tolerate my drinking, my gambling, and my infidelity, but not all once... and not on her birthday!\" Her hair is always pulled up tightly in a bun. It is shown that Buck Strickland has a shotgun with her name engraved on it. Miz Liz once attempted to seduce Hank in a propane-powered hot tub when she and Buck were separated, but the interest was not reciprocated. She and Buck ended up back together, but a later episode in which Buck takes Bible classes from Luanne implied that their relationship had ended permanently.", "Elizabeth \"Miz Liz\" Strickland (voiced by Kathleen Turner )—Elizabeth is the deep-voiced, long suffering wife of Buck Strickland. Buck claimed in \"Hanky Panky\" that \"she could tolerate my drinking, my gambling, and my infidelity, but not all once... and not on her birthday!\" Her hair is always pulled up tightly in a bun. It is shown that Buck Strickland has a shotgun with her name engraved on it. Miz Liz once attempted to seduce Hank in a propane-powered hot tub when she and Buck were separated, but the interest was not reciprocated. She and Buck ended up back together, but a later episode in which Buck takes Bible classes from Luanne implied that their relationship had ended permanently.", "*In the first live-action film, The Flintstones, Fred was played by John Goodman. In the prequel film, The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas, in which Fred is portrayed as younger than he was in the original, he was played by British actor Mark Addy. ", "Here, she is one of several suspects in the framing of her husband, who is a famous cartoon star.", "* Elizabeth \"Miz Liz\" Strickland (voiced by Kathleen Turner) — Elizabeth is the deep-voiced, long suffering wife of Buck Strickland, first seen in \"Hanky Panky\". In \"Hanky Panky\", the first half of a two-part episode, Miz Liz confronts Buck at an awards dinner while he is there with his mistress. She files for divorce from Buck and subsequently takes control of Strickland Propane. This forces Buck to move in with Debbie. She promotes Hank to manager and attempts to seduce Hank in a propane-powered hot tub. However, the interest was not reciprocated. She brags to Buck about this, Buck, in turn, surprises Hank with a loaded shotgun expressing his jealousy. She and Buck reconcile in the second half \"High Anxiety\", but later on, in \"The Good Buck\", Buck claims that Miz Liz has left for good, stating that \"she could handle my drinkin' binges, and my gamblin', and even turn a blind eye to my extramarital escapades, but not when they happen all once! ...and on her birthday!\"", "*Betty Rubble is Barney's wife and Wilma's best friend. Like Wilma, she, too, has a habit of spending money." ]

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[ "The collective noun for monkeys is the word you would use to describe a group of monkeys.", "Used in a sentence, you could say \"Look at the barrel of monkeys\", where \"barrel\" is the collective noun that means group.", "A group of monkeys is often called a tribe or troop, but it can also be called a shrewdness of monkeys. Groups of baboons specifically can be called a flange or congress of baboons, and groups of chimpanzees can be called a harem of chimpanzees.", "Simians are divided into two groups: catarrhine (narrow-nosed) monkeys and apes of Africa and southeastern Asia and platyrrhine (\"flat-nosed\") or New World monkeys of South and Middle America. Catarrhines consist of Old World monkeys (such as baboons and macaques), gibbons and great apes; New World monkeys include the capuchin, howler and squirrel monkeys. Humans are the only extant catarrhines to have spread successfully outside of Africa, South Asia, and East Asia, although fossil evidence shows many other species were formerly present in Europe. New primate species are still being discovered. More than 25 species were taxonomically described in the decade of the 2000s and eleven have been described since 2010.", "A group including all New World monkeys. Atelids are generally larger monkeys; the family includes the howler, spider, woolly and woolly spider monkeys (the latter being the largest of the New World monkeys). They are found throughout the forested regions of Central and South America, from Mexico to northern Argentina.", "A monkey is any nonhuman primate, with the usual exception of the lemurs and tarsiers. Thus defined, there are three type of monkeys: non-human hominoids, old world monkeys, and new world monkeys. However, only the latter two are currently considered \"monkeys\" by most biologists. There are about 280 known living species of monkey. Many are arboreal, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent. Unlike apes, old and new world monkeys usually have tails. Tailless monkeys may be called \"apes\", incorrectly according to most modern biologists; thus the tailless Barbary macaque is called the \"Barbary ape\". The New World monkeys are classified within the parvorder of Platyrrhini, whereas the Old World monkeys form part of the parvorder Catarrhini, which also includes the hominoids. Thus, as Old World monkeys are more closely related to hominoids than they are to New World monkeys, the monkeys are not a unitary group, and thus there is no scientific basis for biologists currently excluding non-human hominoids from the monkey category.", "Many people may be familiar with collective terms such as a “murder” of crows, a “parliament” of owls and a “gaggle” of geese. But was there one for a group of turkeys? I decided to do some research and soon discovered that there were numerous collective nouns (terms which denote a specific group of persons, things or animals) for all sorts of birds.", "Proboscis monkeys generally live in groups composed of one adult male, some adult females and their offspring. All-male groups may also exist. Some individuals are solitary, mostly males. Monkey groups live in overlapping home ranges, with little territoriality, in a fission-fusion society, with groups gathering at sleeping sites as night falls. There exist bands which arise when groups come together and slip apart yet sometimes groups may join to mate and groom. Groups gather during the day and travel together, but individuals only groom and play with those in their own group. One-male groups consist of 9–19 individuals, while bands can consist of as many as 60 individuals. One-male groups typically consist of three to 12 individuals, but can contain more. Serious aggression is uncommon among the monkeys but minor aggression does occur. Overall, members of the same bands are fairly tolerant of each other. A linear dominance hierarchy exists between females. Males of one-male groups can stay in their groups for six to eight years. Replacements in the resident males appear to occur without serious aggression. Upon reaching adulthood, males leave their natal groups and join all-male groups. Females also sometimes leave their natal groups, perhaps to avoid infanticide or inbreeding, reduce competition for food, or elevation of their social status.", "A troop of monkeys (-suggested by Rex Stocklin, stocklin@earthlink.net, quoting Richard Lederer's \"The Play of Words\"-)", "A suborder of primates consisting of six families: cebidae (new world monkeys), cercopithecidae (old world monkeys), hylobatidae (gibbons and siamangs), pongidae (great apes), tarsiidae (tarsiers), and hominidae (humans).", "Monkeys are a large and varied group of mammals of the primate order. They live in trees, grasslands, forests, mountains and plains. They are seriously threatened by habitat loss. The term monkey includes all primates that do not belong to the categories human, ape, or prosimian; however, monkeys do have certain common features. All are excellent climbers, and most are primarily arboreal. Nearly all live in tropical or sub-tropical climates. Unlike most of the prosimians, or lower primates, they are almost all day-active animals. Their faces are usually flat and rather human in appearance, their eyes point forward, and they have stereoscopic color vision. Their hands and feet are highly developed for grasping.", "One of the craziest oddities of the English language is that there are so many different collective nouns that all mean \"group\" but which are specific to what particular thing there is a group of: a herd of elephants, a crowd of people, a box of crayons, a pad of paper, etc. There is great diversity of collective nouns associated with animals, from a sleuth of bears to a murder of crows. The following is a list of the correct terms to describe groups of various types of animals.", "A monkey is a primate of the Haplorrhini suborder andsimian infraorder, either an Old World monkey or a New World monkey, but excluding apes (including humans). There are about 260 known living species of monkey. Many are arboreal, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent. Unlike apes, monkeys usually have tails. Tailless monkeys may be called \"apes\", incorrectly according to modern usage; thus the tailless Barbary macaque is called the \"Barbary ape\".", "Used in a sentence, you could say \"Look at the herd of kangaroos\", where \"herd\" is the collective noun that means group.", "Informally, the term \"monkey\" is often used more broadly than in scientific use, and may be used to refer to apes, particularly chimpanzees, gibbons, and gorillas. Author Terry Pratchett alludes to this difference in usage in his Discworld novels, in which the Librarian of the Unseen University is an orangutan who gets very violent if referred to as a monkey. Another example is the use of Simians in Chinese poetry.", "Collective nouns are used to describe a group of objects or animals thinking or moving the same way.", "The collective noun for baboons is commonly troop or congress, although flange is also becoming common. This unusual term originates from a Not the Nine O'Clock News comedy sketch entitled \"Gerald The Intelligent Gorilla\" where it was used for comic effect", "1. (prī′māt′) Any of various mammals of the order Primates, which consists of the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, and apes including humans, and is characterized by nails on the hands and feet, a short snout, and a large brain.", "primate: A mammal belonging to the order Primates (about 195 species), which includes prosimians, monkeys, apes, and humans. Primates probably evolved from insectivorous climbing creatures like tree shrews and have many adaptations for climbing, including five fingers and five toes with opposable first digits (except in the hind feet of humans). They have well-developed hearing and sight, with forward-facing eyes allowing binocular vision, and large brains. The young are usually produced singly and undergo a long period of growth and development to the adult form. Most primates are arboreal , but the great apes and humans are largely terrestrial.", "A common quiz question is to find the special collective term which describes such groups of things: a flock of sheep, a pride of lions. English has some highly specialized (but nowadays rarely used) collective nouns, especially for animals. . . . One of them [is] a kindle of kittens. Other colourful collectives are:", "monkey in general, any of nearly 200 species of tailed primate, with the exception of lemurs, tarsiers, and lorises. The presence of a tail (even if only a tiny nub), along with their narrow-chested bodies and other features of the skeleton, distinguishes monkeys...", "It can all vary in different groups and different howlers.  Some monkeys will love to live with larger groups and some will prefer a single life with only one or two other specific monkeys for company also.", "Modern biologists and primatologists use monophyletic groups for taxonomic classification; that is, they use only those groups that include all descendants of a common ancestor. The superfamily Hominoidea is such a group—also known as a clade. Some scientists now use the term \"ape\" to mean all members of the superfamily Hominoidea, including humans. For example, in his 2005 book, Benton wrote \"The apes, Hominoidea, today include the gibbons and orang-utan ... the gorilla and chimpanzee ... and humans\"., p. 371 Modern biologists and primatologists refer to apes that are not human as \"non-human\" apes. Scientists broadly, other than paleoanthropologists, may use the term \"hominin\" to identify the human clade, replacing the term \"hominid\". See terminology of primate names.", "Definition: belonging or pertaining to the primate group or superfamily Platyrrhini, comprising the New World monkeys Significance:", "A group including chimpanzees (Pan), gorillas (Gorilla), humans (Homo), and orangutans (Pongo). In the past, the term was used in the more restricted sense of humans and relatives of humans closer than chimpanzees.", "there are an enormous number of fanciful collective nouns which only refer to one species and which nobody uses. However, there are a smaller number of collective nouns which we do use (see my previous post), which sometimes seem to follow fairly logical rules, but with some exceptions. For example flock is usually used for birds, but we also say 'a flock of sheep'. Also, for some flightless birds flock sounds a little odd. A flock of ostriches?", "Definition: A group of mammals in the order Primates that have complex behavior, varied forms of locomotion, and a unique suite of traits, including larger brains, forward-facing eyes, fi ngernails, and reduced snouts. Significance: Important in tracing human origins", "Definition: a suborder of primates that includes the lemuriform primates, which consist of the lemurs of Madagascar, galagos (\"bushbabies\") and pottos from Africa, and the lorises from India and southeast Asia. Significance:", "It gathers the most primitive primates; they have a long muzzle and the eyes not always frontally placed. It is subdivided in six families:", "The cladogram below shows one possible classification sequence of the living primates, with groups that use common (traditional) names are shown on the right.", "In this general introduction, we shall consider the best known members of this order, seen the enormous dimensions and the complexity characterizing it. In each text we shall then treat about all the single primates known nowadays to the Biology.", "· With few exceptions, primates should not be kept alone. They should be kept in groups large enough to allow them to express their full range of social behaviours" ]

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[ "The success of \"The Deer Hunter\", a 1978 film about the Vietnam War starring Robert De Niro, made Cimino one of the most sought-after directors in Hollywood. The film won five Academy Awards, including best picture and best director.", "By the end of the 1970s, about five years after the United States had left the conflict in Vietnam, and after the fall of South Vietnam, film-makers had begun to explore the Vietnam experience in a series of emotionally-charged movies: The Deer Hunter, 1978 (5 Oscars) directed by Michael Cimino; Apocalypse Now, 1979 (2 Oscars) directed by Francis Ford Coppola; Platoon, 1986 (4 Oscars) directed by Oliver Stone; and Full Metal Jacket, 1987 directed by Stanley Kubrik. The Vietnam War had been a tragic event for American society (52,286 dead), and, in one way or another, each of these movies captured an aspect of the futility, if I can use that term, of the American involvement in the war. Roget Ebert wrote of The Deer Hunter, \"It is a progression from a wedding to a funeral,\" and, I guess, that the Deer Hunter has always been the most reminiscent for me of a Pennsylvania setting. Apocalypse Now tells the story of a journey up a river in Vietnam into madness (Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness), and was one of Marlon Brando's last major film roles. Brando was allegedly very difficult to work with, but look at some of his other movie roles: On the Waterfront, The Godfather, A Streetcar Named Desire, Ultimo tango a Parigi.", "One of several 1978 films dealing with the Vietnam War, Michael Cimino’s epic second feature The Deer Hunter was both renowned for its tough portrayal of the war’s effect on American working class steel workers and notorious for its ahistorical use of Russian roulette in the Vietnam sequences. Deer Hunter won five academy awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Supporting Actor. 193 minutes.", "Once the war was really, truly over, it took a few years for America to collect its thoughts and for Hollywood to catch up. The Deer Hunter, released in December 1978, was the first big-studio film to have combat scenes set in Vietnam, and one of the first two films to be critical of America's involvement in the war. The other was Coming Home, released in February 1978 and dealing with a paralyzed veteran who now opposes the war. While Coming Home got solid reviews, it didn't make waves at the box office until almost a year later, when it was nominated for several Oscars -- as was The Deer Hunter. (Peter Biskind, a wonderful historian of 1970s cinema, wrote a terrific article for Vanity Fair a few years ago talking about these two Vietnam-related films competing at the Academy Awards.)", "'The Deer Hunter' (1978) – Hollywood began to explore the Vietnam War in the late '70s. Michael Cimino's \"The Deer Hunter\" examined the effects on steelworkers, from left, John Cazale, Chuck Aspegren, Robert De Niro, John Savage and Christopher Walken. Cimino and Walken also won Oscars for best director and best supporting actor, respectively.", "The decade closed with two films chronicling the Vietnam War, Michael Cimino's The Deer Hunter and Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now. Both films focused on the horrors of war and the psychological damaged caused by such horrors. Christopher Walken and director Michael Cimino earned Oscars for their work on the film, which earned a Best Picture Academy Award. Robert De Niro and Meryl Streep were also nominated for their work in The Deer Hunter. Apocalypse Now won for cinematography and sound, and earned nominations for Robert Duvall and Coppola. Hal Ashby's Coming Home portrayed life for Vietnam veterans. Actor Jon Voight won an Academy Award for his role in the film.", "His final public appearance was to present the Best Picture Oscar to The Deer Hunter (1978) at The 51st Annual Academy Awards (1979) (TV). It was not a film Wayne was fond of, since it presented a very different view of the Vietnam War than his own movie, The Green Berets (1968), had a decade earlier.", "His second work, 1978’s “The Deer Hunter,” was the right movie at the right time. Though the Vietnam War was a daily presence on American TV, the studios generally avoided the topic on the bigscreen until long after the last troops had withdrawn in 1973. Cimino’s film was a three-hour-plus look at events on the battlefield and the home front, a gritty, grim study with excellent, Oscar-nominated performances by Robert De Niro, Meryl Streep (her first) and supporting actor Christopher Walken, who won. The film also won for editing and sound.", "The Deer Hunter was one of the first, and most controversial, major theatrical films to be critical of the American involvement in Vietnam following 1975 when the war officially ended. While the film opened the same year as Hal Ashby's Coming Home, Sidney Furie's The Boys in Company C, and Ted Post's Go Tell the Spartans, it was the first film about Vietnam to reach a wide audience and critical acclaim, culminating in the winning of the Oscar for Best Picture. Other films released in the late 1970s and 1980s that illustrated the 'hellish', futile conditions of bloody Vietnam War combat included:", "She was nominated for Best Supporting Actress for her role in The Deer Hunter (1978), a fabulous film about the Vietnam War and its effects on three friends living in a small American town. Also starring Robert de Niro, Christopher Walken, and John Cazale. Won 5 Oscars.", "The Deer Hunter was the first significant film made about the Vietnam War as America was struggling to recover from the traumatic experience of the conflict. The film examines the emotional and psychological effects of the war on a group of friends and their loved ones. The story is about three Russian-American steelworkers from a small Pennsylvania town who enlist in the U.S. Army to serve in Vietnam. During the war, all three are captured and sent to a brutal Vietcong prison where they endure appalling conditions. The Deer Hunter is a haunting and unforgettable experience. The Russian roulette scenes, while controversial, have become iconic in popular culture. This brilliant film touches upon, not only the horrors U.S. troops experienced in Vietnam, but also the struggles veterans endured after returning home. Film critic Roger Ebert called it, “One of the most emotionally shattering films ever made.” The Deer Hunter went on to win five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Supporting Actor (Christopher Walken). The American Film Institute ranked The Deer Hunter #53 in its list of the 100 greatest movies of all time.", "The Deer Hunter is a 1978 American epic war drama film co-written and directed by Michael Cimino about a trio of Russian American steelworkers and their service in the Vietnam War. The film stars Robert De Niro, Christopher Walken, John Savage, John Cazale (in his final role), Meryl Streep, and George Dzundza. The story takes place in Clairton, a small working class town on the Monongahela River south of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and then in Vietnam and in Saigon, during the Vietnam War.", "The 1978 film The Deer Hunter and the 1980 book America in Vietnam changed the way Americans saw the Vietnam War.", "Despite the troubled production, Apocalypse Now was later nominated for many Academy Awards including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Writing, and is one of the best films to examine the Vietnam War.", "In the Reagan era, Hollywood finally allowed Americans to come to terms with the Vietnam War and its aftermath in a combination of films employing a successful formula - a stoic, gung-ho action hero: Sylvester Stallone starred in director George Cosmatos' Rambo: First Blood, Part II (1985) - part of a series of pro-American, revisionist Vietnam films. In this comic-strip-like action film, Stallone was showcased as a larger-than-life, ex-Green Beret macho commando/hero John Rambo saving American MIA POWs being held in Vietnamese prison camps. [The first film in the series was First Blood (1982), about traumatized war veteran Rambo who went berserk and became a killing machine using his guerrilla training after being mistreated and unfairly arrested in a small town by the sheriff (Brian Dennehy). Two more sequels followed: director Peter MacDonald's Rambo III (1988), and then co-writer, director, and actor Stallone reprised the role many years later for Rambo (2008).]", "Few films before the late 1970s about the Vietnam War actually depicted combat. The exceptions included The Green Berets (1968). Critics such as Basinger explain that Hollywood avoided the subject because of opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War, making the subject divisive; in addition, the film industry was in crisis, and the army did not wish to assist in making anti-war films.", "We Were Soldiers (2002) uses the latest special effects to bring the gory realism of Saving Private Ryan to Vietnam. It's based on a true story about the first pitched battle between the U.S. Army and the North Vietnamese Army in 1965. Although dominated by combat, it also shows the impact of separation on the soldiers' wives back home. It can't resist the usual war-movie clichésthe tough training, the crusty old sergeant (played by Sam Elliot), the charismatic leader (Mel Gibson), the religious soldier who's reluctant to kill, and even an implausible bayonet charge. Nevertheless, We Were Soldiers departs from most other war movies by portraying the enemy more realistically and with some humanity. In particular, it shatters the myth that Vietnam was primarily a guerrilla war fought by Viet Cong peasants.", "The film, the story of the impact the Vietnam War has on a group of Pittsburgh steelworkers, went on to win five Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cimino, on its way toward becoming an American classic. The film was later preserved in the Library of Congress.", "The 1987 movie Good Morning Vietnam, was a box office success. A daring balance of comedy and drama, it is set in Vietnam during the war in the 1960's. The movie stars the late Robin Williams, who was nominated for a best actor Oscar. Forest Whitaker, and a handful of Vietnamese actors also star. The film is not for children due to graphic violence and strong language.", "Good Morning, Vietnam is a 1987 American comedy-drama film set in Saigon during the Vietnam War, based on the career of Adrian Cronauer, a disc jockey on Armed Forces Radio Service (AFRS), who proves hugely popular with the troops serving in South Vietnam, but infuriates his superiors with what they call his \"irreverent tendency.\" The film was written by Mitch Markowitz and directed by Barry Levinson. Most of Williams' humorous radio broadcasts were improvised. Williams was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. The film is number 100 on \"AFI's 100 Years", "Hal Ashby's 1978 melodrama examines the impact of the Vietnam War on the \"war at home\" among the men who fought it and the women in their lives. Left alone in Los Angeles when her gung-ho Marine husband Bob (Bruce Dern) heads to Vietnam in 1968, proper wife Sally Hyde (Jane Fonda) decides to volunteer at the V.A. hospital where her new friend Vi (Penelope Milford) works. There she meets Luke Martin (Jon Voight), a former high-school classmate and Marine who has returned from 'Nam a bitter paraplegic. As their relationship grows, Sally sees the effect of the war on the soldiers after they come back, inspiring her to rethink her priorities; Luke's spirits begin to lift, and a hospital tragedy helps focus his anger toward meaningful protest. After a Hong Kong visit with her increasingly withdrawn husband, Sally finds a love and companionship with Luke that she had never known with her husband. Once Bob comes home with his own injury, however, the three must find a way to deal with a changing world and with a system that betrayed the men fighting for it.", "A biography of Ho Chí Minh, a Vietnamese Communist revolutionary and statesman who was Prime Minister and President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). He led the Viet Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the communist-governed Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French Union in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu. He lost political power inside North Vietnam in the late 1950s, but remained as the highly visible figurehead president until his death. Features archival film footage with commentary by authors, academics, and historians. Supplementary short with The Adventures of young Indiana Jones. 2008. 31 min. DVD X235", "This harrowing epic vision of the madness of the war in Vietnam was an exceptionally spectacular war movie loosely based on Joseph Conrad's 1911 novel Heart of Darkness.", "In May 1969, the 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry of the U.S. Army fought a fierce, ten-day battle for a small rise known to the Vietnamese as Dong Ap Bia, designated by the U.S. military as Hill 937, and nicknamed by cynical GIs Hamburger Hill. Director John Irvin (The Dogs of War), working from a script by Vietnam vet James Carabatsos, fashioned a gritty account of that battle, in which the North Vietnamese Army uncharacteristically stood and fought the Americans straight up. Although air support pounded NVA positions with over 500 tons of bombs and 70 tons of napalm, the hill wasn't taken until ground forces succeeded in a series of hand-to-hand battles fought on muddy, monsoon-soaked terrain. Once the hill was secured, it was policed for a few days and then abandoned, leading some to wonder what the point of the battle was. (\"Don't mean nothin'\" is the refrain muttered by the GIs portrayed here.) The film's ensemble cast, full of no-names (at the time), features recent Oscar nominee Don Cheadle in his third screen appearance, as Private Washburn. Presented by the Veterans History Project, of the Library's American Folklife Center.", "The Vietnamese director Nguyen Hong Sen's The Abandoned Field: Free Fire Zone (Canh dong hoang, 1979) gives an \"unnerving and compelling .. subjective-camera-eye-view\" of life under helicopter fire in the Mekong Delta during the Vietnam War. The film cuts to an (American) \"helicopter-eye view\", contrasting painfully with the human tenderness seen earlier. ", "Robert Altman film about three soldiers waiting to go to Vietnam. The film deals with themes of homosexuality, violence and racism but also illustrates the alcoholism that is pervasive in military life.", "Gripping film about the horrors of war and the particularly gruesome and cruel practices of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia following the evacuation of American soldiers from Vietnam in 1975.", "The film opens, introducing seasoned veteran Benjamin L. Willard ( Martin Sheen ); a deeply troubled, seasoned veteran. It is 1970. Willard has returned to Saigon from deployment in the field. He drinks excessively and appears to be having difficulty adjusting to life in the rear-area. Two intelligence officers, Lt. General Corman ( G. D. Spradlin ), Colonel Lucas ( Harrison Ford ) and a government man ( Jerry Ziesmer ), approach him with an assignment: journey up the legendary Nung River into the remote Cambodian jungle to find Colonel Walter E. Kurtz ( Marlon Brando ), a member of the US Army Special Forces feared to have gone rogue.", "5. Which of the following Vietnam War films was based on the book “Heart of Darkness” by Joseph Conrad: “Good Morning Vietnam,” “Born on the Fourth of July,” “Apocalypse Now” or “Band of Brothers”?", "The movie begins with an impassive British voice reading news over the radio. The Red Chinese have invaded South Vietnam in support of the Viet Cong. The United States has threatened to use tactical nuclear devices in retaliation. Forced to support China, the Russians have sealed the Berlin corridor in a hawklike gesture.", "The intro shows the main character, Han, a Viet Cong, snipe down to 2 Americans in the triple canopy forest: they all look like just kids...Beau Bridges plays an American officer who eventually falls into the hands of the Viet Cong. Han is forced to take him on a forced march back to his communist superiors; away from a meglomaniac ambitious comrade who is angerly pursuing. Clearly shows the Viet Cong's use of terrorism as Han assignments involve assignation and hit squads against their more vulnerable enemies. The final confrontation involves a large battle.", "Based on the diary of an unknown Viet Cong soldier, this film provides a sympathetic look at a Viet Cong soldier who protected a captured American soldier whom he believed did not kill him when the American had the opportunity. Written by John Sacksteder <Jsack@ka.net>" ]

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[ "When it was completed in 1931, the Empire State Building instantly became the tallest in the world. Standing an impressive 1250 feet tall, it was the first 100-story building in history and held the record as the world’s tallest for the next 41 years, until the completion of One World Trade Center in 1972. After that, the title moved to Chicago, and then to a number of super-tall buildings in Asia, until the current world’s tallest—Dubai’s Burj Khalifa—took the title in 2007.", "The Empire State Building was completed on April 11, 1931, 12 days ahead of schedule and officially opened on May 1, 1931. The building took its place in history as the tallest building ever built, holding this title for more than 40 years. It was not until 1972, when the 1,348-ft-(411-m-) tall twin towers of the World Trade Center were completed that the Empire State Building was surpassed in height. The World Trade Center in turn was surpassed in 1974 by the Sears Tower in Chicago, which at 1,453 ft (443 mj became the tallest building in the world.", "The Empire State Building was completed on April 11, 1931, 12 days ahead of schedule and officially opened on May 1, 1931. The building took its place in history as the tallest building ever built, holding this title for more than 40 years. It was not until 1972, when the 1,348-ft-(411-m-) tall twin towers of the World Trade Center were completed that the Empire State Building was surpassed in height. The World Trade Center in turn was surpassed in 1974 by the Sears Tower in Chicago, which at 1,453 ft (443 mj became the tallest building in the world.", "The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper in New York City, located on the east side of Manhattan at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue. Standing at 319 m (1,047 ft) high,[1] it was briefly the world's tallest building before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. However, the Chrysler Building remains the world's tallest brick building.[2][3] After the destruction of the World Trade Center, it was again the second tallest building in New York City until December 2007, when the spire was raised on the 365.8 m (1,200 ft) Bank of America building, pushing the Chrysler Building into third position. In addition, the New York Times Building, which opened in 2007, is exactly tied with the Chrysler Building in height, making the two buildings tied for 3rd position.[4] Despite the change in tallness ranking in New York, the Chrysler Building is still a classic example of Art Deco architecture and considered by many, at least among contemporary architects, to be one of the finest buildings in New York City.", "1 May 1931 - The Empire State Building, tallest building in the world (86 floors topped by a mooring mast for passenger dirigibles), opens in New York City at 34th Street and Fifth Avenue.", "The Empire State Building located in Manhattan, New York stands at 1,454 Feet High, including the antenna spire. When construction was complete in 1931 it became the world's tallest building for 40 years until 1972 when the North Tower of the World Trade Center was finished and stood even taller. The Empire State Building is considered to be an American cultural icon, designed with Art Deco style and being one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World. The 102 story building has been designated as a National Historic Landmark.", "As construction was completed on May 28, 1930[7], the added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet (305 meters). Van Alen's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee [18]. In less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27, 1930, the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building.", "The construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of \"world's tallest building\". Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, on April 11, 1931, 12 days ahead of schedule, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signaling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932. ", "The Empire State Building is a 102-story Art Deco skyscraper in New York City, New York at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and West 34th Street. Its name is derived from the nickname for the state of New York. It stood as the world's tallest building for more than forty years, from its completion in 1931 until construction of the World Trade Center's North Tower was completed in 1972. Following the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001, the Empire State Building became for the second time, the tallest building in New York City.", "The Empire State Building stood as the tallest building in the world from its completion until 1972, when the 110-story North Tower of the original World Trade Center was completed. At 1368 ft, The World Trade Center briefly held the title as the world's tallest building until the completion of the 108-story Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower) in Chicago in 1974. The World Trade Center towers were destroyed by terrorist attacks in 2001, and the Empire State Building regained the title of tallest building in the City. It remained the tallest until April 2012, when the construction on One World Trade Center surpassed it. The fourth-tallest building in New York is the Bank of America Tower, which rises to 1200 ft, including its spire. Tied for fifth-tallest are the 1046 ft Chrysler Building, which was the world's tallest building from 1930 until 1931, and the New York Times Building, which was completed in 2007. ", "In 1931, the Empire State Building rose in New York City like a 1,250-ft (381-m) exclamation point. It would remain the world's tallest office building for 41 years. By 2000, only six other buildings in the world would surpass its height.", "In 1931, the Empire State Building was completed, after only 11 months of construction. President Herbert Hoover pressed a symbolic button in the White House that triggered the lights in the lobby, officially opening the world's tallest skyscraper to the public.", "The construction was part of an intense competition in New York for the title of \"world's tallest building\". Two other projects fighting for the title, 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building, were still under construction when work began on the Empire State Building. Each held the title for less than a year, as the Empire State Building surpassed them upon its completion, just 410 days after construction commenced. The building was officially opened on May 1, 1931 in dramatic fashion, when United States President Herbert Hoover turned on the building's lights with the push of a button from Washington, D.C. Ironically, the first use of tower lights atop the Empire State Building, the following year, was for the purpose of signalling the victory of Franklin D. Roosevelt over Hoover in the presidential election of November 1932.", "The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper in New York City, located on the east side of Manhattan at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue. Standing at 319 metres (1,047 ft), it was briefly the world's tallest building before the Empire State Building surpassed it in 1931. However, the Chrysler Building remains the world's tallest brick building.", "The Chrysler Building was built between 1928 and 1930. At the height of 318.9 metres (including the spire), it was the tallest building in the world. However, just 11 months later, in 1931, it was surpassed by the Empire State building.", "Upon completion, May 20, 1930, the added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet (305 m). Van Alen's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee. Less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27, 1930, the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building, but the Chrysler Building is still the world's tallest steel-supported brick building.", "The Empire State Building (1930–1931) is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Manhattan. Features include a tiered structure that recalls ancient pyramids and a mast at the top for mooring dirigibles. Rising to 1,250 ft (not including the mast), it remained the tallest building in the world until the 1970s.", "The 1,046-foot Chrysler Building may be tied with the New York Times Tower for the no. 4 spot in Gotham, but the Art Deco skyscraper is still the world’s tallest brick building, albeit with an internal skeleton made of steel. Completed in 1930, it was the world’s tallest building for almost a year from its completion until April 30, 1931. The Abu Dhabi Investment Council bought a majority stake in the iconic tower from a fund managed by Prudential Financial in 2008 for a reported $800 million. Tishman Speyer Properties, meanwhile, controls and manages the property.", "The second Waldorf-Astoria hotel opened in its current location on Park Avenue on October 1, 1931, as the tallest and largest hotel in the world. President Herbert Hoover, in a radio broadcast from The White House, saluted the new hotel, \"The opening of the new Waldorf Astoria is an event in the advancement of hotels, even in New York City. It carries great tradition in national hospitality...marks the measure of nation's growth in power, in comfort and in artistry...an exhibition of courage and confidence to the whole nation...”", "The Empire State Building was intended to end the competition for tallest building. It was to tower 102 stories, 1,250 ft (381 m) above Manhattan's streets. Its developers, John J. Raskob and Pierre Samuel Du Pont, along with former New York Governor Alfred E. Smith, announced in August 1929 their intention to build the world's tallest building. They chose the construction firm Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon for the project with William F. Lamb as the chief designer. If is set back from the street above the fifth floor and then soars uninterrupted for more than 1,000 ft (305 m) to the 86th floor. The exterior is limestone and granite and vertical chrome-nickel-steel alloy columns extend from the sixth floor to the top. The building contained 67 elevators and 6,500 glass windows, topped with a 200-ft (61-m) mooring mast for dirigibles.", "The Empire State Building was intended to end the competition for tallest building. It was to tower 102 stories, 1,250 ft (381 m) above Manhattan's streets. Its developers, John J. Raskob and Pierre Samuel Du Pont, along with former New York Governor Alfred E. Smith, announced in August 1929 their intention to build the world's tallest building. They chose the construction firm Starrett Brothers and Eken, and the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon for the project with William F. Lamb as the chief designer. If is set back from the street above the fifth floor and then soars uninterrupted for more than 1,000 ft (305 m) to the 86th floor. The exterior is limestone and granite and vertical chrome-nickel-steel alloy columns extend from the sixth floor to the top. The building contained 67 elevators and 6,500 glass windows, topped with a 200-ft (61-m) mooring mast for dirigibles.", "The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen to house the Chrysler Corporation. When the ground breaking occurred on September 19, 1928, there was an intense competition in New York City to build the world's tallest skyscraper.[5][6] Despite a frantic pace (the building was erected at an average rate of four floors per week), no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper. [7]", "The late 1920s saw a spate of announcements of office buildings intended to wrest the title of \"world's tallest building\" away from the Woolworth Building (completed in 1913). When City Bank-Farmers Trust filed plans in October 1929 for a 66-story building 846.4 feet high,14 it staked a claim to the title.15 The new skyscraper was to be a set-back building with a \"tower eighty feet square rising from the twenty-eighth floor. The tower will taper off from the fiftieth floor and at the top will be an illuminated globe fifteen feet in diameter, supported by four eagles of heroic size. The general style will be conservative modern.\"", "What was the tallest building in the world before the completion of the Chrysler Building in New York in 1930?", "Built in 1928-30, there was an intense competition in New York to build the world’s tallest skyscraper. Despite being built at a frantic pace, the Chrysler Building became the tallest in NYC to be beaten by the Empire State building 11 months later. The building has an impressive 3,862 windows, with its gargoyles modelled after Chrysler automobile products like the hood ornaments of the Plymouth. The corners of the 61st floor are graced with eagles, and the 31st floor corner ornamentation are replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps. Very cool, and very impressive.", "The term \"skyscraper,” as far as existing records show, was first used to refer to a tall building during the 1880s in Chicago, shortly after the first 10 to 20 story buildings were built in the United States. Combining several innovations—steel structures, elevators, central heating, electrical plumbing pumps and the telephone— skyscrapers came to dominate American skylines at the turn of the century. The world's tallest building when it opened in 1913, architect Cass Gilbert's 793-foot Woolworth Building was considered a leading example of tall building design.", "The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen for a project of Walter P. Chrysler. When the ground breaking occurred on September 19, 1928, there was an intense competition in New York City to build the world's tallest skyscraper. Despite a frantic pace (the building was built at an average rate of four floors per week), no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper.", "During the fateful years, 1929–1931, the race to build the world’s tallest skyscraper came to a climax, against the backdrop of the dramatic Stock Market crash of 1929 and the unfolding Great Depression.", "1930 Chrysler Building in New York City at 1,046 feet tall (tallest man-made structure at the time) opens to the public", "It is located in the New York City and is the centerpiece of Rockefeller Center. It was completed in 1933 and is 850 feet (260 m) tall. It has 70 floors and today is the 164th tallest building in the world.", "Construction of the building started the following year after a design by John McArthur, Jr. in the then very popular Second Empire style. The ambitious project was to result in the tallest building in the world but by the time it was completed in 1901 after thirty years of construction, it had been eclipsed", "It was designed by Charles Holden and built between 1927-1931 and at the time was considered a skyscraper due to it being the tallest office block in the city." ]

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[ "Percy L Spencer invented the microwave oven in 1945 which was after World War II. What is known today as a conventional kitchen feature began as a very unconventional discovery.", "� Percy Spencer was an American who invented the microwave oven in the late 1950s after experiments with a magnetron, a device designed to produce short radio waves for a radar system.", "The microwave was invented by Dr. Percy LeBaron Spencer.. The technology behind the microwave was discovered by accident when Spencer noticed that his candy bar melted while working on a radar-related project. He made this discovery, shortly after World War II, in 1946.", "Raytheon's research on the magnetron tube revealed the potential of microwaves to cook food. In 1945, Raytheon's Percy Spencer invented the microwave oven by discovering that the magnetron could rapidly heat food. In 1947, the company demonstrated the Radarange microwave oven for commercial use.", "Percy Lebaron Spencer (July 19, 1894 – September 8, 1969) was an American physicist and inventor. He became known as the inventor of the microwave oven. ", "A microwave oven cooks or heats food by dielectric heating. Cooking food with microwaves was discovered by Percy Spencer on October 8, 1945, while building magnetrons for radar sets at Raytheon. Spencer was working on an active radar set when he noticed a strange sensation, and saw that a peanut candy bar he had in his pocket started to melt. Although he was not the first to notice this phenomenon, as the holder of 120 patents, Spencer was no stranger to discovery and experiment, and realized what was happening. The radar had melted his candy bar with microwaves. The first food to be deliberately cooked with microwaves was popcorn, and the second was an egg.[204] In 1947, Raytheon under Percy Spencer demonstrated the world's first microwave oven built at the company which was called the \"Radarange\".[205]", "Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the modern microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the \"Radarange\", it was first sold in 1946. Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, and their use has spread into commercial and residential kitchens around the world.", "The invention of the microwave oven in 1945 made all instant heating a breeze. This machine is too hot a household can't be called one without a microwave. Here's a trivia. The almighty microwave was not invented. It was accidentally discovered. Percy Spencer noticed his chocolate bar was melting while working on a scientific project.", "Who invented the microwave? An engineer named Percy Spencer accidentally discovered the use of microwaves to cook food. In happened some time in the 1940s, when he was trying to build radar sets for the commercial electronics manufacturer Raytheon. He noticed that the chocolate bar situated right inside his pocket melted because of the microwaves that were present in the area where he was working. Thereafter, he went on to experiment and tried to cook popcorn. Next, he and his associates tried to cook an egg, which eventually exploded right in the face of one of them.", "After that, he and his crew experimented on a metal box, which they fed with microwave power. It became a high-density electromagnetic field, which allowed the food temperature to rise quickly. Raytheon decided to file a patent for Spencer’s invention on October 8, 1945. The kitchen appliance was tested for some time in a restaurant in Boston, Massachusetts. After that, Raytheon decided to build the very first microwave oven called the Radarange.", "January 24, 1950 - Perry L. Spencer, of West Newton, MA, received a patent for a \"Method of Treating Foodstuffs\" (\"to provide an efficient method of employing electromagnetic energy for the cooking of foodstuffs\"); microwave oven; assigned to Raytheon Manufacturing Company.", "One day, Percy Spencer had a chocolate bar in his pocket when he switched on the magnetron. To his surprise, the bar quickly melted because of the heat the magnetron generated. This gave him the idea that a magnetron might be used to cook food. After successfully cooking some popcorn, he realized he could develop a microwave oven for cooking all types of food. He was granted a series of patents for this idea in the early 1950s, including one for a microwave coffee brewer (US patent 2,601,067, granted June 17, 1952) and the one I've illustrated here (US patent 2,495,429 \"Method of Treating Foodstuffs\" on January 24, 1950), which shows the basic operation of a microwave oven. In this patent, you can find Spencer's own pithy summary of how his invention works:", "In the United States, the radio frequencies that can be used for heating are allocated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The two most popular frequencies for microwave cooking are 915 and 2,450 megahertz, and the 2,450 frequency is used in home microwave ovens. It is interesting that patents filed by Spencer in 1947 mention a frequency on the order of 2,450 megahertz. This fact is another example of Spencer’s vision in the development of microwave cooking principles. The Raytheon Company concentrated on using 2,450 megahertz, and in 1955, the first domestic microwave oven was introduced. It was not until the late 1960′s, however, that the price of the microwave oven decreased sufficiently for the device to become popular. The first patent describing a microwave heating system being used in conjunction with a conveyor was issued to Spencer in 1952. Later, based on this development, continuous industrial applications of microwaves were developed.", "Like many great inventions, microwave ovens were an accidental discovery. Back in the 1950s, American electrical engineer Percy Spencer (1894–1970) was carrying out some experiments with a magnetron at the Raytheon Manufacturing Company where he worked. At that time, the main use for magnetrons was in radar : a way of using radio waves to help airplanes and ships find their way around in poor weather or darkness.", "Microwave Oven Who invented the Microwave oven Percy Spencer invented the first... microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the \"Radarange\", it was first sold in 1946. Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced byTappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, which was acquired in...", "Like many of today's great inventions, the microwave oven was a by-product of another technology. It was during a radar-related research project around 1946 that Dr. Percy Spencer, a", "His discovery of microwave cooking was utterly accidental. In a Raytheon laboratory in 1946, he noticed that he felt a tingling when he stood near a magnetron, and the candy bar in his pocket melted. He was not the first to notice this effect, but others had only been fearful, while Spencer was also curious. He brought in raw popcorn, which started popping when he placed it near the magnetron.", "Percy LeBaron Spencer  was an American engineer and inventor. He became known as the inventor of the microwave oven.Spencer was born in Howland. In 1941, magnetrons, which were used to generate the microwave radio signals that are the core mechanism of radar , were being made at the rate of 17 per day at Raytheon. While working there, Spencer developed a more efficient way to manufacture them, by punching out and soldering together magnetron parts, rather than using machined parts. His improvements were among those that increased magnetron production to 2,600 per day. For his work he was awarded the Distinguished Public Service Award by the US Navy.", "In the spring of 1946, Percy Spencer and an associate, P.R. Hanson (Roly Hanson), were working on a secret project they called \"the Speedy Weenie\". Muriel Withrow remembers the project well. She recalls, \"The 'Speedy Weenie' Project was the nickname Mr. Spencer and my boss, Roly Hanson, gave to their secret project, the microwave [oven]\" \"'Speedie Weenie' meaning 'a quick hot dog!'\" (Our thanks to Mrs. Withrow for sharing this little known detail)", "In 1941 the magnetron, which produces microwaves, was so complex and difficult to make that fewer than two dozen were produced in a day. This pace delayed the campaign to improve radar, which used magnetrons, so Spencer, while working for Raytheon Corporation, set out to speed things along. He simplified the design and made it more efficient at the same time. Production of magnetrons soon increased more than a thousandfold. In 1945 he discovered by accident that microwaves could heat chocolate past the melting point. He immediately tried an experiment by training microwaves on popcorn kernels and was delighted to see them puff up straight away.", "Although Spencer’s patents refer to the cooking of foods with microwave energy, neither deals directly with a microwave oven. The actual basis for a microwave oven may be patents filed by other researchers at Raytheon. A patent by Karl Stiefel in 1949 may be the forerunner of the microwave oven, and in 1950, Fritz Gross received a patent entitled “Cooking Apparatus,” which specifically describes an oven that is very similar to modern microwave ovens.", "The microwave oven was developed after W.W.II in order to beat swords into plowshares. Perhaps the engineer who is best known for birthing the idea of using microwaves to prepare food was Percy Spencer, of the Raytheon Company, located in Waltham Massachusetts.", "Today most microwaves continue to follow the same short, wide box format popularised in the 70’s. You can however buy from a wide range of differing microwave oven types. There are different sizes, colours, capacities and power outputs. Some sit on the kitchen work-top, some are built in to kitchen units and some are hung over the stove. Many microwave ovens today are able to not only microwave food, but can grill, use convection heat and even steam food. Whatever microwave oven you have, don’t just use it for reheating last nights pizza – it can do so much more.  So, when you’ve finished eating a delicious plate of microwave slow cooked lamb , thank Percy Spencer and his melted chocolate bar for giving us the idea for the microwave oven all those years ago.", "Using 2.45 GHz to heat popcorn and lobsters must be first credited to Percy Spencer. However, the engineer that reduced the idea to practice, and developed the first practical, commercially viable microwave oven known as the Radarange, was Marvin Bock. Some details of his life:", "Spencer discovered the microwave because he was at one of the Raytheon Companies when he noticed a sudden and odd feeling surge through his body. Around the same time, Percy Spencer realized that his chocolate candy bar was melting. As he noted these strange and peculiar happenings, he also recognized that both were a result of where he chose to stand.", "Dr. Spencer fashioned a metal box with an opening into which he fed microwave power. The energy entering the box was unable to escape, thereby creating a higher density electromagnetic field. When food was placed in the box and microwave energy fed in, the temperature of the food rose very rapidly. Dr. Spencer had invented what was to revolutionize cooking, and form the basis of a multimillion dollar industry, the microwave oven.", "Percy Spencer experimented further by directing the magnetron tube at kernels of corn. Activating the gun resulted in just what he was hoping – the first microwave popcorn. Percy Spencer then went on to build a metal box with an opening on one side and the magnetron tube poking through into another side of it. He used this box to heat his lunches and a variety of other foods he was curious enough to try out. There’s  a story of an occasion where he heated a whole egg in the device which unfortunately resulted in the egg exploding in his colleague’s face. This incident led to the addition of a door to close the box and prevent any further such incidents.", "Spencer built the first true microwave oven by attaching a high-density electromagnetic field generator to an enclosed metal box. The magnetron device used for radar caused the stream of electrons interacting with a magnet to resonate in a high-powered vacuum tube, resulting in microwave radiation. In the case of the microwave oven, the magnetron emitted microwaves into a box, which blocked their escape and allowed for controlled experimentation. Spencer tested it further by placing various types of food in the box, observing the effects on it by the microwaves and monitoring temperatures.", "Now where does the microwave oven fit in?  By accident really,  Percy was going about his day, working and building on magnetrons.  While he was standing in front of the radar set that was active,  a candy bar that was in his pocket melted.  He decided to experiment with food starting with popcorn kernels, and an egg. What he got was the first microwaved popcorn and an exploding egg.  Percy wanted to continue experimenting and he did this by attaching a high density electromagnetic field generator to an enclosed metal box.  By having a controlled environment, the magnetron emitted microwaves that were captured in the metal box, and voila the microwave oven was born.", "Understandably curious just what the heck had happened, Spencer ran another test with the magnetron. This time he put an egg underneath the tube. Moments later, it exploded, covering his face in egg. \"I always thought that this was the origin of the expression 'egg in your face',\" Rod Spencer laughs. The following day, Percy Spencer brought in corn kernels, popped them with his new invention, and shared some popcorn with the entire office. The microwave oven was born .", "I came across your website and note you are missing information on a contributor to the development of microwave heating.  His name is David Arthur Copson, born in Dorchester, MA in 1918.  He worked at Raytheon with many of the other folks you listed, and wrote three books, two on Microwave Heating.  He was head of the Microwave Heating laboratory in Raytheon (not sure which years, but I'm researching it) and developed the proper methods for heating foods using microwave technology.  He holds several patents in the field.", "Farnsworth excelled in chemistry and physics at Rigby High School , and produced sketches and prototypes of electron tubes. One of the drawings he did for his chemistry teacher, Justin Tolman, proved to be the pattern for his later experiments in electronics and was instrumental in winning a patent interference case between Farnsworth and Radio Corporation of America (RCA) .<SUP class=reference id=_ref-3> [4] </SUP>" ]

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[ "1. Which famous character was created by Michael Bond in a series of books for children?", "The famous Paddington Bear was created by English author Michael Bond, born Thomas Michael Bond. Known primarily for the Paddington Bear series, which is comprised of 20 books, Bond also wrote the Olga da Polga series and Monsieur Pamplemousse series, which are also aimed at children.", "A classic character in children’s literature, Paddington Bear has been casting his spell over children of all ages since he was first created by a British writer, Michael Bond, in 1958.", "Paddington Bear is a fictional character in children's literature. He first appeared in 1958 and was subsequently featured in several books written by Michael Bond and first illustrated by Peggy Fortnum. The polite immigrant bear from Darkest Peru, with his old bush hat, battered suitcase and marmalade sandwiches has become a classic English children's literature icon. Paddington books have been translated into thirty languages across seventy titles and sold more than 30 million copies worldwide.", "Paddington Bear is a series of British animated shorts based on the Paddington Bear book series by Michael Bond produced by FilmFair. This was the first television series based on the popular children's book Paddington Bear. In the United States it was usually shown on pay television as filler in between programs. Its narrator was actor Michael Hordern. It was one of the few television programmes to combine a puppet show with cartoon - Paddington himself was a puppet, but other characters in the series were depicted as cartoon characters.", "Paddington Bear was created by former BBC cameraman Michael Bond who published his first book in 1958 and made into an animated BBC TV series in 1975.", "Michael Bond was born on January 13, 1926 in Newbury, Berkshire, England as Thomas Michael Bond. He is a writer and actor, known for Paddington (2014), The Adventures of Paddington Bear (1997) and The Herbs (1968). He has been married to Susan Marfey Rogers since 1981. He was previously married to Brenda Mary Johnson. See full bio »", "Thomas Michael Bond, CBE (born 13 January 1926) is an English author, best known for his Paddington Bear series of books. Bond was awarded a CBE in the Queen's Birthday Honours 2015. ", "Michael Bond wrote more than 20 Paddington Bear books, the first of which was published in 1958. The television series started 17 years later, in 1975.", "Through the pages of the first novel bearing Paddington's name A Bear Called Paddington by Michael Bond, we discover his history.", "Young readers book reviews -- *A Bear Called Paddington (50th Anniversary Edition)* by Michael Bond - Curled Up With A Good Kid's Book", "Writer  Ian Fleming  of the famous series of books he wrote around the British spy  James Bond  ventured in 1963 to a children's book. \"Chitty Chitty Bang Bang\" was based on the stories he told to his son Caspar.The book appeared in 1964 in three parts at Publisher Jonathan Cape. The illustrations were by John Burningham. Fleming was inspired by a real racing car that count Louis Zborowski built in Higham Park at the beginning of the twenties of the last century. The car had the nickname Chitty Bang Bang because of the engines that were based on aircraft engines.", "Winnie-the-Pooh is a children’s novel about the adventures of a teddy bear called Winnie-the-Pooh who belongs to a young boy called Christopher Robin. Each chapter of the book is a new adventure and they can be read independently. The book introduces a number of supporting characters including; Piglet, Eeyore, owl, Rabbit, Kanga and Roo. The book and characters have been adapted many times for television, movies, radio, audio and the stage. Winnie-the-Pooh and associated characters have remained popular characters since they were created. Let’s find out who wrote Winnie-the-Pooh.", "Double or Die, the third book in the series, was released in the UK on 4 January 2007, having had its title announced the day before. The title was voted on in a national poll on the official Young Bond website; the other two titles to choose from were N.E.M.E.S.I.S. and The Deadlock Cipher. After the first three days of Double or Dies release it took the number two spot on the Booksellers list of best-selling children's books in the UK and number fourteen in the overall UK Top 50 list. A week later it had climbed to number one on the children's list and the number twelve spot overall. ", "*An inflatable representation of the character made an appearance in the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in London alongside Lord Voldemort, The Queen of Hearts, Captain Hook and Child Catcher to commemorate the significance of children's literature to British culture.", "Mary Poppins is the title character of a series of children’s books written by P.L. Travers. The first book, Mary Poppins, was published in 1934, and the last, Mary Poppins and the House Next Door, in 1988. The books focus on the magical English Nanny, Mary Poppins, who is blown by the wind into the lives of the Banks family. She arrives and gets right to work mending the family and bringing order to the chaotic home. Mary and the children have numerous adventures in which they encounter everything from singing chimney sweeps, to a loving bird woman, dancing statues, and a carpet bag that fits the strangest things.", "Literature for children developed as a separate genre. Some works become internationally known, such as those of Lewis Carroll, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and its sequel Through the Looking-Glass. Robert Louis Stevenson's (1850–94) Treasure Island (1883), is the classic pirate adventure. At the end of the Victorian era and leading into the Edwardian era, Beatrix Potter was an author and illustrator, best known for her children's books, which featured animal characters. In her thirties, Potter published the highly successful children's book The Tale of Peter Rabbit in 1902. Potter eventually went on to publish 23 children's books, and became a wealthy woman.", "Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang was loosely adapted as a 1968 film of the same name with a screenplay by Roald Dahl and Ken Hughes; a subsequent novelisation was also published. The film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli, co-producer of the James Bond film series. The story was also adapted as a stage musical under the same name. In April 2011 a BBC Radio 4 Extra adaptation was broadcast with Imogen Stubbs as the voice of Chitty. Three sequels to Fleming's book have been published, all written by Frank Cottrell Boyce.", "James Bond 007 is a fictional British agent (the Bond character is usually referred to as a spy, but was actually a counter-agent and a professional assassin) created by writer Ian Fleming in 1952. Fleming wrote numerous novels and short stories based upon the character and, after his death in 1964, further literary adventures were written by Kingsley Amis (pseudonym Robert Markham), John Pearson, John Gardner, Raymond Benson, and Charlie Higson. In addition, Christopher Wood wrote two screenplay novelisations and other authors have also written various unofficial permutations of the character.", "First published in 1943, the series follows three young children, Jo, Bessie and Fanny, who discover an enormous magical tree in an enchanted forest and befriend the creatures that live among its branches. With a band of new pals including Moon-face, The Saucepan Man and Mr Watzisname, the children embark on various adventures in the magical lands lurking at the top of the tree. Unsurprisingly, the Lands of Birthdays, Goodies and Do-As-You-Please became particular favourites with young readers.", "Milne is most famous for his two Pooh books about a boy named Christopher Robin after his son, Christopher Robin Milne, and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named Winnie-the-Pooh. Christopher Robin Milne's stuffed bear, originally named \"Edward\", was renamed \"Winnie-the-Pooh\" after a Canadian black bear named Winnie (after Winnipeg), which was used as a military mascot in World War I, and left to London Zoo during the war. \"The pooh\" comes from a swan called \"Pooh\". E. H. Shepard illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own son's teddy, Growler (\"a magnificent bear\"), as the model. The rest of Christopher Robin Milne's toys, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo and Tigger, were incorporated into A. A. Milne's stories, and two more characters – Rabbit and Owl – were created by Milne's imagination. Christopher Robin Milne's own toys are now under glass in New York where 750,000 people visit them every year. ", "Another famous English literary character was really a group of five--four children and a dog. The central characters are Julian, Dick, Anne, George, and the dog Timmy. This was a children's series created by famed children's writer Enid Blyton, one of Britain's best-loved children�s authors. It was one of the most popular series of children's books in England and America. The series began in 1942 and were translated into many languages. The boys were commonly costumed in period clothes, jumpers, short trousers, and sandals.", "The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of seven fantasy novels for children and is considered a classic of children's literature. Written between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by Pauline Baynes, the series is Lewis' most popular work having sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages. It has been adapted several times, complete or in part, for radio, television, stage, and cinema. The series has been published in several different orders, and the preferred reading order for the series is often debated among fans.", "You know why, right? Chitty Chitty Bang Bang was Ian Fleming’s children’s book, and the movie was made by none other than Albert R Broccoli. Moar Bond! Now for kids!", "The Famous Five is the name of a series of children's adventure novels written by English author Enid Blyton. The first book, Five on a Treasure Island, was published in 1942. The novels feature the adventures of a group of young children – Julian, Dick, Anne and Georgina (George) – and their dog Timmy.", "The Swallows and Amazons series is a series of twelve children's books by English author Arthur Ransome, named after the title of the first book in the series and set between the two World Wars. The twelve books involve adventures by groups of children, almost all during the school holidays and mostly in England, but including four sailing trips that go outside England. The stories revolve around outdoor activities, especially sailing.", "Danny the Champion of the World was adapted into a children's book from one of Roald Dahl adult short stories. This book is perfect for slightly older children (aged 8 to 12). I first read it when I was nine and it was so exciting at the time I had to read some of it standing up because I could not sit still and read it at the same time. I still remembered the sheer excitement and tension when Danny was in the car. This is a gripping book for children to read.", "The original goody two-shoes was the title character in a nursery story, The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes, published anonymously in 1765 but usually credited to Oliver Goldsmith. Although Goldsmith's was apparently the first published version of the story, references to its title character have since been uncovered as far back as the mid-1600s, suggesting it might originally have been a local folktale.", "Entry in the publisher's \"Who Was...?\" line of children's books (marketed for the 8 - 12 years range).", "Fleming also wrote the children's book that inspired the perennial classic Chitty Chitty Bang Bang [KOBAL COLLECTION]", "Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang: The Magical Car is a children's book written by Ian Fleming for his son Caspar, with illustrations by John Burningham . It was initially published in three volumes, the first of which was released on 22 October 1964 by Jonathan Cape in London .", "Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang: The Magical Car is a children's novel written by Ian Fleming for his son Caspar, with illustrations by John Burningham. It was initially published in three volumes, the first of which was released on 22 October 1964 by Jonathan Cape in London." ]

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[ "Wuthering Heights is a novel by Emily Brontë , written between October 1845 and June 1846, and published in 1847 under the pseudonym \"Ellis Bell.\" It was her first and only published novel: she died aged 30 the following year. The decision to publish came after the success of her sister Charlotte 's novel, Jane Eyre . After Emily's death, Charlotte edited the manuscript of Wuthering Heights, and arranged for the edited version to be published as a posthumous second edition in 1850.", "The Brontës (, commonly ) were a nineteenth-century literary family associated with the village of Haworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. The sisters, Charlotte (1816–1855), Emily (1818–1848), and Anne (1820–1849), are well known as poets and novelists. Like many contemporary female writers, they originally published their poems and novels under male pseudonyms: Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Their stories immediately attracted attention, although not always the best, for their passion and originality. Charlotte's Jane Eyre was the first to know success, while Emily's Wuthering Heights, Anne's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall and other works were later to be accepted as masterpieces of literature.", "The Brontë sisters – Anne, Charlotte and Emily—were all Yorkshirewomen born in Thornton and raised in Haworth, West Yorkshire. Their novels, written in the mid 1800s, caused a sensation when they were first published and were subsequently accepted into the canon of great English literature. Amongst the most noted novels credited to the sisters are Anne's The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Charlotte's Jane Eyre and Emily's Wuthering Heights.", "Emily Jane Brontë (, commonly; 30 July 1818 – 19 December 1848) was an English novelist and poet who is best known for her only novel, Wuthering Heights, now considered a classic of English literature. Emily was the third eldest of the four surviving Brontë siblings, between the youngest Anne and her brother Branwell. She wrote under the pen name Ellis Bell.", "Emily was born in Thornton, near Bradford in Yorkshire to Patrick Brontë and Maria Branwell. She was the younger sister of Charlotte Brontë and the fifth of six children. In 1824, the family moved to Haworth, where Emily's father was perpetual curate, and it was in these surroundings that their literary oddities flourished. In childhood, after the death of their mother, the three sisters and their brother Patrick Branwe Emily Jane Brontë was a British novelist and poet, now best remembered for her only novel Wuthering Heights, a classic of English literature. Emily was the second eldest of the three surviving Brontë sisters, being younger than Charlotte Brontë and older than Anne Brontë . She published under the masculine pen name Ellis Bell.", "Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë Wuthering Heights is Emily Brontë's only novel. It was first published in 1847 under the pseudonym Ellis Bell, and a posthumous second edition was edited by her sister Charlotte. Heathcliff is a black runaway, plucked off the streets of Liverpool and raised on a north country hill farm. As...", "Emily Brontë was an English novelist and poet, the middle Brontë sister of the trio whose novels are classics of English literature: Emily's Wuthering Heights, Charlotte's Jane Eyre, and Anne's Agnes Grey. Emily was an avid poet, when the sisters discovered Emily's talent, the three published a joint collection of poetry in 1846. To get around the prejudice in their day against female writers, the sisters published under pseudonyms. They kept their initials the same: Charlotte became Currer Bell, Anne became Acton Bell, and Emily became Ellis Bell. In 1847, Emily published Wuthering Heights, her only novel. It first appeared as two volumes of a three volume set, the last volume being Agnes Grey by Anne. It had a unique structure that earned it mixed reviews at first, but it has since become a classic. In 1850, two years after Emily's death, Charlotte published Wuthering Heights as a novel on its own and under Emily's real name.", "Wuthering Heights, which has long been one of the most popular and highly regarded novels in English literature, seemed to hold little promise when it was published in 1847, selling very poorly and receiving only a few mixed reviews. Victorian readers found the book shocking and inappropriate in its depiction of passionate, ungoverned love and cruelty (despite the fact that the novel portrays no sex or bloodshed), and the work was virtually ignored. Even Emily Brontë’s sister Charlotte—an author whose works contained similar motifs of Gothic love and desolate landscapes—remained ambivalent toward the unapologetic intensity of her sister’s novel. In a preface to the book, which she wrote shortly after Emily Brontë’s death, Charlotte Brontë stated, “Whether it is right or advisable to create beings like Heathcliff, I do not know. I scarcely think it is.”", "Wuthering Heights is Emily Brontë's only novel. It was first published in 1847 under the pseudonym Ellis Bell, and a posthumous second edition was edited by her sister Charlotte. The name of the novel comes from the Yorkshire manor on the moors on which the story centres (as an adjective, wuthering is a Yorkshire word referring to...", "The Brontë sisters, Emily, Anne and Charlotte were born along with their brother Branwell at 74 Market Street in Thornton in Bradford before moving to the parsonage at Haworth in the heart of West Yorkshire's Brontë Country where they wrote a range of classics of English literature including \"Wuthering Heights\" and \"Jane Eyre\".", "Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte. The classic Gothic novel, and the only work ever written by Emily Bronte. It was first published in 1847 under the pseudonym Ellis Bell, and a posthumous second edition was edited by her sister Charlotte. The name of the novel comes from the Yorkshire manor on the moors on which the story centers (as an adjective; \"wuthering\" is from a Yorkshire word used when referring to turbulent weather). The narrative tells the tale of the all-encompassing and passionate, yet thwarted, love between Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw, and how this unresolved passion eventually destroys them and many around them. Now considered a must have classic of English literature, Wuthering Heights met with mixed reviews by critics when it first appeared, mainly because of the narrative's stark depiction of mental and physical cruelty. Though Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre was initially considered the best of the Bronte sisters' works, many subsequent critics of Wuthering Heights argued that its originality and achievement made Wuthering Heights far superior. Wuthering Heights has also given rise to many adaptations and inspired works, including films, radio, television dramatizations, and even a musical.\" show more", "Although Wuthering Heights did not meet with the critical success Jane Eyre received, contemporary critics tend to consider Emily the best writer of the Brontë sisters. Emily Brontë's highly imaginative novel of passion and hate was too savage and animal-like and clumsy in its own day and time, but contemporary audiences consider it mild.", "How is this book unique? Free Audiobook Illustrations included Unabridged Wuthering Heights is Emily Brontë's only novel. Written between October 1845 and June 1846, Wuthering Heights was published in 1847 under the pseudonym \"Ellis Bell\"; Brontë died the following year, aged 30. Wuthering Heights and Anne Brontë's Agnes...", "It is likely that Anne was the first of the Brontë sisters to write a work of prose for publication, although Agnes Grey, Wuthering Heights, and Jane Eyre were all published within the same year: 1847. Anne's novel was eventually published by Thomas Newby in a triple-volume format: Emily's Wuthering Heights made up the first two volumes (by virtue of it being the longer), while Agnes Grey made up the third.", "Emily Brontë (1818 - 1848) - pseudonym Ellis Bell Perhaps the greatest writer of the three Brontë sisters - Charlotte, Emily and Anne. Emily Brontë published only one novel, WUTHERING HEIGHT...", "..... Click the link for more information. , family) single novel, Wuthering Heights (1847), is a unique masterpiece propelled by a vision of elemental passions but controlled by an uncompromising artistic sense. The fine novels of Emily's sister Charlotte Brontë, especially Jane Eyre (1847) and Villette (1853), are more rooted in convention, but daring in their own ways. The novels of George Eliot Eliot, George,", "Evidence suggests that Emily Brontë began writing Wuthering Heights in December 1845 and completed it the next year. A year after that, in July of 1847, Wuthering Heights was accepted for publication; however, it was not printed until December, following the success of Jane Eyre.", "Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights (1847), a tale of love and death on the moors of Yorkshire, has been long considered one of the finest novels in the gothic tradition.", "First published under Emily�s pseudonym Ellis Bell, the combination of its structure and elements of passion, mystery and doomed love as well as social commentary have made Wuthering Heights an enduring masterpiece. Set in 18th Century England when social and economic values were changing and land ownership did not always the man make, it is a world of patriarchal values juxtaposed with the natural elements. Bronte explores themes of revenge, religion, class and prejudice while plumbing the depths of the metaphysical and human psyche. Bronte�s own home in the bleak Yorkshire moors provides the setting for the at-times other-worldly passions of the Byronic Heathcliff and Catherine. Also having written much poetry, Emily Bronte�s works did not receive wide acclaim until after her death at the age of thirty. Wuthering Heights is still in print today and has inspired numerous television and feature film adaptations. As with most of the Bronte sister�s popular novels, people have tried to find biographical parallels in them. Emily has been characterised to mythic proportions as deeply spiritual, free-spirited and reclusive as well as intensely creative and passionate, an icon to tortured genius.", "1818 Emily Bront�, English novelist and author of Wuthering Heights was born in Thornton, near Bradford, Yorkshire.", "The Brontë Sisters - The Complete Novels: Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights, Shirley, Villette, The Professor, Emma, Agnes Grey, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall  eBook by Charlotte Brontë - 9788026838524 | Kobo", "Brontë, the name of three ladies, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne, daughters of a Yorkshire clergyman of Irish extraction: Charlotte, born at Thornton, Yorkshire; removed with her father, at the age of four, to Haworth, a moorland parish, in the same county, where she lived most of her days; spent two years at Brussels as a pupil-teacher; on her return, in conjunction with her sisters, prepared and published a volume of poems under the pseudonyms respectively of “Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell,” which proved a failure. Nothing daunted, she set to novel writing, and her success was instant; first, “Jane Eyre,” then “Shirley,” and then “Villette,” appeared, and her fame was established. In 1854 she married her father's curate, Mr. Nicholls, but her constitution gave way, and she died (1816-1855). Emily (Ellis), two years younger, poet rather than novelist; wrote “Wuthering Heights,” a remarkable production, showing still greater genius, which she did not live to develop. Anne (Acton), four years younger, also wrote two novels, but very ephemeral productions.", "Brontë, Emily English novelist and poet who produced but one novel, Wuthering Heights (1847), a highly imaginative novel of passion and hate set on the Yorkshire moors. Emily was perhaps the greatest of the three Brontë sisters, but the record of her life is extremely...", "2. Emily paid £50 to have Wuthering Heights published. Although it went on to become a worldwide bestseller and is now perhaps the most famous of all the Brontë novels (it’s between that novel and Jane Eyre), the novel failed to find a publisher and so Brontë paid for the novel to be published, to offset against potential losses to the publisher. Sure enough, the novel was a commercial failure at the time and Emily died, just one year after its publication, believing it had been a flop and would soon be forgotten. (In 2007, a rare first edition of the novel sold at auction for £114,000 .) Now, of course, the novel is one of the most widely read Victorian classics, and is immortalised in numerous ways, not least in Kate Bush’s 1978 hit single of the same name. Interestingly, Emily Brontë and Kate Bush share a birthday, July 30th.", "Born on the same day with British author, Emily Bronte on which her first song Wuthering Heights is based on Bronte's namesake novel.", "Complete Works of The Bronte Sisters (Wuthering Heights, Jane Eyre, Agnes Grey, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, Shirley, Villette, The Professor, Poems by Currer Ellis and Acton Bell) (Annotated)", "Charlotte Brontë ('brɒnti/; 21 April 1816 -- 31 March 1855) was an English novelist and poet, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters who survived into adulthood, whose novels are English literature standards. She wrote Jane Eyre under the pen name Currer Bell.", "This is a blog about the Bronte Sisters, Charlotte, Emily and Anne. And their father Patrick, their mother Maria and their brother Branwell. About their pets, their friends, the parsonage (their house), Haworth the town in which they lived, the moors they loved so much, the Victorian era in which they lived.", "First published in 1847, Wuthering Heights is an enduring gothic romance filled with intrigue and terror. It is set in the northern England countryside, where the weather fluctuates in sudden extremes and where bogs can open underfoot of unsuspecting night venturers. Under this atmospheric dome of brooding unpredictability, Brontë explores the violent and unpredictable elements of human passion. The story revolves around the tempestuous romance between Heathcliff, an orphan who is taken home to Wuthering Heights on impulse, and Catherine Earnshaw, a strong-willed girl whose mother died delivering her and who becomes Heathcliff’s close companion.", "In 1824, Emily, with her four sisters entered the Clergy Daughter�s School at Cowan Bridge, near Kirkby Lonsdale. When Maria and Elizabeth died there a year later of tuberculosis, she and Charlotte returned home to Haworth. Their father was a quiet man and often spent his spare time alone, so, the motherless children entertained themselves reading the works of William Shakespeare , Virgil , John Milton , and the Bible and played the piano, did needlepoint, and told each other stories. The four often �paired up�; Charlotte and Branwell started writing of their imaginary world �Angria�, Emily and Anne writing of its rival, �Gondal�. Penning their kingdoms� histories and developing characters to populate them, the young Bronte girls found a creative outlet in writing stories and poetry. Emily was becoming an independent and opinionated young woman as her poem �The Old Stoic� reveals;", "In 1824, Emily, with her four sisters entered the Clergy Daughter’s School at Cowan Bridge, near Kirkby Lonsdale. When Maria and Elizabeth died there a year later of tuberculosis, she and Charlotte returned home to Haworth. Their father was a quiet man and often spent his spare time alone, so, the motherless children entertained themselves reading the works of William Shakespeare, Virgil, John Milton, and the Bible and played the piano, did needlepoint, and told each other stories. The four often ‘paired up’; Charlotte and Branwell started writing of their imaginary world ‘Angria’, Emily and Anne writing of its rival, ‘Gondal’. Penning their kingdoms’ histories and developing characters to populate them, the young Bronte girls found a creative outlet in writing stories and poetry. Emily was becoming an independent and opinionated young woman as her poem “The Old Stoic” reveals;", "\"Wuthering Heights\" is about the dark extremes of obsession. The mystery is how the Bronte sisters came to write the books they did." ]

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[ "4. Becky Sharp is the name of a character in which famous novel, which is also the title of a famous magazine?", "Becky Sharp is one of the most enduring characters of William Thackeray’s 1848 novel Vanity Fair. She is drawn as the quintessential anti-heroine, by turns a ruthless social climber and coquettish ingénue who must use all her wit and wiles to carve out a life for herself within high society. Due to lack of inherited status or wealth, she ruthlessly clings to the pursuit of her ambition, forfeiting her morality on the way up the ladder.", "The main character of the novel Vanity Fair (1847-48) by British author William Makepeace Thackeray, is Becky Sharp, a poor drawing instructor’s clever, selfish, unprincipled daughter, who fights her way up through society to an advantageous marriage. She is considered one of the most vivid characters in English literature. Becky Sharp (1935), a film adaptation of Vanity Fair, was one of the first motion pictures made in color.", "Becky Sharp, fictional character, an amoral adventuress in William Makepeace Thackeray ’s Vanity Fair (1847–48), a novel of the Regency period (roughly the second decade of the 19th century) in England. She has been considered one of the most vivid characters in English literature .", "* The fictional protagonist Becky Sharp plays Clytemnestra in a charade described in chapter 51 of William M. Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair.", "Vanity Fair is the story of Becky Sharp, a deliciously wicked social climber who uses her looks, charm, and a fair bit of deceit, to bewitch men and amass as much money as possible. It's a biting satire on British society, and the hypocrisies of the upper classes, and definitely the Victorian novel for those looking for a proper page-turning romp.", "As indicated by evidence in Bleak House, Dickens was more aware of Thackeray’s Vanity Fair than has been commonly recognized. Dickens’s response to that widely acclaimed work by his contemporary and rival reflects an interest in the concept of the double and takes the form of splitting and rewriting Vanity Fair’s multifaceted Becky Sharp. In Bleak House, Esther, Lady Dedlock, and Hortense can each be seen as embodying a particular facet of Becky suggested in certain of Thackeray’s illustrations that appear to have triggered Dickens’s imagination. Although he may have misunderstood Vanity Fair, his reworking in Bleak House of aspects of Thackeray’s Becky displayed in these pictures illuminates important differences between these two great novels. Dickens’s response also reminds us that discussions of intertextuality should consider visual as well as verbal dimensions of texts.", "...successfully used by Dickens. Set in the second decade of the 19th century, the period of the Regency, the novel deals mainly with the interwoven fortunes of two contrasting women, Amelia Sedley and Becky Sharp. The latter, an unprincipled adventuress, is the leading personage and is perhaps the most memorable character Thackeray created. Subtitled “A Novel Without a Hero,” the novel...", "Anti-heroine Becky Sharp gets a refreshing new focus in British artist Donald Urquhart’s new edition of Vanity Fair, the sixth book in our Familiars series. The classic novel follows the fortunes of strong-minded and strong-willed Becky Sharp through early 19th century British society. Urquhart’s 1930s Hollywood-inspired images focus exclusively on Sharp.", "Vanity Fair has been filmed and televised several times, beginning with a silent film released in 1911. The most famous of these adaptations is Becky Sharp (1935), which inaugurated the Technicolor era. Mira Nair's 2004 film version, starring Reese Witherspoon, turned Becky into the real heroine.", "One hundred years after the publication of Clarissa (no 4 in this series) , Thackeray not only revels in the possibilities of the genre, he even illustrated his own work with some decidedly inferior woodcuts. Vanity Fair was published in serial form (including some memorable cliff-hangers, for instance Becky Sharp's revelation of her marriage to Rawdon Crawley) from January 1847 to June 1848. Thackeray, on top form, cheerfully exploited an ebullient tradition, transcending all his previous efforts as a writer, novels such as The Luck of Barry Lyndon (1844).", "One of this novel's main characters is loved by William Dobbin and George Osborne, who dies at Waterloo. The other lives at the height of fashion with the help of Lord Steyne and marries Rawdon Crawley. FTP, name this 1848 work, subtitled a Novel without a Hero, which depicts the contrast between Amelia Sedley and Becky Sharp.", "An adaptation of William Makepeace Thackeray's classic story of parvenue Becky Sharp's rise from obscure & humble origins to her subsequent ignominious fall from Society; set amongst the ... See full summary  »", "*1987: Vanity Fair: BBC miniseries starring Eve Matheson as Becky Sharp, Rebecca Saire as Amelia Sedley, James Saxon as Jos Sedley and Simon Dormandy as Dobbin", "Unlike the page to stage adapters, novelist Margaret Mitchell created her own version of a novel dominated by a scrappy Becky Sharp-ish woman who, despite her girlish fiddle-de-dees, was not one to be kept from living life to the fullest, no matter what her economic and social circumstances. And as Gone With the Wind's Scarlett O'Hara parallelled Becky Sharp, so the virtuous Melanie Wilkes echoed Becky's friend, Amelia Sedley. Instead of using the Napoleonic war as background, Mitchell's story was drawn on a Civil War canvas.", "Becky Sharp is the quintessential anti-heroine -- she's very greedy and cold, yet she's also so smart and determined that it's hard not to have a grudging liking for her, no matter what she does. Certainly life hasn't been fair for her. Next to Becky, a goody-goody character like Amelia is pretty boring, and even the unsubtle George can't measure up to Becky.", "More so than any other picaresque character, Becky Sharp's name has become synonymous with a gold-digging, amoral, opportunistic social charmer who is also shrewd and strong-a portrait of a complex woman of her time.", "In the original illustrations, which were done by Thackeray, Becky is shown behind a curtain when Jos dies, with a vial in her hand; the picture is labelled \"Becky's second appearance in the character of Clytemnestra\" (she had played Clytemnestra during charades at a party earlier in the book). Joseph's death appears to have made her fortune. The suggestion near the end of the work that Becky may have killed Jos is argued against by John Sutherland. Although Becky is portrayed as having a highly dubious moral sense, the idea that she would commit premeditated murder is quite a step forward for the character. Thackeray was a fierce critic of the crime fiction popular at the time, particularly that of Edward Bulwer-Lytton. These lurid and sensationalist accounts—known as \"Newgate novels\"—took their inspiration, and sometimes entire stories, from the pages of The Newgate Calendar. What Thackeray principally objected to was the glorification of a criminal's deeds; it therefore seems strange that he would have depicted Becky as such a villainess. His intent may have been to entrap the Victorian reader with their own prejudices and make them think the worst of Becky Sharp even when they have no proof of her actions. The trio of lawyers she gets to defend her from the claims, Burke, Thurtell, and Hayes, are named after prominent murderers of the time, although this may have been a tease or further commentary aimed at the legal profession.", "Four silent film versions were produced between 1911 and 1923. Myrna Loy starred in the first sound film in 1932. Miriam Hopkins tackled the role three years later (in the first ever Technicolor film). The most recent film Becky Sharp was Reese Witherspoon. Of the TV miniseries the one closest to the book was the 1987 version starring Eve Matheson which is available for instant viewing at Netflix.", "Vanity Fair, William Thackeray. According to Schmoop, “Before 1847, William Makepeace Thackeray was a guy mostly known for writing short satirical articles for the funny magazine Punch. After 1848, he became the superstar author of the hilariously mean Vanity Fair, a long satirical novel that made fun of the aristocracy and the middle classes: their greed, corruption, and – ahem – vanity. Actually, he got the fame and fortune way before the novel's ending was written. How on earth? Well, the first time around, Vanity Fair was serialized in Punch – each month, a new section of the novel would come out. Readers would sit on pins and needles waiting for the next set of chapters to see what part of life Thackeray would make fun of and what would happen to the characters. Basically, it was a 19th century version of the Daily Show, with each month bringing a new episode.", "Emily Jane Brontë was a British novelist and poet, now best remembered for her only novel Wuthering Heights, a classic of English literature. Emily was the second eldest of the three surviving Brontë sisters, being younger than Charlotte Brontë and older than Anne Brontë . She published under the masculine pen name Ellis Bell.", "LC Control Number: 00029675; \"In the winter of 1888, Reverend Charles Dodgson of Christ Church at Oxford - better known to the world as author Lewis Carroll - brings his newfound friend Dr. Arthur Conan Doyle to London to introduce him to editors potentially interested in Doyle's writing. Their first stop is the offices of a weekly magazine, Youth's Companion, where they arrive to find the place in an uproar - the staff is upset, the printers in a rage, and Samuel Bassett, the editor, is busy violently rejecting the work of up-and-coming Irish writer Oscar Wilde. Dr. Doyle fares no better with the foul-tempered, duplicitous, and mean editor - and the duo depart.\". \"Shortly thereafter, in full sight of Dodgson and Doyle, Bassett is murdered outside of the magazine's offices. Due to the heavy snowstorm, neither of them can identify Bassett's attacker, but they are on hand to hear Bassett's final gasp. With the Labor Riots raging in the streets and unrest in the air, the police immediately assume that Wilde, a socialist, is responsible and set about trying to find him. But, believing that Wilde is innocent, Dodgson and Doyle are determined to find out the truth behind the vicious attack. In a quest that takes them from the most prestigious literary and art circles in Victorian London to the lowest dives of ill repute, the unlikely duo seeks to unmask a killer before he strikes again.\"--Book jacket", "Mansfield Park is perhaps the first novel in history to depict the life of a little girl from within. Fanny is 10 years old when she is uprooted from her loving but noisy home in Portsmouth, and finds herself in a mansion where nobody pays her the slightest attention. She is delicate in health and nervous; she shudders when she hears the footsteps of her stern uncle, Sir Thomas Bertram. She lives in the attic, which is cold and gloomy; her aunt bullies her unremittingly; her female cousins ignore her. Only her cousin Edmund takes an interest and she pays him back by loving him.", "During the interwar period, Woolf was a significant figure in London literary society and a central figure in the influential Bloomsbury Group of intellectuals. Her most famous works include the novels Mrs Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927) and Orlando (1928), and the book-length essay A Room of One’s Own (1929), with its famous dictum, “A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction.”", "Thackeray achieved more recognition with his Snob Papers (serialised 1846/7, published in book form in 1848), but the work that really established his fame was the novel Vanity Fair, which first appeared in serialised instalments beginning in January 1847. Even before Vanity Fair completed its serial run Thackeray had become a celebrity, sought after by the very lords and ladies whom he satirised. They hailed him as the equal of Dickens.", "Frances Hodgson Burnett was the highest paid and most widely read woman writer of her time, publishing more than fifty novels and thirteen plays. Born in England and transplanted to New York toward the end of the Civil War, Burnett made her home in both countries, and today both countries claim her as their own. \"The Secret Garden,\" her best-known work, became an instant modern classic and world-wide bestseller upon its publication in 1911. The text of this Norton Critical Edition is based on the first edition and is accompanied by explanatory annotations.", "(Book Jacket Status: Jacketed) Evelyn Waugh's 1934 novel is a bitingly funny vision of aristocratic decadence in England between the wars. It tells the story of Tony Last, who, to the irritation of his wife, is inordinately obsessed with his Victorian Gothic country house and life. When Lady Brenda Last embarks on an affair with the worthless John Beaver out of boredom with her husband, she sets in motion a sequence of tragicomic disasters that reveal Waugh at his most scathing. The action is set in the brittle social world recognizable from Decline and Fall and Vile Bodies, darkened and deepened by Waugh's own experience of sexual betrayal. As Tony is driven by the urbane savagery of this world to seek solace in the wilds of the Brazilian jungle, \"A Handful of Dust \" demonstrates the incomparably brilliant and wicked wit of one of the twentieth century's most accomplished novelists. show more", "Under John Brisben Walker's ownership, E. D. Walker, formerly with Harper's Monthly, took over as the new editor, introducing colour illustrations, serials and book reviews. It became a leading market for fiction, featuring such authors as Annie Besant, Ambrose Bierce, Theodore Dreiser, Rudyard Kipling, Jack London, Willa Cather, and Edith Wharton. The magazine's circulation climbed to 75,000 by 1892.", "Beginning with the publication of Maggie: A Girl of the Streets in 1893, Crane was recognized by critics mainly as a novelist. Maggie was initially rejected by numerous publishers because of its atypical and true-to-life depictions of class warfare, which clashed with the sentimental tales of that time. Rather than focusing on the very rich or middle class, the novel's characters are lower-class denizens of New York's Bowery. The main character, Maggie, descends into prostitution after being led astray by her lover. Although the novel's plot is simple, its dramatic mood, quick pace and portrayal of Bowery life have made it memorable. Maggie is not merely an account of slum life, but also represents eternal symbols. In his first draft, Crane did not give his characters proper names. Instead, they were identified by epithets: Maggie, for example, was the girl who \"blossomed in a mud-puddle\" and Pete, her seducer, was a \"knight\". The novel is dominated by bitter irony and anger, as well as destructive morality and treacherous sentiment. Critics would later call the novel \"the first dark flower of American Naturalism\" for its distinctive elements of naturalistic fiction.", "In 1956, \"Peyton Place,\" was accepted for publication by the New York publishing house Julian Messner. The manuscript had to be heavily edited, but when it was published in the autumn of that year, it became an unprecedented \"blockbuster,\" surpassed in the 1950s in terms of sales only by The Bible. Though the book was panned by critics as \"trash\" and attacked by the moral arbiters of society, it stayed on the New York Times bestseller list for over a year and was a global hit. Her riposte to criticism that she was a poor wordsmith was, \"If I'm a lousy writer, then an awful lot of people have lousy taste.\"", "For the woman writer who wanted to engage with the issues of her time, there was ample opportunity to do so in the phenomenal growth in periodical literature during the early years of the nineteenth century. Whith the founding of the \"Edinburgh Review\" in 1802, the great age of the serious journal, literary and political in its orientation, began, and by 1830 with the \"Quarterly Review\" and the \"Westminster Review\", \"Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine\", the \"Examiner\", the \"Athenaeum\" and the \"Spectator\" in existence, the reading public was feasted with facts, opinions and comments. Such an expansion offered the woman writer a serious outlet for her thoughts, paid her well, and provided an intellectual and psychological stimulus for women in general and perhaps particualrly for novelists.", "Thackeray, W. M. 1853 [1847]. “Codlingsby.” In Punch’s Prize Novelists, The Fat Contributor and Travels in London. New York: D. Appleton, pp. 88–109." ]

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[ "George Orwell's classic novella Animal Farm is an allegory of the Russian Revolution. It describes the dictator Stalin as a big Berkshire boar by the name of Napoleon. Trotsky is represented by a pig called Snowball who is a brilliant talker and makes magnificent speeches. However, Napoleon overthrows Snowball as Stalin overthrew Trotsky and Napoleon took over the farm on which the animals were living on. Napoleon became a tyrant and used force and propaganda to oppress the animals. ", "Napoleon (named Caesar in the French translations) is the main villain of George Orwell's famous book Animal Farm - he is a fat, greedy pig who turns the farm into a dictatorship parallelling the events of the Soviet Union (which the story was based on).", " Animal Farm Essay 9-22-13 2. In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, Orwell writes the story as a... metaphor of the Russian Revolution and Communism. Napoleon is a pig that plays the part of Joseph Stalin and refers to Communism as “Animalism.” Napoleon uses cruelty, treachery, and propaganda to twist the meaning of Animalism throughout the story to justify his rise to power and eventually turns the animal’s dream of a utopian type of life into a pig-ruled disaster. By doing this, Napoleon’s nature...", "George Orwell’s Animal Farm, Orwell writes the story as a metaphor of the Russian Revolution and Communism. Napoleon is a... pig that plays the part of Joseph Stalin and refers to Communism as “Animalism.” Napoleon uses cruelty, treachery, and propaganda to twist the meaning of Animalism throughout the story to justify his rise to power and eventually turns the animal’s dream of a utopian type of life into a pig-ruled disaster. By doing this, Napoleon’s nature represents Joseph Stalin’s actions as Animal...", "Napoleon -  The pig who emerges as the leader of Animal Farm after the Rebellion. Based on Joseph Stalin, Napoleon uses military force (his nine loyal attack dogs) to intimidate the other animals and consolidate his power. In his supreme craftiness, Napoleon proves more treacherous than his counterpart, Snowball.", "ridding them of their right of freedom to think. In George Orwell’s Animal Farm the pigs use tactics of influence against... the other animals in much the same way. The leading pig, Napoleon promptly takes over the farm after the rebellion against Jones and consequently turns his comrades’ lives into a living hell without them even realizing it. Animal Farm vividly displays how the varying use of propaganda can easily misguide and potentially harm the uneducated or misinformed...", "Napoleon is described as a mature stud boar, although he was the runt of his litter and had to fight for food growing up in order to become big and strong, contributing to his socially Darwinistic view of the world and of his place in it. During his reign over the farm, he becomes quite overweight due to his excessive eating and alcoholism. In the animated film, he is depicted as bipedal, sneering and imperious, wearing dark, double-breasted suits. In the live action film, he is depicted with black and white fur.", "“A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way”, An allegory of Joseph Stalin, Napoleon is the main villain of Animal Farm. He begins gradually to build up his power by taking Jessie and Bluebell’s newborn puppies and training them to be vicious attack dogs, whom he uses as his secret police. After driving Snowball off the farm, Napoleon usurps full power, using false propaganda from Squealer and threats and intimidation from the dogs to keep the other animals in line. Among other things, he gradually changes the Commandments for his benefit. By the end of the book, Napoleon and his fellow pigs have learned to walk upright and started to behave much like the humans against whom they originally revolted.", "Throughout the novel, the natural characteristics of each animal figure heavily in their motives and pronouncements. How do the actions of Napoleon (a pig), Boxer (a horse), Benjamin (a donkey) and the dogs and sheep reflect the traits normally associated with the animal? Do your feel that Orwell purposely chose certain types of animals to assume certain roles?", "In George Orwell's classic novel \"Animal Farm,\" Old Major's utopian vision of a farm for all animals degenerated into an autocratic dictatorship. Also, one pig was in control of it all-Napoleon Bonaparte. ... When Napoleon had the savage beast kill those who \"communicated\" with Snowball(ex-leader of the farm) brutally killed, this immediately struck fear into the animals heads. ... Napoleon replaces the spirit of Beast of England with the exact opposite, to not rebel against Animal Farm. ... The animals on Animal Farm were often tricked because their lack of an education. ...", "In Animal Farm, the pigs represent the ruling class and Stalin’s communist supporters. Unlike other animals, they live a life of luxury and enjoy the benefits of the dictatorship. They elevate themselves to positions of leadership, and procure privileges to \"sleep in a bed\" [p.41], and \"drink alcohol\" [p.73], even though it is against the Commandments. The hardworking animals on the other hand are given nothing in return, which emphasizes the inequality and true hypocrisy of a dictatorship. Orwell portrays the pigs this way to represent how dictators favor people who are similar to them. In the novel, Napoleon chooses the pigs to be part of his “inner circle”, merely because he is also a pig himself. In the human world, this includes sharing the same race, gender or belief, just as Joseph Stalin killed anyone that opposed his political point of view [LitCharts, n.d.].", "Animal FarmGeorge Orwell\"s Animal Farm is a fable based on the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, from 1917 to the end of World War Two. ... After the revolution, the animals changed the farms name from Manor Farm to Animal Farm. ... Their former leader Snowball was chased out leaving the animals with Napoleon. ... Napoleon made the animals confess for things they have never done, taking away everything that was once theirs. ... The animals were all suffering while the pigs had a nice warm place to stay. ...", "Napoleon's fate varies in adaptations. In the animated movie, (Animal Farm: 1954) he and the other pigs are killed by the rebelling animals when they stampede into their dining hall. In the live-action version of the book, (Animal Farm: 1999) his exact fate is unknown, but his government collapsed and a family of humans purchased the farm.", "These words from Chapter V describe Napoleon’s violent expulsion of Snowball from Animal Farm, which parallels the falling-out between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky. Napoleon, who is clearly losing the contest for the hearts and minds of the lower animals to his rival Snowball, turns to his private police force of dogs to enforce his supremacy. As Stalin did, Napoleon prefers to work behind the scenes to build his power by secrecy and deception, while Snowball, as Trotsky did, devotes himself to winning popular support through his ideas and his eloquence. Napoleon’s use of the attack dogs in this passage provides a blatant example of his differences with Snowball and points beyond the story to criticize real leaders for their use of such authoritarian tactics.", "PLOT ANALYSISThe Setting...The book Animal Farm, by George Orwell, takes place on a farm in Englandduring the time in which it was written, the 1940\"s. ... Whileeveryone trusted Napoleon to properly educate the puppies, he was secretly trainingthem to chase Snowball off the farm, so that Napoleon would be the only one incharge. Throughout the next few years, Napoleon ruled Animal Farm, and wheneversomething went wrong, he would say that Snowball had come back during the nightand done it. ... It was none other than mayhem fromthat moment until the humans had fled the farm in horror and Manor...", "Jessie and Bluebell are the names of two bitches on Animal Farm, while Pincher is the name of a dog. When Jessie and Bluebell give birth to their young ones, Napoleon takes away all their puppies, saying that he would personally bring up the puppies and train them. Napoleon then rears these puppies secretly and gives them the kind of training which he had in mind. In course of time, the puppies grow into fierce dogs who are very devoted to Napoleon and who carry out his commands promptly. It is these dogs who, at Napoleon’s signal, pounce upon Snowball and drive him away from the farm; and it is these dogs who subsequently act as Napoleon’s bodyguards and who also put to death the suspected opponents of Napoleon when Napoleon forces these supposed opponents to confess their guilt.", "Napoleon abuses his powers, making life harder for the animals; the pigs impose more control while reserving privileges for themselves. The pigs rewrite history , villainizing Snowball and glorifying Napoleon. Squealer justifies every statement Napoleon makes, even the pigs' alteration of the Seven Commandments of Animalism. \"No animal shall drink alcohol\" is changed to \"No animal shall drink alcohol to excess\" when the pigs discover the farmer's whisky . \"Beasts of England\" is banned as inappropriate, as according to Napoleon the dream of Animal Farm has been realized. It is replaced by an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals, though cold, starving, and overworked, remain convinced through psychological conditioning that they are better off than they were when ruled by Mr. Jones. Squealer abuses the animals' poor memories and invents numbers to show their improvement.", "Orwell uses Pilkington, another neighbor of Animal Farm, as a metaphor for the Allies of World War II (excluding, of course Russia).  Like the Soviet Union before World War II, Animal Farm wasn't sure who their allies would be.  But after losing the relationship with Frederick (Germany), Napoleon (Stalin) decides to befriend Pilkington, and ally with him.   Napoleon and the other pigs even go as far as to invite him over for dinner at the end of the book.  Here Mr. Pilkington and his men congratulate Napoleon on the efficiency of Animal Farm. Orwell narrates, \"Mr. Pilkington once again congratulated the pigs on the low rations, the long working hours, and the general absence of pampering which he had observed on Animal Farm.\"    Russia's allies, after the war, also admired it's efficiency.  But soon the cold war would begin between the United States and Russia.  This is unbelievably also referred to in the book (published in 1946) when Orwell writes, \"An uproar of voices was coming from the farmhouse...a violent quarrel was in progress.  There were shouting, banging on the table, sharp suspicious glances, furious denials.\"    Amazingly Orwell seemed to sense the start of American-Russian tension for years to come.", "This report is on Animal Farm written by George Orwell. The story took place on the Manor Farm, which is later renamed Animal Farm, in Willingdon, England. ... Jones, the owner of the Manor Farm, causing him to flee his own farm and leaving the animals in control. ... One day when Snowball was giving a speech, Napoleon had suddenly stuck dogs on him, chasing him from the farm forever. Napoleon now controlled the farm without further interference from other animals, with some persuading of course. ...", "Animal Farm Assignment Essay \"What methods does Napoleon use in order to gain absolute power and why is he... successful?\" In the novel Animal Farm, Napoleon uses cunning, treachery, propaganda and a number of other skills to gain, create and maintain power. His efforts to manipulate with lies and powerful vocabulary - in the form of Squealer - are successful, as they confuse the simple-minded animals. When the animals protest, Squealer's eloquence, combined with the threat of violence makes the animals...", "b. Napoleon: the leader of Animal Farm after the Rebellion. Napoleon uses military force to intimidate the other animals and consolidate his power. In his supreme craftiness, Napoleon proves more treacherous than his counterpart, Snowball.", "Soon after the revolt of the animals, Napoleon takes nine puppies from their mothers to \"educate\" them. The puppies end up being his personal bodyguards and secret police force. He grows increasingly removed from the other animals, dining alone and being addressed as \"our Leader, Comrade Napoleon.\" Like Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader who had negotiated with England while making a secret deal with Hitler, Napoleon negotiates with one of Jones's neighbors, Mr. Pilkington, while making a secret agreement with Mr. Frederick, another one of Jones's neighbors. Stalin had a reputation for arranging the death of anyone who stood in his way. After Napoleon chases his former friend Snowball off the farm, he has countless animals killed who confess to being Snowball's allies. Near the end of the novel, he stands on two legs, just like the men he had previously denounced, and announces that Animal Farm's name will revert back to Manor Farm. His name is reminiscent of the historical Napoleon, who became the all-powerful, autocratic Emperor of the French. Like his French counterpart, Napoleon seems to embody the idea that with power comes corruption.", "Napoleon now quickly changes his mind about the windmill, and the animals, especially Boxer, devote their efforts to completing it. One day, after a storm, the animals find the windmill toppled. The human farmers in the area declare smugly that the animals made the walls too thin, but Napoleon claims that Snowball returned to the farm to sabotage the windmill. He stages a great purge, during which various animals who have allegedly participated in Snowball’s great conspiracy—meaning any animal who opposes Napoleon’s uncontested leadership—meet instant death at the teeth of the attack dogs. With his leadership unquestioned (Boxer has taken up a second maxim, “Napoleon is always right”), Napoleon begins expanding his powers, rewriting history to make Snowball a villain. Napoleon also begins to act more and more like a human being—sleeping in a bed, drinking whisky, and engaging in trade with neighboring farmers. The original Animalist principles strictly forbade such activities, but Squealer, Napoleon’s propagandist, justifies every action to the other animals, convincing them that Napoleon is a great leader and is making things better for everyone—despite the fact that the common animals are cold, hungry, and overworked.", "Throughout the novel “Animal Farm” by George Orwell, Napoleon gained, managed and maintained his power over the animals of the... farm. Napoleon gained power over the animals by using force, propaganda, manipulating the animals and sending his opposition into exile. His style of leadership involved using the media to support his decisions, enforcing a variety of new laws and using fear to keep himself in a position of superiority over the other animals. By changing events to his advantage and implementing...", "In the novel, Napoleon is the dictator of Animal Farm, whereas following the Russian Revolution, Joseph Stalin was the dictator. They were both cruel and oppressive rulers, who exploited their subjects through tyranny and deceit. Under these totalitarian regimes, most people lived in fear and poverty, because the dictators did not prioritize their subjects’ needs. ", "ANIMAL FARMThe novel Animal Farm was written by George Orwell in the early 1940s. Animal Farm takes place on an imaginary farm in England in an unknown time period. ... The animals of the farm defeat Mr. ... As time goes on, Napoleon and Snowball struggle for power on animal farm. ... Napoleon took full control over animal farm and declared that there would be no more general meetings with all of the animals to decide the rules. ...", "Orwell’s novel, Animal Farm shows the overlaying theme of the corruption of power. Power, more often than not, causes the bearer... to become corrupt, which causes them to lose most sense, besides that, which will get them more power. In the beginning of the novel we are introduced to Old Major. He holds power on Manor Farm. Old Major uses his power to introduce Animalism and the Seven Commandments. He dies before we can see if his power corrupts would him. Napoleon who takes control of the farm next lives...", "Animal Farm has been adapted to film twice. The 1954 Animal Farm film was an animated feature and the 1999 Animal Farm film was a TV live action version. Both differ from the novel, and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. In the 1954 version, Napoleon is apparently overthrown in a second revolution. The 1999 film shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism, appropriating the new political reality to the story. In 2012, a HFR-3D version of Animal Farm potentially directed by Andy Serkis was announced. ", "of Animalism. Orwell describes him as \"quicker in speech and more inventive\" than Napoleon. He is the one", "Orwell's attitude towards Stalin is hinted at even in the naming of his equivalent in the book. 'Napoleon' was the name of a famous French revolutionary leader who tyrannised his people and was regarded by some as being the Anti-Christ. As far as Orwell was concerned, Stalin represented the main force behind the threat to true Socialism. Stalin claimed to be committed to making a fair and equal society but Orwell saw him in a very different light. In 'Animal Farm' Orwell closely follows Napoleon's rise to power and illustrates to the reader how Napoleon used cunning and brute force to gain and maintain power on Animal Farm. Orwell is keen to try and show how evil Stalin was and how far removed the way he ran Russia was from the original Marxist Socialist beliefs which had been the inspiration for the revolution in the first place.", "Orwell uses animal characters like Napoleon to criticize human dictators.  What effect does this technique have on you?  Why do you think it has this effect?", "Animal Farm(by What Method’s Does Napoleon Consolidate His Personal Power? How Does This Relate to Stalin?)" ]

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[ "Graham Greene started out writing Brighton Rock as a screenplay, before turning it into his most famous novel. The first screen adaptation came in 1947, nine years after its first publication, when Richard Attenborough gave one of his finest performances as the violent young gang leader Pinkie Brown.", "Graham Greene, considered one of the greatest and most popular English writers of the 20th century, was a prolific writer. He wrote novels, short stories, biographies and plays, travel books, as well as film criticism. He gathered materials for the settings of his works during his travels all over the world, and many are set in exotic places. His best-known works include Brighton Rock, The Third Man, The Quiet American, The Power and the Glory, The Heart of the Matter, Travels With My Aunt, and Our Man in Havana.", "Graham Greene (1904 - 1991) Graham Greene was born in Berkhamstead. After a very troubled youth, he graduated from Oxford and worked for The London Times. During World War II, he served with the Foreign Office and was assigned to West Africa. Greene traveled to many parts of the world, and his travels are reflected in his writings. He was a convert to Catholicism and his interior debates on good and evil are reflected in his crime novels which he called \"entertainments\" to separate them from his more serious fiction. He is probably best know for Brighton Rock (1938) and The Third Man (1950). More information on Greene may be found at Greeneland: The world of Graham Greene", "Graham Greene was one of the greatest novelists of the 20th century and his influence on the cinema and theatre was enormous. He wrote five plays and almost all of his novels, including \"Brighton Rock\", \"The Ministry of Fear\" and \"The End of the Affair\", have been brought to the screen. A superb storyteller, he also wrote the screenplays for such classics as The Fallen Idol and The Third Man .", "Graham Greene was one of the greatest novelists of the 20th century and his influence on the cinema and theatre was enormous. He wrote five plays and almost all of his novels, including \"Brighton Rock\", \"The Ministry of Fear\" and \"The End of the Affair\", have been brought to the screen. A superb storyteller, he also wrote the screenplays for such ... See full bio »", "Lobby Lud lives on in Killey Kibber, aka Fred Hale, a journalist with the Messenger, in Graham Greene’s Brighton Rock. He is in Brighton to leave his cards (finders could claim 10/-) and be ready to be challenged by a member of the public.", "Graham Greene (1904–91) wrote novels often influenced by his religious beliefs, including The Heart of the Matter, The Honorary Consul, Brighton Rock and Our Man in Havana.", "Brighton Rock is a novel by Graham Greene, published in 1938 and later adapted for film in 1947 and 2010. The novel is a murder thriller set in 1930s Brighton. The title refers to a confectionery traditionally sold at seaside resorts and is used as a metaphor for human character. There are links between this novel and Greene's earlier novel A Gun for Sale (1936), because Raven's murder of the gang boss Kite, mentioned in A Gun For Sale, allows Pinkie to take over his gang and thus sets the events of Brighton Rock in motion.", "Thus wrote Michelle Orange on the strange, multi-faceted nature of English-born author Graham Greene, who created such 20th century literary classics as The Quiet American, Brighton Rock, The Heart of the Matter and The Power and the Glory.", "THERE are writers whose first lines are like lassos. Graham Greene is one of them -''Hale knew they meant to murder him before he had been in Brighton three hours,'' from ''Brighton Rock''; judging by the opening of ''Control,'' William Goldman is another. ''If there was one place in this world Edith never expected trouble,'' he writes, ''it was Bloomingdale's.'' To the reader in the New York area, the sentence is doubtless irresistible. The ripple effect should stretch to Seattle.", "Aldous Huxley (1894–1963) published his famous dystopia Brave New World in 1932, the same year as John Cowper Powys's A Glastonbury Romance. Samuel Beckett (1906–89) published his first major work, the novel Murphy in 1938. This same year Graham Greene's (1904–91) first major novel Brighton Rock was published. Then in 1939 James Joyce's published Finnegans Wake, in which he creates a special language to express the consciousness of a dreaming character. It was also in 1939 that another Irish modernist poet, W. B. Yeats, died. British poet W. H. Auden (1907 – 1973) was another significant modernists in the 1930s.", "10. Ida Arnold (Brighton Rock by Graham Greene, 1938) - It’s hardly doing justice to Brighton Rock to describe it as genre fiction, but a killing and a murderer are the heart of this book about faith and God.", "This is the third of four in what are considered Graham Greene's explicitiy Catholic novels. The other three are Brighton Rock (1938), The Power and the Glory (1940), and The End of the Affair (1951).", "Born in Hertforshire, England, in 1904, the son of the headmaster of Berkhamstead School, Greene was educated at Berkhamstead and later Oxford. At Oxford he published more than 60 poems and stories and soon after graduation converted to Roman Catholicism. \"I had to find a religion to measure my evil against\" he said. His first novel, \"The Man Within\", came out in 1929, to public and critical acclaim. \"Stamboul Train\" (1934), a topical political thriller, was the first to reach the screen (as Orient Express ) and a string of other taut suspense dramas followed: \"This Gun For Hire\" (1942), \"The Ministry of Fear\" (1943) and \"The Confidential Agent\" (1945). It was his novel \"Brighton Rock\", however, which depicted Pinkie, a teenage gangster with demonic spirituality, that eventually became a milestone in British cinema. Originally a successful stage play starring Richard Attenborough as Pinkie, Greene co-wrote the 1947 screenplay Brighton Rock ) with Terence Rattigan .", "Henry Graham Greene, OM, CH (2 October 1904 – 3 April 1991) was an English novelist and author regarded as one of the greatest writers of the 20th century. Combining literary acclaim with widespread popularity, Greene had acquired a reputation early in his own lifetime as a great writer, both of serious Catholic novels and of thrillers (or \"entertainments \" as he termed them); however, even though shortlisted in 1967, he was never awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Through 67 years of writings which included over 25 novels, he explored the ambivalent moral and political issues of the modern world through a Catholic perspective.", "A more general idea to consider is the novelist's choice of subject; given that any story could be told, why this one? Behind this question (impossible to answer certainly) lie many other questions: is the novelist merely documenting typical events naturalistically (what you mean when you say realistically) or is he trying to interpret/ make sense of the world by means of fiction? Is the novel written for a didactic purpose (that is to teach some moral or philosophical view)? On the surface, Brighton Rock looks like a fast-paced crime thriller, and it was a best-selling novel when it first appeared, so why is it considered a \"modern classic\" and worthy of close study by people like yourselves? What is the relationship between places in fiction and real places? Brighton, here, like Wuthering Heights, in Bront�'s novel of the same name is, arguably, as much a state of mind as a real place with streets and houses, even though Greene makes several precise references to the topography (layout) of the real town.", "Graham Greene’s long life spans most of the 20th century: he lived from 1904 to 1991. Greene converted to Catholicism early (age 22), and drifted away from Catholicism in his later years. In the 1950s, he stopped attending Mass. Political themes became important in his fiction; he was critical of American foreign policy, and sympathetic toward Castro’s Communism. Greene travelled widely, and was employed by the British secret service; many of his novels are set in foreign countries. For example, The Heart of the Matter is set in Sierra Leone, and deals with espionage as well as religious themes. If you want to learn more about Greene (and Waugh and Chesterton and Belloc), consider Ian Ker’s book, The Catholic Revival in English Literature, 1845-1961.", "These twelve stories, dating from 1923 to 1989, represent the quintessential Graham Greene. Rich in gallows humor, they have the power both to move and to entertain. Included here are such famous stories as \"The Last Word\", \"The News in English\", \"Th...", "After the end of World War II, Greene accepted the position of director at Eyre and Spottiswoode, a publishing house. During this time, he wrote several screenplays, the most famous of which is The Third Man (1949). In the early 1950s, Greene traveled a great deal, taking long trips to Malaya and Vietnam. Subsequently, Greene set The Quiet American (1955) in Vietnam and it went on to become one of his most notable works. As he got older, Graham Greene continued to write travel pieces, novels, short stories, plays, and recollections of his own life. He eventually settled in Switzerland, which is where he eventually died of pneumonia in 1991. He was 86 years old. He is buried at the Corseaux Cemetery.", "In this widely acclaimed modern classic, Graham Greene delves deep into character to tell the dramatic, suspenseful story of a good man's conflict between passion and faith. A police commissioner in a British-governed, war-torn West African state, S...", "Greene began his world-renowned traveling in part to satisfy his lust for adventure, and in part to seek out material for his writing. A trip to Sweden resulted in England Made Me. A exhausting 400-mile trek through the jungles of Liberia not only gave Greene a near brush with death, but provided fodder for Journey Without Maps. During World War II, he worked for the Secret Intelligence Service in Sierra Leone, which became the setting for The Heart of the Matter. His journey to Mexico to witness the religious purges in 1938 was described in The Lawless Roads. Greene's horror of the Catholic persecution in Mexico led him to write The Power and the Glory, arguably the best novel of his career. It was both acclaimed (being the Hawthornden Prize winner in 1941) and condemned (by the Vatican ).", "Throughout his life, Greene travelled far from England, to what he called the world's wild and remote places. The travels led to his being recruited into MI6 by his sister, Elisabeth, who worked for the agency. Accordingly, he was posted to Sierra Leone during the Second World War. Kim Philby, who would later be revealed as a Soviet agent, was Greene's supervisor and friend at MI6. Greene later wrote an introduction to Philby's 1968 memoir, My Silent War. As a novelist Greene wove the characters he met and the places where he lived into the fabric of his novels.", "One of Britain’s most popular 20th century writers—a novelist, short-story writer, playwright, film critic and journalist—Greene continued to expose and condemn the involvement of the US in Vietnam during the 50s and 60s. He also supported various anti-imperialist movements, regularly denounced US-backed death squads in Latin America, and maintained friendly relations with a number of Latin American leaders, including Cuban President Fidel Castro, Nicaragua’s Daniel Ortega, Chile’s Salvador Allende and the Panamanian military populist General Omar Torrijos.", "Graham Greene / Graham Greene, who was in the staff of The Times from 1926 to 1940, and served in the Foreign Office during WWII, is the author of many important novels, several of which were made into movies. Critics often refer to a turning point in his writing when he converted to Catholicism, and often wonder as to why he continues to elude the Nobel Committee. His first work,", "Since Graham Greene’s death in 1991 a plethora of biographies has emerged, each stressing the real world sources for much of what the author wrote, and each including old photographs of the places where he lived and drank and caroused. Given the intervening twenty years of war and twenty more of political isolation, it would come as no surprise to find that none of Greene’s old haunts in Vietnam are still standing. But not only are they still there, many of them have been restored to better than mint condition. Indeed, Vietnam today is full of astonishing contrasts to the opium-soaked, decadent world of Greene’s novel, and the irony of some of these contrasts can only be deliberate.", "This is a surprising claim, as Greene had by 1932 published Stamboul Train, in which an aging Socialist doctor is killed while trying to return to Belgrade to lead a revolt against Socialism betrayed. In The Power and the Glory (1940), a weak-willed, drunken Mexican priest is stalked by an atheist and nationalist soldier of Indian descent. In 1948, Greene published The Heart of the Matter, set in Sierra Leone, where he had been active during the World War II in British intelligence. It is a book in which the fecklessness of the (mostly English) whites is all too easily translated into life and death for the Africans. The Quiet American (1955) was fairly uncompromising in its condemnation of French and U.S. policies in Vietnam. Such sparing use of \"political\" is refreshing indeed in a world where the term is so often leached of its significance.", "The Joyce Kilmer- Slickrock Wilderness stretches between the Nantahala National Forest in western North Carolina and Cherokee National Forest in eastern Tennessee, a beautiful refuge of old-growth woodland nearly unprecedented in the eastern U.S. This is fitting, as its namesake is the author of the most famous poem ever written about trees (“I think that I shall never see/a poem as lovely as a tree”).", "Pete Atkin's song \"An Array of Passionate Lovers\", with lyrics by Clive James, taken from the 1974 album The Road of Silk describes the end of the hippy dream with direct references to the death at Altamont during the performance by The Rolling Stones.", "List of books by Graham Greene | Project Gutenberg Self-Publishing - eBooks | Read eBooks online", "The symbolic cycle of life, death and rebirth which Frazer divined behind myths of many peoples captivated a generation of artists and poets. Perhaps the most notable product of this fascination is T. S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land (1922). Also Jim Morrison in his \"Celebration of the Lizard\" (finally titled \"Not to Touch the Earth\" as a song within the Waiting for the Sun album of 1968) included lyrics such as \"not to touch the earth, not to see the sun\"; sentences which serve as chapter titles in Frazer's work. More recently, Frazer's work influenced the ending of Francis Ford Coppola's film, Apocalypse Now (1979) (a copy of The Golden Bough is shown in one of the final shots).", "The landscapes of the Peak have formed an inspiration to writers for centuries. Various places in the Peak District have been identified by Ralph Elliott and others as locations in the 14th century poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ; Lud's Church for example, is thought to be the Green Chapel . [87]", "To be able to appreciate Patrick White's consistent but complex structures and imagery the reader must be prepared to enter his symbolic Australia with the open-minded attitude of the explorer or the child. He or she must not demand verisimilitude or logical argumentation, as this is a territory that is usually reserved for poetry. The author's methods resemble those of a poet, musician or painter. In spite of the fact that White has an idealistic and passionate belief in the power of art and literature to change the world, he claims that he writes only for himself and has \"never thought about readership.\" The ultimate paradox offered by this paradoxical writer is his pessimism as to the possibility of communicating what any single individual can perceive within his own experience. To thousands of readers, his writing is an entity which consistently explores and communicates his perception of reality. For them, it contradicts the view he expressed above." ]

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[ "“All children, except one, grow up.” (Peter and Wendy, J.M. Barrie) – This opening line from a story that became widely known as “Peter Pan” focuses on a character. We wonder how there could be a child who never grows up.", "Peter Pan's opening line of 'All children, except one, grow up', is the nation's most memorable", "\"All children, except one, grow up.\" Over 100 years ago, J. M. Barrie wrote one of the most famous and long lasting classics of literature with that infamous line, and the story has become so important to our culture that it is a maxim for everything from psychological syndromes to butter.", "Other children's books that deserve mentioning: A Wrinkle in Time, Tom Sawyer, and To Kill a Mockingbird. That last one is usually classified as in the children/young adult section of libraries, but like Harry Potter, it has more depth--and more humor--than just a story about kids growing up.", "The stories are all narrated to two children living near Burwash, in the area of Kipling's own house Bateman's, by people magically plucked out of history by the elf Puck, or told by Puck himself. (Puck, who refers to himself as \"the oldest Old Thing in England\", is better known as a character in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream.) The genres of particular stories range from authentic historical novella (A Centurion of the Thirtieth, On the Great Wall) to children's fantasy (Dymchurch Flit). Each story is bracketed by a poem which relates in some manner to the theme or subject of the story. - Summary by Wikipedia", "The stories are all narrated to two children living near Burwash, in the area of Kipling's own house Bateman's, by people magically plucked out of history by the elf Puck, or told by Puck himself. (Puck, who refers to himself as \"the oldest Old Thing in England\", is better known as a character in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream.) The genres of particular stories range from authentic historical novella (A Centurion of the Thirtieth, On the Great Wall) to children's fantasy (Dymchurch Flit). Each story is bracketed by a poem which relates in some manner to the theme or subject of the story.", "Children shouldn’t grow up, really … and certainly not the heroes of children’s books. Take a look at the last chapter of Peter Pan, which comes with the oppressive title, “When Wendy Grew Up”. Wendy is now a mother with a daughter called Jane and they have this exchange:", "For the duration of existence, people undergo the physical and mental stages of growing up. During this phase, people establish through their dealings who they actually are in addition to what they are worth. For instance, Treasure Island is an adventure tale, but it is also the story of one boy’s (Jim Hawkins) coming of age. On the outset of the voyage, Jim was a timid adolescent, but by the closing stages, he had matured incredibly. In his novel, Treasure Island, author Robert Louis Stevenson focuses primarily on the journey of main character Jim Hawkins to exemplify the process of growing up and proving oneself.", "While fairy tales are directed a children, many scholars have taken them very seriously, as they provide a window into the hopes and fears of children. Behind this apparently simple story of Hansel and Gretel we see the apprehension about abandonment, fear of strangers, unfamiliar places, and hunger that children may experience. The reason that children accept  these stories  is their understanding of the genre, that when a story begins “once upon a time” they know that a happy ending will ensue – along with children’s delight in hearing the same story over and over, in which case they already are sure of the ending before the telling begins.", "Plot: The story of Beatrix Potter, the author of the beloved and best-selling children's book, \"The Tale of Peter Rabbit\", and her struggle for love, happiness and success.", "DISCOVERIES in the sciences seem to cast rays of their light across the age which precedes them: there are many examples in nineteenth century literature where we catch sight directly and authentically of ideas misunderstood in their own time, but which are now so orthodox that they stand as transparent as truths. Amongst this literature the two Alice books rise high. And the extraordinary thing about them is that they really were written for children. The whole tenor of the story of the unfolding of Alices Adventures Underground during an Oxford river-trip, the subsequent long-hand transposition to paper under the editorship of the author and his three young readers with drawings by the author publication and distribution overseen by the author again the whole tenor suggests that Lewis Carroll [1] regarded his Alice stories as being intended exclusively for children, in whose company he felt at ease. (He came from a family that grew to eleven children, and he clearly enjoyed entertaining his younger siblings.)", "*Donald Duck and the One Bear (1978), based on the fairy tale Goldilocks and the Three Bears", "For more than a century, Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories have delighted millions of \"children of all ages\" with their unique combination of over-the-top, exaggerated portentousness and scrumptious hyper-elocutionary wordplay. The first of these stories, \"How the Whale Got His Throat,\" begins:", "Fiction affords people the opportunity to identify with the protagonists of fantastic stories depicting what might be if they could act upon their desires. Often, in aid to promoting social conformity, the myth, story, stage play, or film presents a story meant to frighten people from acting upon and pursuing their desires. In the course of infantile socialization, fairy tales fulfil said function; boys and girls identify with the hero and heroine in the course of their adventures. Often, the travails of hero and heroine are caused by an (evil) stepmother who is envious of him, her, or both, and will obstruct their fulfilling of desire. Girls, especially in the three-to-six year age range, can especially identify with a heroine for whom the love of a prince charming will sate her penis envy. Moreover, stories such as Cinderella have two maternal figures, the stepmother (society) and the fairy godmother; stepmother represents the girl's feelings towards mother; the fairy godmother teaches the girl that her (step) mother loves her, thus, to have mother’s love, the girl must emulate the good Cinderella, not the wicked stepsisters. ", "The plot follows a crew of ten trying to hunt the Snark, an animal which may turn out to be a highly dangerous Boojum. The only one of the crew to find the Snark quickly vanishes, leading the narrator to explain that it was a Boojum after all. The poem is dedicated to young Gertrude Chataway, whom Carroll met at the English seaside town Sandown in the Isle of Wight in 1875. Included with many copies of the first edition of the poem was Carroll's religious tract, An Easter Greeting to Every Child Who Loves \"Alice\".", "Susan, Rhoda, Jinnie, Neville, Bernard, and Louis alternate speaking interior monologues. As children, all six live in the same house by the seashore and take lessons from the same governess. In a final monologue, Bernard looks back over his life and the lives of his friends and feels himself flowing into their consciousnesses. FTP, identify this original and unconventional novel by Virginia Woolf.", "They're touching on the key lesson of childhood, which is that someday the child will not be a child, that home will no longer exist, that adults will be no help because now the child is an adult and must face the challenges of life alone. But that you can ask friends to help you. And that even the Wizard of Oz is only human, and has problems of his own.", "The epic begins with Meghann \"Meggie\" Cleary, a four-year-old girl living in New Zealand in the early twentieth century, the only daughter of Paddy, an Irish farm labourer, and Fee, his harassed but aristocratic wife. Although Meggie is a beautiful child with curly red-gold hair, she receives little coddling and must struggle to hold her own against her numerous older brothers. Of these brothers, her favourite is the eldest, Frank, a rebellious young man who is unwillingly preparing himself for the blacksmith's trade. He is much shorter than his brothers, but very strong; also, unlike the other Clearys, he has black hair and eyes.", "Rudyard Kipling told his children gloriously fanciful tales of how things in the world came to be as they are. He wrote them down for publication as the Just So Stories in 1902, just three years after the tragic death of the daughter for whom they had first been invented. During the 20th century, generations of children were tucked into bed with readings of highly imaginative and wildly improbably explanations such as how the elephant got his trunk.", "At the beginning of the novel, Scout is an innocent, good-hearted five-year-old child who has no experience with the evils of the world. As the novel progresses, Scout has her first contact with evil in the form of racial prejudice, and the basic development of her character is governed by the question of whether she will emerge from that contact with her conscience and optimism intact or whether she will be bruised, hurt, or destroyed like Boo Radley and Tom Robinson. Thanks to Atticus’s wisdom, Scout learns that though humanity has a great capacity for evil, it also has a great capacity for good, and that the evil can often be mitigated if one approaches others with an outlook of sympathy and understanding. Scout’s development into a person capable of assuming that outlook marks the culmination of the novel and indicates that, whatever evil she encounters, she will retain her conscience without becoming cynical or jaded. Though she is still a child at the end of the book, Scout’s perspective on life develops from that of an innocent child into that of a near grown-up.", "Alice falling through a rabbit hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar, anthropomorphic creatures. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children. It is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been enormously influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre.", "The story, illustrated by Hablot Knight Browne , tells of Nell Trent, a small and delicate child of \"angelic purity of character and sweetness of disposition\" who lives alone with her grandfather, an old man, who is the proprietor of the Old Curiosity Shop. In an attempt to provide for Little Nell he becomes a gambler. He loses heavily and borrows money from Daniel Quilp, a rich dwarf, pledging his shop and stock as security for the debt. His luck does not change and he loses his home and business.", "One of the many falsities of fiction that we accept quite happily is the non-ageing of characters as they appear across series and sequels. Perhaps it all started with tales of gods, goddesses and superheroes who may well start out as infants (or chunks of matter), grow up, but then plateau out into a state of permanent warring, lusting and vanquishing. Storytellers would garnish or add extra courses according to taste. Down on earth, the same goes for the animal heroes of folk tales and fables: Europe’s Reynard, north America’s Coyote, the Caribbean’s Anansi. One generation of tales was like an invitation to people to add on new adventures. The cunning animal lived on.", "Children’s Books: The Rev. Charles Kingsley’s (1819-1875) fairy tale \"The Water-Babies\" combines many of these enthusiasms in a tale of how a little chimney-sweep goes backward in evolution when he is wicked, and forwards when he does as he would be done by.", "The dominate theme in the book is the moral of the smallest using intelligence to overcome the brawny and intimidating; a lesson children of all ages can relate to. Rhyme is used consistently and repletion frequently by Donaldson. These features make the book wonderful to read with younger children as the rhyme and repetition make it very memorable. The wide use of descriptive vocabulary, “his terrible teeth in his terrible jaws” will encourage children to start to use description and also improve their vocabulary. For older children, techniques such as alliteration and assonance are introduced.", "The book is based on a tale that Brunhoff's wife, Cecile, had invented for their children. It tells of a young elephant Babar whose mother is killed by a hunter. Babar escapes, and in the process leaves the jungle, visits a big city, and returns to bring the benefits of civilization to his fellow elephants. Just as he returns to his community of elephants, their king dies from eating a bad mushroom. Because of his travels and civilization, Babar is appointed king of the elephant kingdom. He marries his cousin, and they subsequently have children and teach them valuable lessons. ", "\"If they ever remembered their life in this world, it was only as one remembers a dream.\" Plus, they were kids in a kids' book, and what kid reading it wouldn't think it would be so much cooler to stay and live in a Magical Land forever than have to return to dreary old Earth?", "The fables served as a form of children’s’ entertainment beyond being a simple teaching tool. The fables transmitted important life lessons while also describing the “world of childhood.” The primary characters often acted in a child-like manner. The stories described the challenges of adulthood thus allowing young readers to engage with the characters and morals of adulthood at an early age.", "The novel's first chapter establishes another theme that recurs throughout the novel: the corruption of innocence. Golding emphasizes the childish nature of the boys from the outset of the narrative, and he suggests that many of the struggles that mark their time on the island have less to do with either the natural brutality of the human spirit or the corruption of political society than with the boys' young age and incapacity for responsibility. Ralph's first reaction to the abandonment is to play in the water, and Jack's impulse to \"kill\" falls flat when he is confronted with an opportunity to do so. The chatter of the younger boys-who fear a \"beastie\" and a \"snake thing,\" as well as Piggy's constant mention of his \"auntie\" at home who gave him candy, are narrative details that underscore the boys' youth and their essential innocence. As the brutality and violence among the boys increase in later chapters, Golding suggests that childhood is a neutral, formative state in which children can either be guided towards morality or corrupted by savagery when they are unguided by conscience or society. The emphasis on the boys' childishness in Chapter One establishes important questions that the subsequent action seeks to answer: is human nature essentially good, bad, or neutral, and how do early childhood experiences inform individual character?", "Toni Morrison has published many children’s books, however this book is still unique in its style. Illustrated by her son Slade Morrison, who has illustrated almost all of her children’s books, this story really analyzes how children perceive meanness in the modern world. It helps children see anger and meanness in a way that is understandable to them. The book’s focus on an adult idea in a child’s world is what makes it unique. Though this book is more modern that the others mentioned so far, it deals with a classic author introducing a classic idea that has always existed in our society.", "a kind of short story in which a character—often a child or young person—first learns a significant, usually life-changing truth about the universe, society, people, or himself or herself; also called a coming-of-age story", "THIS 1865 WORK PLAYS WITH LOGIC IN WAYS THAT HAVE MADE THE STORY OF LASTING POPULARITY WITH ADULTS AS WELL AS CHILDREN" ]

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[ "The 39 Steps is a 1935 British thriller film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, starring Robert Donat and Madeleine Carroll. Very loosely based on the 1915 adventure novel The Thirty-Nine Steps by John Buchan, the film is about an everyman civilian in London, Richard Hannay, who becomes caught up in preventing an organization of spies called The 39 Steps from stealing British military secrets. After being mistakenly accused of the murder of a counter-espionage agent, Hannay goes on the run to Scotland with an attractive woman in the hopes of stopping the spy ring and clearing his name.", "Richard Hannay is the protagonist in five adventure novels by Scottish author John Buchan . The character is a fictional secret agent who was based in part on Edmund Ironside, an Edinburgh spy during the Second Boer War. Hannay was born in Scotland around 1877 and grew up around his father’s German business partners and thus learned how to speak German. He fought in World War I and reached the rank of major, serving in the New Army and also spying on enemies. The Richard Hannay novel The Thirty-Nine Steps was adapted into the film The 39 Steps by perhaps the greatest director of all-time, Alfred Hitchcock.", "The film that really set off Hitchcock's career is the 1935 film «The 39 Steps», which was based off a book written by John Buchan. «The 39 Steps» is a murder mystery with a little bit of espionage. The story is about a man named Richard who is new to London. After a fight breaks out at a nearby theater, Richard is approached by a girl in distress who pleads to go home with him. He agrees, and soon finds out that she is hiding from several men that are chasing her. From then on he is involved in chases, confrontations, and romance (Philips 24). There were several changes in the story line that Hitchcock knew would work better on screen. The Professor in the novel is unique because of his hooded eyes, not a missing finger as shown in the film. Hitchcock thought a missing finger would be more dramatic to the film than someone with half shut eyes because it is much more noticeable, and has a stronger effect (Rose 10).", "* A music hall with a 'memory man' act provides a pivotal plot device in the classic 1935 Alfred Hitchcock thriller The 39 Steps. ", "Alfred Hitchcock's The 39 Steps, released in 1935, is an extremely well-made comedy thriller that's widely and deservedly admired", "Freely adapted from John Buchanan’s spy novel, The 39 Steps set the standard for many Hitchcock chase pictures to follow: a charming and smugly self-satisfied man wrongly accused of a crime, his radiant and initially unwilling blonde accompaniment, a MacGuffin to bait the action, a rapidly evolving scenario, magnetic details, and the sneaking suspicion that the whole thing has more to do with sex than espionage. Robert Donat’s troubles begin after he brings a woman spy to his flat on a presumed one-night stand. Her dying words sets him off to the Scottish Highlands—beautifully photographed by Bernard Knowles—in search of a top spy with the telltale missing finger. The wrong man ends up handcuffed to Madeleine Carroll, a screwball turn that offers a fine preliminary sketch of Hitchcockian sexuality (“much teasing, much dissatisfaction, much tussling for dominance,” in the words of Raymond Durgnat).", "True, The 39 Steps isn’t read by the young (or old) in anything like the numbers that JK Rowling’s marvellous creation attracts, but it’s still in print nearly 100 years after its first publication; indeed, it has never been out of print, something that isn’t true of the works of, for instance, Jane Austen.", "The 39 Steps to writing a perfect thriller by author John Buchan's grandson | Daily Mail Online", "John Buchan was born in 1875 in Perth, Scotland and wrote The 39 Steps in 1915. Buchan's son, William, later wrote that the title originated when the author's daughter, then about age six, was counting stairs at a private nursing home in Broadstairs, where Buchan was convalescing. \"There was a wooden staircase leading down to the beach. My sister, who was about six, and who had just learnt to count properly, went down them and gleefully announced: there are 39 steps.\" Some time later the house was demolished and a section of the stairs, complete with a brass plaque, was sent to Buchan.", "Nonetheless, it is instructive to read Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Lost World, first published in 1912, three years before The 39 Steps. The former, fine adventure story though it is, is unquestionably a Victorian novel, owing much, as all ‘lost world’ novels must, to Sir Henry Rider Haggard’s King Solomon’s Mines (1885). The 39 Steps, in its language, its settings, its nods to contemporary technology and its characterisation, belongs firmly to the 20th century.", "Adventurer Richard Hannay has just returned from South Africa and is thoroughly bored with his London life - until a murder is committed in his flat, just days after the victim had warned him of an assassination plot that could bring Britain to the brink of war. An obvious suspect for the police and an easy target for the killers, Hannay goes on the run in his native Scotland, where he must use all his wits to stay one step ahead of the game - and warn the government before it is too late. One of the most popular adventure stories ever written, The Thirty-Nine Steps established John Buchan as the original thriller writer and inspired many other novelists and filmmakers including Alfred Hitchcock.", "The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915), John Buchan John Buchan was recovering from a stomach ulcer at a nursing home in Broadstairs on the far southeast coast of England he began work on what he referred to as his first \"shocker\" in 1914. Buchan reportedly took the title of the novel from a wooden staircase that once ran from the clifftops at Broadstairs down to the beach, although there are several conflicting accounts: one version of the story has Buchan's young daughter running down the stairs two at a time and announcing that there were \"39 steps\" down to the beach, while another claims that as there were actually 78 steps Buchan either halved the number simply to make a snappier title, or else changed it because he was 39 years old at the time.", "Hitchcock's The 39 Steps (1935) however starts with gunfire during a mentalist act by a performer called Mr. Memory. Hannay is now a visiting Canadian who takes home from the curtailed performance a mysterious woman, a Miss Annabella Smith, who reveals a Nazi plot to steal top-secret papers from Britain, this being before the Second World War. Her murder sends him scampering for his own life in Scotland where he is helped by two other women. One, played by blond-bombshell Madeleine Carroll, manages to get herself handcuffed to Hannay�leading to humourous and romantic complications.", "The Thirty-Nine Steps is an adventure novel by the Scottish author John Buchan. It first appeared as a serial in Blackwood's Magazine in August and September 1915 before being published in book form in October that year by William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh. It is the first of five novels featuring Richard Hannay, an all-action hero with a stiff upper lip and a miraculous knack for getting himself out of sticky situations.", "He returned to England and while sick in bed during the first months of the First World War he composed his most enduring novel, The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915). The story with its fast-moving plot and thrilling suspense was a hit and has been made into a film several times, most notably by Alfred Hitchcock in 1935. It's also been a successful play, staged on both sides of the Atlantic repeatedly and most recently on Broadway about a century after the novel was first published.", "John Buchan's novel The Thirty-Nine Steps is the prototype of the modern thriller novel, what he called a \"shocker.\" In it, Buchan introduced Richard Hannay, the prototype of the resourceful, intelligent, and tenacious hero of the modern thriller. And while the story may not be as intricate or exciting as its descendents', The Thirty-Nine Steps still succeeds at what Buchan set out to do--entertain.", "The sequence in which Hannay was first protected and then betrayed by a jealous Highland crofter, have no counterpart in the book at all. The 39 Steps was crucial for Hitchcock’s career – it became an international success and brought him to the attention of the American producer David O. Selznick, with whom he would cooperate in Rebecca (1940) and other films.", "John Buchan was born on August 26th 1875. After a brief career in the legal profession he began a twin career as writer and politician. He was a prodigious writer not just of fiction but of such acclaimed works as a 24 volume history of World War I. It was during the war, where, as a sideline writing propaganda he wrote his most famous works 'The Thirty Nine Steps'. Its hero, Richard Hannay, continues his story in other Buchan novels, most notably Greenmantle (1916) and Mr Standfast (1919). After the war he became a Member of Parliament and in 1935 was appointed as Governor General of Canada. This title was added to his other very impressive collection: 1st Baron Tweedsmuir PC GCMG GCVO CH. He occupied the post of Governor General and continued to write until his death on February 11th 1940. In all he wrote 100 works including 30 novels, short stories, poems, biographies and many volumes about military history.", "Scottish diplomat, barrister, journalist, historian, poet, and novelist, whose most famous thriller was The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915), his 27th book, which has been filmed several times. Alfred Hitchcock's film version of the story from 1935 is ranked as one of the director's best achievemets. In addition to his large body of nonfiction, John Buchan published nearly 30 novels and seven collections of short stories.", "*In chapter 10 of J.D. Salinger's \"The Catcher in the Rye\", the protagonist Holden Caulfield recounts the admiration that he and his younger sister, Phoebe, have for the movie: \"Her favorite [movie] is The 39 Steps, though, with Robert Donat. She knows the whole goddam movie by heart, because I've taken her to see it about ten times. When old Donat comes up to this Scotch farmhouse, for instance, when he's running away from the cops and all, Phoebe'll say right out loud in the movie--right when the Scotch guy in the picture says it--\"Can you eat the herring?\" She knows all the talk by heart...\"", "Robert Harris is being perfectly serious when he says he would rather have written The Thirty Nine Steps than The Rainbow. Harris is a novelist who comes from a supremely English tradition that begins with Defoe, surges pyrotechnically through parts of Dickens, animates Graham Greene, broadens with Orwell (one of Harris's literary heroes), rekindles with Ambler, Deighton and le Carr�, and leads directly to his own political thrillers: Fatherland, Enigma and Archangel.", "Hitchcock's inventions disappear in BBC's latest version of The 39 Steps | Film | The Guardian", "Nineteen Eighty-Four (also titled 1984), by George Orwell (the pen name of Eric Arthur Blair), is a 1949 English novel about life under a futuristic totalitarian regime in the year 1984. It tells the story of Winston Smith, a functionary at the Ministry of Truth, whose work consists of editing historical accounts to fit the government's policies. The book has major significance for its vision of an all-knowing government which uses pervasive and constant surveillance of the populace, insidious and blatant propaganda, and brutal control over its citizens. The book had a substantial impact both in literature and on the perception of public surveillance, inspiring such terms as 'Big Brother' and 'Orwellian'.", "Author, biographer and politician. Perhaps best known for \"The Thirty-Nine Steps\". Was also a member of parliament and Governor-General of Canada.", "●   The Great Impersonation by E. Phillips Oppenheim (the last of the great Edwardian spy novels, within the next year both The Thirty Nine Steps and Riddle of the Sands would leave if forever behind)", "He played Richard Hannay in the BBC adaptation of The 39 Steps which was screened at Christmas 2008.", "The structure of this ambitious work is an unequal triptych: the first section (almost half the novel at 187 pages) is set in an English country house on just two hot days in the summer of 1935; the second section (168 pages) jumps to May 1940 and the retreat from Dunkirk; while a short third section (just 20 pages) brings us to London in 1999. In the first part, 13 year old aspiring writer Briony Tallis observes her 23 year old sister Cecilia in two incidents with Robbie Turner, the Cambridge-educated son of the char lady - one a tussle over an expensive vase by the side of the garden fountain and the other a more intimate encounter in the house's library. Briony's misunderstanding or misinterpretation or misrepresentation of these events sets the scene for tragic circumstances for which she spends a lifetime of atonement in the only form a novelist knows how.", "John Le Carre is the pen-name of  David John Moore Cornwell, the author of espionage novels such as “Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy” and “The Spy Who Came in From the Cold”. He was abandoned by his mother when he was five years old. When he was 21, he wrote to her brother to ask if she were still alive and received a reply from her telling him to catch a train to Ipswich and to meet her at the barrier. They remained in touch, but the relationship was never a warm one.", "“The Rest is Silence” by James R. Benn – “Benn offers a thrilling mix of fact and fiction in his ninth whodunit featuring Boston cop-turned-army investigator Billy Boyle (after 2013’s A Blind Goddess). On the eve of D-Day, Boyle, who serves on Eisenhower’s staff, travels to Kingsbridge, England, and looks into the death of an unknown man whose corpse washed ashore on a beach. Since the location was used as practice for the amphibious assault that will be launched shortly in France, the higher-ups are concerned that a link may exist between the dead man, who was shot in the head, and the secret invasion plans. A feud among local gangsters that Boyle learns about suggests a less sinister theory, but the path to the truth is appropriately complex. The affable and capable Boyle continues to grow as a character, and Benn effectively uses the impending Allied invasion of Europe as the background for the whodunit plot.” —  PUBLISHERS WEEKLY, c2014.", "Other of Burgess' well-regarded works include Nothing Like the Sun (1964), a story about William Shakespeare, and Napoleon Symphony (1974), a fictional biography of Napoleon structured to follow the form of Beethoven's Eroica. Burgess' most famous, though not his favorite, novel was A Clockwork Orange (1962), which was made into a movie. Its violent anti-hero, Alex, is subdued when he undergoes behavior modification treatment administered by the state. The novel haunted Burgess throughout his life because his publisher, W.W. Norton, dropped a final chapter in which Alex remained reformed. Instead, the book was published with Alex returning to a life of crime, and when Stanley Kubrick made the film version of the novel in 1971, he adhered to the publisher's ending. Burgess said in The Economist that he felt, \" … when the film was made the theological element almost completely disappeared.\" The film was so violent that it was permanently banned in Britain.", "In 1998, he won the Man Booker Prize for Amsterdam. His next novel, Atonement (2001), received considerable acclaim; Time magazine named it the best novel of 2002, and it was shortlisted for the Booker Prize. In 2007, the critically acclaimed movie Atonement, directed by Joe Wright and starring Keira Knightley and James McAvoy, was released in cinemas worldwide. His next work, Saturday (2005), follows an especially eventful day in the life of a successful neurosurgeon. Saturday won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for 2005, and his novel On Chesil Beach (2007) was shortlisted for the 2007 Booker Prize.", "His first novel, A Trick of the Light, was published in 1984. His other novels include The Girl at the Lion d'Or (1989), set in France between the First and Second World Wars, and the bestselling Birdsong (1993), the story of a young Englishman called Stephen Wraysford and his harrowing experiences fighting in northern France during the First World War. The main narrative is intercut with scenes from the life of Stephen's granddaughter, Elizabeth, a young woman living in the 1970s who travels to France to discover more about her grandfather's life. The Fatal Englishman: Three Short Lives (1996) is a multiple biography of the lives of the artist Christopher Wood, airman Richard Hillary and spy Jeremy Wolfenden." ]

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[ "9. Who wrote the novel \"The 39 Steps\"? 10. Which famous book, published in 1816, is sub-titled \"The Modern Prometheus\"?", "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by the British author Mary Shelley. Shelley wrote the novel when she was 18 years old. The first edition was published anonymously in London in 1818, and this audiobook is read from that text. Shelley's name appeared on the revised third edition, published in 1831. The title of the novel refers to the scientist, Victor Frankenstein, who learns how to create life and creates a being in the likeness of man, but larger than average and more powerful. In modern popular culture, people have tended to refer to the Creature as \"Frankenstein\" (especially in films since 1931), despite this being the name of the scientist, and the creature being unnamed in the book itself. Frankenstein is a novel infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement. It was also a warning against the \"over-reaching\" of modern man and the Industrial Revolution, alluded to in the novel's subtitle, The Modern Prometheus. The story has had an influence across literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories and films. It is arguably considered the first fully-realised science fiction novel and raises many issues still relevant to today's society. (Summary from wikipedia.org, adapted by Cori Samuel.)", "...FRANKENSTEIN, THE MODERN PROMETHEUS? In order to illustrate the main theme of her novel \"Frankenstein\", Mary Shelly draws strongly on the myth of Prometheus, as the subtitle The Modern Prometheus indicates. Maurice Hindle, in his critical study of the novel, suggests, \"the primary theme of Frankenstein is what happens to human sympathies and relationships when men seek...", "Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus - “In the beginning GOD created the Heavens and the Earth”; thus, their power is limitless even in scenery. Mary Shelley’s 1816 gothic science fiction novel, Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus, introduces us to a young intellectually inquisitive man, Victor Frankenstein, who walks a thin line between scientific exploration and blasphemous conduct while attempting to bring glory to his name by creating a new species as if it were human. The setting in this novel highlights much significance: the unnatural occurrences of man have caused them to seek refuge in nature’s pure beauty implying the restorative powers of nature in the face of unnatural events....   [tags: Character Analysis, Power of Nature]", "Frankenstein as the Modern Prometheus - There are many authors that use a well-known historical figure to contrast the protagonist of their novel. One great author that uses this method of comparing a renowned person to a fictional character is Mary Wollstonecraft Shelly. In her novel Frankenstein, she uses the subtitle “The Modern Prometheus.” Prometheus, the Greek god, and Victor Frankenstein, the creator of the Monster, have contrasting qualities and behaviors that allow them to go against God’s will and attempt to create life. Prometheus, a Greek god, is the son of Iapetus and Themis....   [tags: Mary Shelly, Prometheus]", "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, generally known as Frankenstein, is a novel written by Mary Shelley. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18 and the novel was published when she was 20. The first edition was published anonymously in London in 1818. Shelley's name appears on the second edition, published in France. The title of the novel refers to a scientist, Victor Frankenstein, who learns how to create life and creates a being in the likeness of man, but larger than average and more powerful. In popular culture, people have tended incorrectly to refer to the monster as \"Frankenstein\". Frankenstein is infused with some elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement. It was also a warning against the expansion of modern man in the Industrial Revolution, alluded to in the novel's subtitle, The Modern Prometheus. The story has had an influence across literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories and films.", "In the Western classical tradition , Prometheus became a figure who represented human striving, particularly the quest for scientific knowledge, and the risk of overreaching or unintended consequences. In particular, he was regarded in the Romantic era as embodying the lone genius whose efforts to improve human existence could also result in tragedy: Mary Shelley , for instance, gave The Modern Prometheus as the subtitle to her novel Frankenstein (1818).", "The novel is subtitled \"The Modern Prometheus,\" and this suggests the book's major inspiration. Byron was particularly attached to the play Prometheus Bound by Aeschylus, and Percy Shelley would soon write Prometheus Unbound . In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in John Milton 's Paradise Lost . This poem was one of the most popular among young poets of the time, and Shelley even allows the monster himself to read it.", "The first volume of Shelley's great catastrophe novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818) is largely the story of a young student's education in Chemistry. This is based upon several sources (including the experiences of her husband Percy Shelley at Oxford University), but primarily upon Davy's lectures in London. While composing her novel in the winter of 1816–17, Mary Shelley's daily Journal records how she meticulously read and studied Davy's published lectures of 1802 and 1812.", "... Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, is a novel written by English author Mary Shelley about eccentric scientist Victor Frankenstein, who creates a grotesque creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was eighteen, and the novel was published when she was twenty. The first edition was published anonymously in London in 1818. Shelley's name appears on the second edition, published in...", "Mary Shelley's Frankenstein - Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus In Marry Shelly’s book Frankenstein, she tells the story of a man named Victor Frankenstein. The character of Frankenstein contains traits that parallel Prometheus from Greek mythology. Through his actions and emotions Victor Frankenstein becomes the modern Prometheus by producing ill-fated actions that carry tragic consequences just as Prometheus’ did. Prometheus was a figure in Greek mythology who created the conflict between mankind and the God’s. Prometheus one day decided to steal fire from the sun and give it to the people for their advantage....   [tags: essays research papers]", "Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus is a novel by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley . First published on March 11 , 1818 (but more often read in the revised and corrected third edition, published in 1831 ), it is an early example of science fiction and steampunk . Some (led by Brian Aldiss ) claim that it is the first science fiction novel. The name Frankenstein is the former name of Ząbkowice Śląskie , a city in Silesia and the historical home of the Frankenstein family. One of the members of that family met with Mary Shelley during her European trip and obviously made a deep impression on the young writer, so she decided to name a character in her novel after him.", "1818 Mary Wollstonecraft (Godwin) Shelley (1797-1851) published the Gothic novel entitled Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus in which her main character, the scientist Victor Frankenstein, infused life into a monstrous creature whom he then rejected. The creature tortured by loneliness and rejection murdered everyone that Dr. Frankenstein loved and finally ended his own life in the Far North. Key words: Science fiction, Horror tales, Scientists, Monsters, golum, electricity, galvanism, climatic scene setting,", "The first edition of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was published anonymously in three volumes by Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor & Jones on 1 January 1818. A second edition appeared in 1822 to cash in on the success of a stage version, Presumption. A third edition, extensively revised, came out in 1831. Here, Mary Shelley pays touching tribute to her late husband, \"my companion who, in this world, I shall never see more\", and reveals that the first preface to the novel was actually written by Shelley himself. This is the text that is usually followed today.", "Shelley completed her writing in May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was first published on March 11, 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard \"triple-decker\" format for 19th-century first editions.", "The Victorian Novel (the novel), from Anglo-Saxon to the Postmodern. .... Mary Shelley, Frankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus. (1818 ..... Eliot, Mill on the Floss; Cornhill Magazine ( ed. .... later, in the literary ferment of the years 1847–8.1 In 1880 the death of.", "George Cruikshank cartoon, 'The Modern Prometheus, or Downfall of Tyranny', (1814) - Credit: AN169608001© The Trustees of the British Museum", "Both during and after the Renaissance, Prometheus would again emerge as a major inspiration for his literary and poetic significance as a symbol and archetype to inspire new generations of artists, sculptors, poets, musicians, novelists, playwrights, and film-makers. His literary and mythological personage remains prominently portrayed in contemporary sculpture, art and literary expression including Mary Shelley's portrayal of  Frankenstein  as The Modern Prometheus. The influence of the myth of Prometheus extends well into the 20th and 21st century as well.", "Both during and after the Renaissance, Prometheus would again emerge as a major inspiration for his literary and poetic significance as a symbol and archetype to inspire new generations of artists, sculptors, poets, musicians, novelists, playwrights, inventors, technologists, engineers, and film-makers. His literary and mythological personage remains prominently portrayed in contemporary sculpture, art and literary expression including Mary Shelley's portrayal of Frankenstein as The Modern Prometheus. The influence of the myth of Prometheus extends well into the 20th and 21st century as well.", "357. Appendices356APPENDIX BABrief List ofPoems and Dramas Based ontheMyths.ChapterThe WorldI.of the Myths.Hyperion; ^Eschylus, Prometheus Bound in Everyman's Library) Mrs. E. B. Browning, Prometheus Bound; Shelley, Prometheus Unbound; Byron, Prometheus; Robert Bridges, Prometheus; J. R. Lowell, Prometheus; H. W. Longfellow, Prometheus and Epimetheus; D. G. Rossetti, Pandora; H. W. Longfellow's Masque of Pandora; Account of the Four Ages and the Flood in Ovid's Metamorphoses I. 89-415 (translation in Bohn's Keats,(translation;Libraries').ChapterThe GodsII.of Olympus: Zeus.Dean Swift, Baucis and Philemon, imitated from the Eighth Book of Ovid, Metamorphoses (a burlesque), theinScott-SaintsburyOvid, MetamorphosesI.edition583ff.,II.ofSwift's410ff.,Works;VIII. 620ff.(translation in Bohn's Libraries}.ChapterIII.Hera, Athena, Hephaestus.Thomas Moore, The Fall of Hebe; J. Hebe; John Ruskin, The Queen of the Air Milton, Paradise LostVI.i ff.Keats, Oracle,(lectures);740 ff. Ovid, Metamorphoses (translation in Bohn's Libraries').Chapter IV.Homer'sR. Lowell,I.Apollo and Artemis.Hymn to Apollo; Hymn to the Sun; Delphic Hymn toMarpessa;W.;S.Shelley,Hymnof Apollo,A. C. Swinburne, The LastApollo; Stephen Phillips, Landor, Niobe; Chaucer, Prolog of", "Over the course of time, Frankenstein's monster has usurped the very name of his creator, Victor Frankenstein, the precocious student of natural philosophy from Geneva, where Mary Shelley was living with two gifted poets, her husband, Percy, and George Gordon, Lord Byron, when she conceived the strange Gothic tale. A period of bad weather in Switzerland bred a compact between Byron, Percy, and Mary, that while at the Villa Diodati, each should write the kind of story the trio were so enjoying reading. Numerous twentieth-century films attest to the story's durability, perhaps because of what science has become in western society over the past two centuries. The subtitle, \"The Modern Prometheus,\" suggests the mythic dimensions of the three-fold tale. The author, incredibly not quite nineteen at the time of composition (and, moreover, a teenaged mother), draws a correspondence between young Frankenstein's hope of scientific glory prompting him to manufacture a monster and God's creating the archangel who would become the rebel Satan.", "The Myth of Prometheus in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein - The Myth of  Prometheus in Frankenstein   Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein as a modern day version of the legend of Prometheus. Prometheus created men out of clay and taught them the \"arts of civilisation\" (Webster's World Encyclopedia CD-ROM 1999). Zeus, the chief god of the Titans, wanted to destroy Prometheus' creation but Prometheus stole fire from heaven to help mankind. Zeus punished Prometheus by chaining him to a rock where an eagle would feed on his liver during the day and each night the liver would grow back....   [tags: Frankenstein essays]", "While in Italy, Shelley became concerned about the progress of publishing Prometheus Unbound. He wrote many letters to Charles Ollier from March until April asking about the drama's progress and wanted to know if the text was accurate because he was unable to check the proofs himself. Both Percy and Mary Shelley were eager to hear when the book was published, and inquired Gisborne's wife, Thomas Medwin, and John Keats about its release throughout July 1820. It was not until late August that they received word that the book was published. They were eager to read the published version and obtained one by November 1820. ", "In the alternate, more famous version of the myth, Prometheus is the fire-stealer, the god who defied Jupiter's tyrannical oppression of humanity by giving fire to man and was then punished by having his liver eaten by vultures until he divulged his secret foreknowledge of Jupiter's downfall. By the third century A.D., these two versions had fused; the fire stolen by Prometheus became the fire of life with which he animated his man of clay. 2 As both the creator and/or savior of man and the long-suffering rebel against tyranny, Prometheus was an often invoked self-image among the Romantic poets. Blake visually identified his heroic rebel and spokeswoman Oothoon with the tortured Prometheus in his design for Plate 6 of \"Visions of the Daughters of Albion,\" while Coleridge's Ancient Mariner echoes Prometheus both in his transgression of an established moral order and in his perpetual suffering that he may teach mankind to be both sadder and wiser. Even more directly, Goethe in both his verse drama Prometheus and his monologue \"Bedecke deinen Himmel, Zeus\" portrayed Prometheus as a self-portrait of the artist who has liberated himself from serving dull, idle gods and who rejoices instead in his own creative powers.", "\"Prometheus\" is a poem by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in which a character based on the mythic Prometheus addresses God (as Zeus) in a romantic and misotheist tone of accusation and defiance. The poem was written between 1772 and 1774. It was first published fifteen years later in 1789. It is an important work as it represents one of the first encounters of the Prometheus myth with the literary Romantic movement identified with Goethe and with the Sturm und Drang movement.", "Item Description: Bantam Classics, 1999. Book Condition: New. Brand New, Unread Copy in Perfect Condition. A+ Customer Service! Summary: The publication of Darwin's The Origin of Species in 1859 marked a dramatic turning point in scientific thought. The volume had taken Darwin more than twenty years to publish, in part because he envisioned the storm of controversy it was certain to unleash. Indeed, selling out its first edition on its first day, The Origin of Species revolutionized science, philosophy, and theology. Darwin's reasoned, documented arguments carefully advance his theory of natural selection and his assertion that species were not created all at once by a divine hand but started with a few simple forms that mutated and adapted over time. Whether commenting on his own poor health, discussing his experiments to test instinct in bees, or relating a conversation about a South American burrowing rodent, Darwin's monumental achievement is surprisingly personal and delightfully readable. Its profound ideas remain controversial even today, making it the most influential book in the natural sciences ever writtenan important work not just to its time but to the history of humankind. Bookseller Inventory # ABE_book_new_0553214632", "Item Description: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group Inc, United States, 1999. Paperback. Book Condition: New. Reissue. 173 x 107 mm. Language: English . Brand New Book. The publication of Darwin s The Origin of Species in 1859 marked a dramatic turning point in scientific thought. The volume had taken Darwin more than twenty years to publish, in part because he envisioned the storm of controversy it was certain to unleash. Indeed, selling out its first edition on its first day, The Origin of Species revolutionized science, philosophy, and theology. Darwin s reasoned, documented arguments carefully advance his theory of natural selection and his assertion that species were not created all at once by a divine hand but started with a few simple forms that mutated and adapted over time. Whether commenting on his own poor health, discussing his experiments to test instinct in bees, or relating a conversation about a South American burrowing rodent, Darwin s monumental achievement is surprisingly personal and delightfully readable. Its profound ideas remain controversial even today, making it the most influential book in the natural sciences ever written an important work not just to its time but to the history of humankind. Bookseller Inventory # AAS9780553214635", "2005, 309 pages, Alfred A. Knopf, In this riveting new novel, John Darton transports us to Victorian England and around the world to reveal the secrets of a legendary 19th century figure. Darton elegantly blends the power of fact and the insights of fiction to explore the many mysteries attached to the life and work of Charles Darwin.", "This book concentrates on Darwin's early life as a schoolboy, a medical student at Edinburgh, a theology student at Cambridge and a naturalist aboard the Beagle on its famous five-year voyage. Yale University Press, March 2009.", "The fifth edition of 1869 was of 2,000 copies and was again much revised. It is in this one that Darwin used the expression ' survival of the fittest ', Herbert Spencer's term, for the first time; it appears first in the heading of Chapter IV. In the footnote on page xxii, the name D'Alton, which occurs twice, should read D'Alton both times, as it does in the fourth edition, but the second one has become Dalton. It remains thus until the thirty-ninth thousand of 1890, but in the forty-first of 1891, which was reset, Francis Darwin altered the first to Dalton, so that there were then two mistakes. Modern editions continue to have either D'Alton/Dalton or Dalton/Dalton. The format of this edition changes to octavo in eights; the cases, of which there are four conspicuous variants, are entirely new, and the spine title is reduced to Origin of species. Inserted advertisements, dated September 1868, are usually present.", "In 1815 William Smith had demonstrated a sequence of fossil populations in time. Charles Lyell, adopting James Hutton's uniformitarian view that present conditions and processes were clues to the past history of the earth, wrote his Principles of Geology (1830-1833), which Darwin on his Beagle circumnavigation found most apt for his own geological observations. Fossils in South America and apparent anomalies of animal distribution triggered the task for Darwin of assembling a vast range of material. A reading of Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population in 1838 completed Darwin's conceptual scheme.", "2004, 337 pages, The Modern Library, New York. This Pulitzer Prize-winning science historian takes us on a guided tour of Darwin’s dangerous ideas from its theoretical antecedents in the early nineteenth century to the brilliant breakthroughs of Darwin and Wallace, to discovery of the DNA helix, and to today’s triumphant neo-Darwinian synthesis and rising sociobiology." ]

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[ "The Nobel Prize in literature has had an interesting and often controversial history since first awarding the prize in 1901.  The year 1964 is perhaps one of the more intriguing stories of the Swedish Academy’s tradition.", "The first Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to the French poet and philosopher Sully Prudhomme in 1901. Turkish writer Orhan Pamuk was the 2006 winner.", "Since 1901, the Nobel Prize for Literature (Swedish: Nobelpriset i litteratur) has been awarded annually to an author from any country who has, in the words from the will of Alfred Nobel, produced \"in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction\" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det utmärktaste i idealisk riktning). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here \"Work\" refers to an author's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physics, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. A sixth Nobel Prize in Economical Sciences in memory of Alfred Nobel was added in 1986.", "1885 – Sinclair Lewis was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. In 1930, he became the first American to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, “for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humor, new types of characters.”  (d. 1951)", "French writer. His work strongly reflects the emerging trends of the late nineteenth century, in particular the desire to reconcile the concepts of pure thought and poetry. In 1901 he was the first winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature.", "Joseph Rudyard Kipling ( 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936 ) was an English journalist , short-story writer, poet and novelist, born in India. In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature , making him the first English language writer to receive the prize, and he remains today its youngest-ever recipient.", "1907 Author Rudyard Kipling was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. It was the first time it had been bestowed on an English writer.", "Since 1901, the Nobel Prize in Literature () has been awarded annually to an author from any country who has, in the words of the will of Alfred Nobel, produced \"in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction\" (original Swedish: den som inom litteraturen har producerat det mest framstående verket i en idealisk riktning). Though individual works are sometimes cited as being particularly noteworthy, here \"work\" refers to an author's work as a whole. The Swedish Academy decides who, if anyone, will receive the prize in any given year. The academy announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895; the others are the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Nobel Prize in Physics, Nobel Peace Prize, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.", "Harry Sinclair Lewis (; February 7, 1885 – January 10, 1951) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. In 1930, he became the first writer from the United States to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, which was awarded \"for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humor, new types of characters.\" His works are known for their insightful and critical views of American capitalism and materialism between the wars. He is also respected for his strong characterizations of modern working women. H. L. Mencken wrote of him, \"[If] there was ever a novelist among us with an authentic call to the trade ... it is this red-haired tornado from the Minnesota wilds.\" ", "In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature after having been nominated in that year by Charles Oman, professor at the University of Oxford. The prize citation said: \"In consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination, virility of ideas and remarkable talent for narration which characterize the creations of this world-famous author.\" Nobel prizes had been established in 1901 and Kipling was the first English-language recipient. At the award ceremony in Stockholm on 10 December 1907, the Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, Carl David af Wirsén, praised both Kipling and three centuries of English literature:", "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1907 was awarded to Rudyard Kipling \"in consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination,... Read more", "Bellow is the first American to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature since it was awarded to John Steinbeck in 1962. The Swedish Academy’s announcement yesterday gave Americans a clean sweep of the Nobel Prizes awarded for this year. The prize for literature amounts to about $162,000. Two other American Jews won or shared this year’s Nobel Prizes in other fields–Dr. Milton Friedman in economics and Dr. Baruch Blumberg in medicine.", "The youngest recipient of the Nobel Prize for literature is Rudyard Kipling (UK, b. 30 December 1865, d. 18 January 1936) who won the prize in 1907. Rudyard Kipling was also the first English language author to win the prize.", "Kipling was one of the most popular writers in England, in both prose and verse, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Henry James said: \"Kipling strikes me personally as the most complete man of genius (as distinct from fine intelligence) that I have ever known.\" In 1907 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize, and to date he remains its youngest recipient. Among other honours, he was sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and on several occasions for a knighthood, all of which he declined.", "Joseph Rudyard Kipling was born in Bombay, India, on December 30, 1865. He is best known for his short story collections The Jungle Book, published in 1894, and Just So Stories, published in 1902. He wrote a variety of other short stories, including 'Kim' and 'The Man Who Would Be King,' and many poems. In 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature, becoming the first English-language writer and youngest person to win the award. On January 18, 1936, he died in London at age 70.", "Lewis was very honored to be the first American to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature. The Swedish Academy awarded it to him in 1930, because of the five great novels he wrote in the 1920s, Main Street, Babbitt, Arrowsmith, Elmer Gantry, and Dodsworth. King Gustav gave the prize to Lewis in Stockholm, Sweden, and his second wife, Dorothy Thompson, went with him. Erik Karlfeldt, a poet and secretary of the Academy, introduced Lewis during the prize presentation in a lengthy survey of his five major novels. Karlfeldt applauded Lewis for, among many things, his criticism of American institutions and industry, his satire, and of course, his writing style. Karlfeldt noted Lewis's mastery of language in the character development of Babbitt.", "A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner - “Persons attempting to find a motive in this narrative will be prosecuted; persons attempting to find a moral in it will be banished; persons attempting to find a plot in it will be shot.” (Twain) The Nobel Prizes were established all the way back in 1895 by a Swedish inventor by the name of Alfred Nobel. He established a foundation that was dedicated to encouraging achievement and diplomacy, this foundation most commonly referred to as the distributer of the Nobel Prizes. These prizes are awarded for outstanding contributions in a wide array of subjects including; physics, chemistry, literature, peace, physiology, medicine and economic sciences....   [tags: nobel prize, salinger]", "Nobel. Camus received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957. He was the second-youngest recipient of the award, and the first winner to have been born in Africa.", "Eliot received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948, the same year in which he received the Order of Merit from King George VI. By that time, Eliot was generally considered the most important poet writing in English. He heard of his selection for the Nobel Prize while he was in Princeton as a fellow at the Institute for Advanced Studies. There, he worked on The Cocktail Party (1949), which he had begun before he left England.", "French poet and the first Literature Nobelist (in 1901) Sully Prudhomme (1839; d.1907) aka Rene Francois Armand Prudhomme", "George Bernard Shaw was born in 1856. Shaw attended Wesleyan Connexional School, and Dublin's Central Model School, ending his formal education at the Dublin English Scientific and Commercial Day School. At the age of 15 he started to work as a junior clerk. In 1876 he went to London. Irish dramatist, literary critic, a socialist spokesman, and a leading figure in the 20th century theater. In 1895 Shaw became a drama critic for the Saturday Review.Shaw was a freethinker, a supporter of women's rights and an advocate of equality of income. In 1925 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Shaw accepted the honor but refused the money. Shaw's popularity declined after his essay \"Common Sense About the War\" (1914), which was considered unpatriotic. Shaw died on November 2, 1950", "The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year. ", "In the 20th century, Ireland produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature: George Bernard Shaw, William Butler Yeats, Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney. Although not a Nobel Prize winner, James Joyce is widely considered to be one of the most significant writers of the 20th century. Joyce's 1922 novel Ulysses is considered one of the most important works of Modernist literature and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as \"Bloomsday\". Modern Irish literature is often connected with its rural heritage through writers such as John McGahern and poets such as Seamus Heaney.", "Sinclair Lewis Becomes the First American to be Awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature | World History Project", "The Prize in Literature has a history of controversial awards and notorious snubs. More indisputably major authors have been ignored by the Nobel Committee than have been honored by it, including Marcel Proust , Ezra Pound , James Joyce , Vladimir Nabokov , Virginia Woolf , Jorge Luis Borges , Gertrude Stein , August Strindberg , John Updike , Arthur Miller , Yannis Ritsos , often for political or extra-literary reasons. [50] Conversely, many writers whom subsequent criticism regarded as minor, inconsequential or transitional won the prize.", "5.    Which author was the youngest ever recipient of the Nobel prize for literature in 1907?", "The Prize in Literature has a history of controversial awards and notorious snubs. Notable literati have pointed out that more indisputably major writers have been ignored by the Nobel Committee than have been honored by it, including Marcel Proust , Ezra Pound , James Joyce , Vladimir Nabokov , Jorge Luis Borges , August Strindberg , John Updike , Arthur Miller , Yannis Ritsos and others, often for political or extra-literary reasons. [53] Conversely, many writers whom contemporary and subsequent criticism regard as minor, inconsequential or transitional have been the recipient of the award.", "Awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. There is some debate among American critics at the time about whether or not \"A Moral Vision of the Thirties Deserves the Nobel Prize\" (as Arthur Mizener entitled his editorial in the New York Times).", "Camus was the second-youngest recipient of the  Nobel Prize for Literature , after  Rudyard Kipling , and he was the first African-born writer to receive the award. He is the shortest-lived of any literature laureate to date, having died in an automobile accident just over two years after receiving the award.", "1890 – Boris Pasternak, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1960) was a Nobel Prize-winning Russian poet and writer. In the West he is best known for his epic novel Doctor Zhivago", "Ernest Hemingway is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, becoming the fifth American author to receive the award. Hemingway is still recovering from serious injuries sustained in two separate plane crashes and a bushfire accident earlier in the year and is unable to travel to Stockholm to receive the award. The American ambassador John C. Cabot accepts the prize on his behalf and reads his speech aloud.", "Let's take a look at some lesser known facts related to the distinguished authors who have won the Nobel Prize in literature..." ]

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[ "During the second Boer War that started in October 1899 between Britain the the Boer Republics, Churchill obtained a commission to act as a war correspondent.", "1899 The start of the Boer War between the British Empire and the Republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal in southern Africa.", "World War I (WWI), also known as the First World War, was a global war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. From the time of its occurrence until the approach of World War II in 1939, it was called simply the World War or the Great War, and thereafter the First World War or World War I. [5] [6] [7] In America it was initially called the European War. [8] More than 9 million combatants were killed : a scale of death impacted by industrial advancements, geographic stalemate and reliance on human wave attacks . It was the fifth- deadliest conflict in world history, paving the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. [9]", "The Second Boer War ( Dutch : Tweede Boerenoorlog, Afrikaans : Tweede Boereoorlog), commonly referred to as The Boer War and also known as the South African War (outside of South Africa), the Anglo-Boer War (among most South Africans) and in Afrikaans as the Boereoorlog or Tweede Vryheidsoorlog (\"Second War of Liberation\"), was fought from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902 , between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic).", "October 11, 1899 - The Boer War began in South African between the British Empire and Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State. The war ended in 1902 with the Treaty of Pretoria in which the Transvaal and Orange Free State became British colonies.", "1879 - War of the Pacific: the Chilean Navy defeats the Peruvian Navy in the Battle of Angamos, Peruvian Admiral Miguel Grau is killed in the encounter.", "When the United States entered World War I (1914–1918) by declaring war on Germany on April 6, 1917, the global conflict had been underway for more than two and a half years. Also known as the Great War, World War I started as a result of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. What began as a skirmish between Austria-Hungary and Serbia (the archduke was killed in the Serbian city of Sarajevo) quickly snowballed into a massive conflict when these nations' more powerful allies joined the dispute. Europe 's existing alliance structure pitted the Central Powers—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey—against the Triple Entente—France, Britain , and Russia . After provocation from Germany, whose naval fleets had begun to sink American merchant ships in British waters, President Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921) made the decision to mobilize U.S. troops.", "The South African War, 1899-1902, pitched an Empire that boasted possession of one-fifth of the world's surface and a quarter of its population, against the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, two small Afrikaner republics whose combined fighting forces numbered no more than fifty thousand men. While long-standing ethnic conflict and a more recent struggle over the exploitation of gold and diamonds had embittered relations between Afrikaans speakers and the largely English-speaking foreigners, strategic objectives, and European rivalry over the partition of Africa precipitated the intervention of British troops and subsequent military conflict.1", "Ever since Britain had wrested control of the Cape Colony from the Netherlands during the Napoleonic Wars, it had co-existed with Dutch settlers who had migrated further away from the Cape and created two republics of their own. The British imperial vision called for control over these new countries, and the Dutch-speaking \"Boers\" (or \"Afrikaners\") fought back in the War in 1899–1902. Outgunned by a mighty empire, the Boers waged a guerrilla war (which certain other British territories would later employ to attain independence). This gave the British regulars a difficult fight, but their weight of numbers, superior equipment, and often brutal tactics, eventually brought about a British victory. The war had been costly in human rights and was widely criticised by Liberals in Britain and worldwide. However, the United States gave its support. The Boer republics were merged into the Union of South Africa in 1910; this had internal self-government, but its foreign policy was controlled by London and it was an integral part of the British Empire. ", "The First World War began in 1914 and lasted to the final Armistice in 1918. The Allied Powers, led by the British Empire, France, Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The war caused the disintegration of four empires—the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones—as well as radical change in the European and West Asian maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are referred to as the Triple Entente, and the Central Powers are referred to as the Triple Alliance.", "Dinge en Goete (Things and Stuff): This Day in History: Oct 11, 1899: Boer War begins in South Africa", "World War 1 was a military conflict lasting from 1914 to 1918 which involved nearly all the biggest powers of the world. It involved two opposing alliances – the Allies and the Central Powers. The countries of the Allies included Russia, France, British Empire, Italy, United States, Japan, Rumania, Serbia, Belgium, Greece, Portugal and Montenegro. The countries of the Central Powers included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria.", "Two World Wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century. World War I was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by the Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip. Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the Entente Powers (France, Belgium, Serbia, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy, Greece, Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). The War left more than 16 million civilians and military dead. Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.", "World War I was fought by two major alliances. The Entente Powers initially consisted of France, England, Russia, and their associated empires. Numerous other states joined these allies, most notably Italy in April 1915, and the United States in April 1917. The Central Powers, named because of their central location on the European continent, initially consisted of Germany and Austria-Hungary and their associated empires. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in October 1914, followed a year later by Bulgaria. By the conclusion of the war; only The Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain and the Scandinavian nations remained officially neutral among the European countries, though many of those provided financial and material support to one side or the other. World War II was also fought by two major alliances, the Allied and Axis power. The AXIS powers consisted of Germany, Italy (changed sides and split in half 1943) Hungary, Romania Bulgaria, Finland (changed sides 1945) Spain was meant to be neutral but they helped Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy and sent troops to fight alongside the Germans in Russia. The major Allied Powers were Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the United States, and China.", "At the start of the 20th century, two power blocs emerged from alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that, at the start of the First World War in 1914, drew all the major European powers into the conflict. This was the first major war in Europe between industrialised countries, and the first time in Western Europe that the results of industrialisation (for example, mass production) had been dedicated to war. The result of this industrialised warfare, which provided modern weapons, coupled with outdated 19th century strategies, led to an unprecedented casualty level: eight and a half million soldiers killed, an estimated 21 million wounded, and approximately 10 million civilian deaths.", "World War I was an international conflict primarily involving European nations that was fought between 1914 and 1918. The United States did not enter the conflict until April 1917, but its entry was the decisive event of the war, enabling the Allies (Great Britain, France, Italy, and Russia) to defeat the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria). The leadership of President woodrow wilson led to both the conclusion of hostilities and the creation of the league of nations, an international organization dedicated to resolving disputes without war.", "The two Boer Republics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, began the war against Great Britain on 14th October 1899.  Their principal operation was to invade Natal.  They also began sieges of Mafeking and Kimberley, both important towns along the western borders of the two Boer republics, and the Boers in the Orange Free State invaded across the Orange River into Cape Colony.", "Expurgated extract from: Storey, William Kelleher: The First World War: A Concise Global History: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., Lanham, USA, 2009", "The war began on October 11 1899, following a Boer ultimatum that the British should cease building up their forces in the region. The Boers had refused to grant political rights to non-Boer settlers, known as Uitlanders, most of whom were British, or to grant civil rights to Africans. Perhaps more important was the underlying question of control over the gold mines of the Transvaal at a time when the international financial system, and the stability of the British pound, was based on the gold standard. The war was also about Britain's control of South Africa and therefore its 'great power' status.", "The Russo-Japanese war is unique in that the warring nations fought over, and only on, the territory of two neutral countries, China and Korea. Prior to World War I, this conflict had history's greatest battles between two nations in terms of numbers of troops and ships. It was the first modern war involving both telegraph and telephone, machine guns, barbed wire, illuminating star shells, mine fields, advanced torpedoes, and armored battleships. If not for the military restraint displayed by the other European nations and the diplomacy of the United States, this might have become the first world war.", "Though officially neutral, Portugal at the outbreak of World War I had proclaimed its adhesion to the English alliance (August 7, 1914) and on November 23 committed itself to military operations against Germany . On September 11 the first expedition left to reinforce the African colonies, and there was fighting in northern Mozambique, on the Tanganyika (now Tanzania) frontier, and in southern Angola, on the frontier of German South West Africa . In February 1916, in compliance with a request from Britain, Portugal seized German ships lying in Portuguese ports, and on March 9 Germany declared war on Portugal. A Portuguese expeditionary force under General Fernando Tamagnini de Abreu went to Flanders in 1917, and on April 9, 1918, the Germans mounted a major attack in the Battle of the Lys. Although the Allies won the war and Portugal’s colonies were safeguarded, the 0.75 percent of the war indemnity paid by Germany to Portugal was scant compensation for the heavy costs incurred both in the field and at home, including the casualties of the African campaigns and the Western Front, the alienation of a portion of the army officer corps, crippling war debts to Britain, intense inflation, and a scarcity of food and fuel.", "One hundred years ago today, on August 4, 1914, German troops began pouring over the border into Belgium, starting the first major battle of World War I. The Great War killed 10 million people, redrew the map of Europe, and marked the rise of the United States as a global power. Here are 40 maps that explain the conflict — why it started, how the Allies won, and why the world has never been the same.", "You are here: History Lists · Events · 10 Events that Led to World War I", "The start of the war is generally held to be September 1, 1939 with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war two days later. Other dates for the beginning of war include the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on September 13, 1931, the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on July 7, 1937, or one of several other events. Other sources follow A. J. P. Taylor, who holds that there was a simultaneous Sino-Japanese War in East Asia, and a Second European War in Europe and her colonies. Both wars did not become a global conflict until they merged in 1941; at which point the war continued until 1945. This article uses the conventional dating. Other important events that happened at the dawn of the war include the Second Italo-Abyssinian War between Ethiopia and Italy on October 1935 that led to the collapse of the League of Nations .", "October, The Crimean War (18541856) was fought between Imperial Russia on one side and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. The majority of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, with additional actions occurring in western Turkey, the Baltic Sea region, and in the Russian Far East.", "On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto . This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto , which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. But the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an armistice . The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the outbreak of the German Revolution of 1918–1919 , a republic was proclaimed on 9 November. The Kaiser fled to the Netherlands.", "The Anglo-Zulu War was a military conflict between the British Empire and the Kingdom of Zululand, taking place from January 8 to July 4, 1879, in South Africa. The root cause of the Anglo-Zulu War was the discovery of diamonds in the region, in the land near the Vaal River, in 1867. This led to an increased British interest in the area. But there were two obstacles: the Boers (politically organized in the Orange Free State and the Republic of Transvaal), and the Kingdom of Zululand, which arose in the first half of the 19th century.", "The war also highlighted the dangers of Britain's policy of non-alignment and deepened her isolation. The 1900 UK general election , also known as the \" Khaki election \", was called by the Prime Minister , Lord Salisbury , on the back of recent British victories. There was much enthusiasm for the war at this point, resulting in a victory for the Conservative government.", "The war also highlighted the dangers of Britain's policy of non-alignment and deepened her isolation. The 1900 UK general election, also known as the \" Khaki election\", was called by the Prime Minister , Lord Salisbury , on the back of recent British victories. There was much enthusiasm for the war at this point, resulting in a victory for the Conservative government.", "A5. Russia, 1917 (The October Revolution also took place in Russia later in the same year)", "On February 8, 1904, following the Russian rejection of a Japanese plan to divide Manchuria and Korea into spheres of influence, Japan launched a surprise naval attack against Port Arthur, a Russian naval base in China. It was the first major battle of the 20th century, and the Russian fleet was decimated. During the subsequent war, Japan won a series of decisive victories over the Russians, who underestimated the military potential of its non-Western opponent. In January 1905, the strategic naval base of Port Arthur fell to Japanese naval and ground forces under Admiral Heihachiro Togo, and in March Russian troops were defeated at Shenyang, China, by Japanese Field Marshal Iwao Oyama.", "January – 10 September 1909: General The Right Honourable The Viscount Kitchener, GCB, OM, GCSI , GCMG, GCIE" ]

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[ "Both czar or Tsar (Russia) and kaiser (Germany) were derived from the name of Julius Caesar, leader of ancient Rome.", "Kaiser is the German word for \"emperor\". Like the Bulgarian, Serbian and Russian Czar it is directly derived from the Roman emperors' title of Caesar, which in turn is derived from the personal name of a branch of the gens (clan) Julia, to which Gaius Julius Caesar, the forebear of the first imperial family, belonged. Although the British monarchs styled \"Emperor of India\" were also called \"Kaisar-i-Hind\" in Hindi and Urdu, this word, although ultimately sharing the same Latin origin, is derived from the (kaisar), not the German Kaiser. ", "Gaius Julius Caesar embodies perhaps the inversion of this trope. The German word Kaiser (Emperor) and the Russian word Czar (King) are both derived from his given name.", "The term Czar, tsar or czar, is derived from the Latin word Caesar (referring to a ruler, equivalent in rank to the Roman Emperor, who holds the title by virtue of approval by another Emperor or a supreme ecclesiastical official such as the Pope). The title is usually associated with European Slavic monarchs, especially the supreme rulers of the Russian Empire. Derivatives of tsar, like “tsarina”, referring to the tsar’s wife, tsesarevich, referring to the heir apparent, tsarevich and tsarevna, the son and daughter of the tsar, resepectively, are also used.", "In English the (untranslated) word Kaiser is mainly associated with the emperors of the unified German Empire (1871–1918), in particular with Kaiser Wilhelm II. In 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved, but the title of Kaiser was retained by the House of Habsburg, the head of which, beginning in 1804, bore the title of Emperor (Kaiser) of Austria.", "Wilhelm II ( German : Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albrecht von Preußen; English : Frederick William Victor Albert of Prussia) (January 27, 1859 – June 4, 1941) was the German Emperor (Kaiser) and last King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire from June 15, 1888 until his death on June 4, 1941 and the Kingdom of Prussia from June 15, 1888 to January 30, 1934. He was a grandson of the British Queen Victoria and related to many monarchs and princes of Europe. Crowned in 1888, he dismissed the Chancellor, Prince Otto von Bismarck , in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose \"New Course\" in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914 that led to World War I . Bombastic and impetuous, he sometimes made tactless pronouncements on sensitive topics without consulting his ministers, and allowed his generals to dictate policy during World War I with little regard for the civilian government. This would lead to him becoming a figurehead for the rest of his life.", "[43] Kaiser Joseph II (1741-1790)—refers the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II. As brother of Marie Antoinette he was Louis XVI’s brother-in-law.   Additionally, he was a proponent of enlightened despotism and was heavily influenced by Voltaire.", "), despite ironically being as German as his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm II. When H.G. Wells referred to Britain's \"alien and uninspiring court\" before the name shift, George is said to have responded \" I may be uninspiring, but I'll be damned if I'm an alien! \"note Supposedly, the Kaiser retaliated to this by commissioning a performance of The Merry Wives of Wettin von Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Masterminded the royal family's media image.", "In modern times, the term Czar or tsar has often been metaphorically used to designate world leaders or those with powerful positions of dictatorial natures. For example, the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives near the end of the 19th Century, Republican Thomas Brackett Reed, was often referred to as “Czar Reed” for his absolute control of the House of Representatives. Many high level civil servants in the U.S.A. and United Kingdom are also often, though obviously unofficially, designated as “Czars” for their dominant roles in their respective sectors of work.", "From 1914 to 1918, Britain and its allies were at war with the Central Powers, led by the German Empire. The German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who for the British public came to symbolise all the horrors of the war, was the King's first cousin. The King's paternal grandfather was Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; consequently, the King and his children bore the titles Prince and Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke and Duchess of Saxony. Queen Mary, although British like her mother, was the daughter of the Duke of Teck, a descendant of the German Dukes of Württemberg. The King had brothers-in-law and cousins who were British subjects but who bore German titles such as Duke and Duchess of Teck, Prince and Princess of Battenberg, and Prince and Princess of Schleswig-Holstein. When H. G. Wells wrote about Britain's \"alien and uninspiring court\", George famously replied: \"I may be uninspiring, but I'll be damned if I'm alien.\" ", "Napoléon Bonaparte (; , born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815. Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815. One of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. He also remains one of the most celebrated and controversial political figures in human history. ", "Kyser is a spelling variation of Keiser, which is a variation of Kaiser, the German nickname for the man who lived in a stately manner -- derived from German Kaiser = emperor, from the Latin title Ceasar. It may also have been a nickname for the man who played an emperor in the village pageant (many of the well-played parts stuck as nicknames, which became surnames). Kaiser is also found as a Jewish ornamental name. German variations include Keser, Keiser, Kayser, Keyser . Jewish forms include Kaiserman, Keiserman, Keiser, Keizer . There are also cognate forms in several languages.", "On 8 June 1913, a year before the Great War began, The New York Times published a special supplement devoted to the 25th anniversary of the Kaiser's coronation. The banner headline read: \"Kaiser, 25 Years a Ruler, Hailed as Chief Peacemaker\". The accompanying story called him \"the greatest factor for peace that our time can show\", and credited Wilhelm with frequently rescuing Europe from the brink of war. Until the late 1950s, the Kaiser was depicted by most historians as a man of considerable influence. Partly that was a deception by German officials. For example, President Theodore Roosevelt believed the Kaiser was in control of German foreign policy because Hermann Speck von Sternburg, the German ambassador in Washington and a personal friend of Roosevelt, presented to the president messages from Chancellor von Bülow as messages from the Kaiser. Later historians downplayed his role, arguing that senior officials learned to work around him. More recently historian John C. G. Röhl has portrayed Wilhelm as the key figure in understanding the recklessness and downfall of Imperial Germany. Thus, the argument is made that the Kaiser played a major role in promoting the policies of naval and colonial expansion that caused the sharp deterioration in Germany's relations with Britain before 1914.", "Nicholas II ( Nikolay Vtoroy; 1868 – 17 July 1918) was the last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1 November 1894 until his forced abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw the fall of the Russian Empire from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to economic and military collapse. Due to the Khodynka Tragedy, anti-Semitic pogroms, Bloody Sunday, the violent suppression of the 1905 Revolution, the execution of political opponents and his perceived responsibility for the Russo-Japanese War, he was given the nickname Nicholas the Bloody by his political enemies. ", "Was the Kaiser of Germany at the time of the First World War reigning from 1888-1918. He pushed for a more aggressive foreign policy by means of colonies and a strong navy to compete with Britain. His actions added to the growing tensions in pre-1914 Europe.Dismissed Bismarck in 1890. Did not renew Bismarck's treaty with Russia and \"Forced\" Russia to look for another ally, France.", "“Nicholas II (Russian: Николай II, Николай Александрович Романов, tr. Nikolay II, Nikolay Alexandrovich Romanov) (18 May [O.S. 6 May] 1868 – 17 July 1918) was the last Emperor of Russia, Grand Prince of Finland, and titular King of Poland. His official title was Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias and he is known as Saint Nicholas the Passion-Bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church. Nicholas II, his wife, his son, his four daughters, the family's medical doctor, the Tsar's valet, the Empress' lady-in-waiting and the family's cook were murdered in the same room by the Bolsheviks on the night of 16/17 July 1918”. – Wikipedia", "Wilhelm I (Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig, 22 March 1797 – 9 March 1888), of the House of Hohenzollern, was the King of Prussia (2 January 1861 – 9 March 1888) and the first German Emperor (18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888).", "Napoleon Bonaparte ( August 15 , 1769 – May 5 , 1821 ) was a general during the French Revolution , the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic, and Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français). He was also King of Italy , Mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine.", "Monarchs who played a leading role in Austrian and world history include Rudolf I of Habsburg (1218–91), founder of the Habsburg dynasty and Holy Roman emperor from 1273; Maria Theresa (1717–80), who succeeded to the Habsburg dominions by means of the Pragmatic Sanction of 1740; her son Joseph II (1741–90), the \"benevolent despot\" who became Holy Roman emperor in 1765; Franz Josef (1830–1916), emperor of Austria at the outbreak of World War I; and his brother Maximilian (Ferdinand Maximilian Josef, 1832–1867), who became emperor of Mexico in 1864, ruling on behalf of Emperor Napoleon III of France, and was deposed and executed. Prince Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich (1773–1859), Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848, was the architect of the European balance of power established at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Adolf Hitler (1889–1945), born in Braunau, was dictator of Germany from 1933 until his death. Leading Austrian statesmen since World War II are Bruno Kreisky (1911–1990), Socialist Party chairman and chancellor of Austria from 1970 to 1983; and Kurt Waldheim (b.1918), Austrian diplomat and foreign minister, who was UN secretary-general from 1971 to 1981 and was elected to the presidency in June 1986.", "Prince Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg ( 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898 ), was a German aristocrat and statesman; he was Prime Minister of Prussia (1862–1890), and the first Chancellor of Germany (1871–1890). Nicknamed the Iron Chancellor he is noted for his laconic remarks.", "Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (), known universally as Paul von Hindenburg (; 2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German military officer, statesman, and politician who served as the second President of Germany during the period 1925–34.", "Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, known universally as Paul von Hindenburg –  (2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a Prussian-German field marshal, statesman, and politician, and served as the second President of Germany from 1925 to 1934.", "Until the late 1950s the Kaiser was depicted by most historians as man of considerable influence.", "The five kings / kingdoms that fell before Bismarck's rule were Justinian, Charlemagne, Otto the Great, Charles V and Napoleon. After a series of short wars, Otto was able in 1871 to unify numerous German states into a powerful Empire. He was the first Imperial Chancellor of the Empire from 1871 to 1890.", "Puyi (; 7 February 190617 October 1967), of the Manchu Aisin Gioro clan, commonly known as Henry Pu Yi, was the last Emperor of China and the twelfth and final ruler of the Qing dynasty. When a child, he ruled as the Xuantong Emperor () from 1908 until his forced abdication on 12 February 1912, after the successful Xinhai Revolution. From 1 to 12 July 1917, he was briefly restored to the throne as emperor by the warlord Zhang Xun. In 1932, after the occupation of Manchuria the state of Manchukuo was established by Japan, and he was chosen to become 'Chief Executive' of the new state using the era-name of Datong (Ta-tung). In 1934, he was declared the Kangde Emperor (or Kang-te Emperor) of Manchukuo and ruled until the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945. After the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, Puyi was imprisoned as a war criminal for 10 years, wrote his memoirs and became a titular member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference and the National People's Congress.", "Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany posed for a photo in 1902 in the garb of a monk from the Teutonic Order, climbing the stairs in the reconstructed Marienburg Castle as a symbol of Imperial German policy. [39] [ unreliable source? ]", "..... Click the link for more information.  (reigned 1894–1917), the last Russian emperor, a generally incompetent ruler surrounded by a reactionary entourage. However, there was considerable financial and industrial development, directed largely by Count Witte. Russia, having suffered a severe diplomatic setback at the Congress of Berlin (see Berlin, Congress of Berlin, Congress of,", "Political correctness didn’t quite exist back in pre–World War I Europe, and the Kaiser gets the (dis)honor of making some outrageous statements that would make any bigot blush. Historian Barbara Tuchman called him “the possessor of the least inhibited tongue in Europe .”", "Hermann Wilhelm Göring  (12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946), was a German politician, military leader, and leading member of the NSDAP. A veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, he was a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as the \"Blue Max\".", "Hermann Wilhelm Göring  (12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946), was a German politician, military leader, and leading member of the NSDAP. A veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, he was a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as the “Blue Max”.", "emperor = the man who is a ruler of a big country or group of countries", "\"He had been a soldier all his life, climbing from sous-lieutenant to emperor, so the professional bond with his troops was profound. To his veterans 'emperor' was a military rank above 'general' or 'marshal'. Soldiers never addressed him as 'Your Majesty' or 'Sire' but always 'Mon Empereur'. He seldom forgot a face, never a kindness.\" (Mark Adkin - \"The Waterloo Companion\" p 77)" ]

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[ "The early twentieth century and the Irish question are to be politically related to the accession of Victoria’s son, Edward VII (1841-1910) to the crown, and his reign was known as the Edwardian Age (1901-1910) or the age of the House of Saxe -Coburg-Gotha1. Edward was the only British monarch who reigned for nine years at the beginning of the modern age in the early years of the 20th century. He was replaced on his death by King George V (1865-1936), who replaced the German-sounding title with that of Windsor during the First World War. The Windsor title remained in the family under the figure of Edward VIII, Duke of Windsor (1894-", "Queen Victoria died in 1901 and her son Edward VII became king, inaugurating the Edwardian Era, which was characterised by great and ostentatious displays of wealth in contrast to the sombre Victorian Era. With the advent of the 20th century, things such as motion pictures, automobiles, and aeroplanes were coming into use. The new century was characterised by a feeling of great optimism. The social reforms of the last century continued into the 20th with the Labour Party being formed in 1900. Edward died in 1910, to be succeeded by George V, who reigned 1910–36. Scandal-free, hard working and popular, George V was the British monarch who, with Queen Mary, established the modern pattern of exemplary conduct for British royalty, based on middle-class values and virtues. He understood the overseas Empire better than any of his prime ministers and used his exceptional memory for figures and details, whether of uniforms, politics, or relations, to good effect in reaching out in conversation with his subjects. ", "Queen Victoria died in 1901 and her son Edward VII became king, inaugurating the Edwardian Era, which was characterised by great and ostentatious displays of wealth in contrast to the sombre Victorian Era. With the advent of the 20th century, things such as motion pictures, automobiles, and aeroplanes were coming into use. The new century was characterised by a feeling of great optimism. The social reforms of the last century continued into the 20th with the Labour Party being formed in 1900. Edward died in 1910, to be succeeded by George V, who reigned 1910–36. Scandal-free, hard working and popular, George V was the British monarch who, with Queen Mary, established the modern pattern of exemplary conduct for British royalty, based on middle-class values and virtues. He understood the overseas Empire better than any of his prime ministers and used his exceptional memory for figures and details, whether of uniforms, politics, or relations, to good effect in reaching out in conversation with his subjects. ", "          George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert) was the first British monarch belonging to the House of Windsor, which he created from the British branch of the German House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. As well as being King of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth Realms, George was the Emperor of India and the first King of the Irish Free State. George reigned from 6 May 1910 through World War I (1914–1918) until his death on 20 January 1936.", "Edward VII (Albert Edward) was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death on 6 May 1910. He was the first British monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, which was renamed the House of Windsor by his son, George V.", "Edward VII (Albert Edward; 9 November 1841 – 6 May 1910) was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, King of the Commonwealth Realms, and the Emperor of India. He was the son of Queen Victoria and was the first British monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He reigned from 22 January 1901 until his death on 6 May 1910.", "From King Edward VII, who reigned from 1901 to 1910, until 1917, when King George V replaced the German-sounding title with the name of Windsor during the First World War, British monarchs belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.", "King Edward VIII (1894 - 1972) was King of Great Britain, Ireland, the British Dominions beyond the Seas, and Emperor of India from the death of his father, George V (1910–36), on 20 January 1936, until his abdication on 11 December 1936. ", "George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert; 3 June 1865 – 20 January 1936) was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 through the First World War (1914–1918) until his death in 1936.", "George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George Windsor) (14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was the third British monarch using the name Windsor. He belonged to the House of Windsor (the name his father had given to his branch of the German House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha), and reigned from 11 December 1936 until his death. As well as being King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the British dominions beyond the seas, George VI was the last Emperor of India (until 1947) and the last King of Ireland (until 1949).", "Queen Victoria, House of Hanover, (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. Both the Duke of Kent and the King died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne at the age of 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. The United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy, in which the Sovereign held relatively few direct political powers. Privately, she attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments.", "King Edward VII took over the British throne after the death of Queen Victoria. He was a popular ruler who strengthened his country prior to World War I.", "British monarch, Queen consort of King George V. The daughter of the impoverished Francis, Duke of Teck and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, her full name and title at birth was Her Serene Highness Princess Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Claudine Agnes of Teck, popularly known as Princess May. She was engaged to Prince Albert Victor, elder son of the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) in 1891. She accepted his proposal only because it was expected of her. After the prince's sudden death, she became engaged to his brother, Prince George, Duke of Clarence, with whom she had much more in common. They were married on July 6, 1893 at St. James Palace. Theirs was an exceptionally successful marriage, producing one daughter and five sons. Upon Edward VII's accession in 1901, the couple became Prince and Princess of Wales. Edward died in 1910, and they were crowned King and Queen on June 22, 1911. Widowed in 1936, Queen Mary lived to see her eldest son, Edward VIII abdicate the throne, her son George VI reign successfully, and her eldest granddaughter, Elizabeth, come to the throne in 1952. Regarded as the matriarch of the royal family, her funeral and lying-in-state created unprecedented scenes of public mourning. (bio by: Kristen Conrad)", "# Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (King of Great Britain and Ireland as Edward VII from 1901) (1874–1901)", "George V was born at Marlborough House on 3 June 1865. His parents were Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. He was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, King of the Dominions of the British Empire and Emperor of India from 6 May 1910 until his death on 20 January 1936.", "7. Edward VII, (Albert Edward) ( “the Peacemaker” ) 1841–1910, king of Great Britain and Ireland 1901–10 (son of Queen Victoria).", "Albert Edward (1841-1910), the second child and eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Consort Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, became the Prince of Wales a month after his birth. He married the Princess Alexandra of Denmark in 1863; together they had five children, four of whom survived to adulthood, including the future King George V. For 59 years Albert Edward held the title of Prince of Wales until the death of Queen Victoria on January 22, 1901. He ascended the throne as King Edward VII of the United Kingdom and The British Dominions and Emperor of India; he reigned until his death in 1910.", "Victoria's son, Edward VII , became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 1901 . However, in 1917 , the next monarch, George V , replaced \"Saxe-Coburg-Gotha\" with \"Windsor\" due to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War . George V's reign was also marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland (which remained a part of the United Kingdom) and the Irish Free State (an independent nation) in 1922 . Soon thereafter, Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster 1931 , under which self-government was granted to several parts of the British Empire. Formerly, the entire Empire was deemed to be the territory belonging to the British Crown; after the passage of the Statute, however, each dominion obtained its own monarchy. Hence, George V was separately King of the United Kingdom, King of Canada , King of Australia , and so forth.", "On the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, Albert Edward became King-Emperor as Edward VII, with Alexandra as Queen-Empress consort. From Edward's death in 1910 until her own death, she was the Queen Mother, being a queen and the mother of the reigning monarch, George V of the United Kingdom, though she was more generally styled Her Majesty Queen Alexandra. She greatly distrusted her nephew, Wilhelm II of Germany, and supported her son during World War I, in which Britain and its allies defeated Germany.", "1910 George V becomes King of the United Kingdom upon the death of his father, Edward VII", "Alexandra of Denmark (Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julia; 1 December 1844 – 20 November 1925) was the wife of Edward VII of the United Kingdom. As such, she was Queen consort of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Empress of India, from 1901 to 1910.", "Alexandra of Denmark (Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julia; 1 December 1844 – 20 November 1925) was Queen of the United Kingdom and Empress of India as the wife of King-Emperor Edward VII.", "Both Edward VII, who died in 1910, and his son, George V, ensured that the monarchy was more active than it had been in the latter years of Victoria's reign, but they exercised their influence discreetly. Edward's funeral brought together the royalty of Europe - many of them his relations - for the last time before war broke out in 1914.", "The British Royal House faced a serious problem during the First World War because of its blood ties to the ruling family of Germany, Britain's prime adversary in the war. Before the war, the British royal family had been known as the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. In 1910, George V became King of the United Kingdom on the death of his father, King Edward VII, and remained king throughout the war. He was the first cousin of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, who came to symbolise all the horrors of the war. Queen Mary, although British like her mother, was the daughter of the Duke of Teck, a descendant of the German Royal House of Württemberg. During the war H. G. Wells wrote about Britain's \"alien and uninspiring court\", and George famously replied: \"I may be uninspiring, but I'll be damned if I'm alien.\" ", "Victoria's son, Edward VII, became the first monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in 1901. In 1917, the next monarch, George V, changed \"Saxe-Coburg and Gotha\" to \"Windsor\" in response to the anti-German sympathies aroused by the First World War. George V's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom, and the Irish Free State, an independent nation, in 1922. ", "of the United Kingdom was the monarch of Britain and reigned over the British colonies at the start of World War I in 1914.", "Her relationship with Edward would last through his ascension to the throne in 1901 until his death in 1910. … Read More", "She would go on to rule Great Britain for more than 63 years. She died in 1901, with her lengthy and influential reign having spanned much of the 19th century.", "During the twentieth century, kings and queens of the United Kingdom have fulfilled the varied duties of constitutional monarchy. One of their most important roles was national figureheads lifting public morale during the devastating world wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45.", "King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas from 1910 to 1936", "King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas from 1901 to 1910", "9.         How many English kings & queens were crowned during the course of the 20th Century?" ]

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[ "As victory for the United States slowly approached, casualties mounted. A fear in the American high command was that an invasion of mainland Japan would lead to enormous losses on the part of the Allies, as casualty estimates for the planned Operation Downfall demonstrate. President Harry Truman gave the order to drop the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945, hoping that the destruction of the city would break Japanese resolve and end the war. A second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August after it appeared that the Japanese high command was not planning to surrender. Approximately 140,000 people died in Hiroshima from the bomb and its aftereffects by the end of 1945, and approximately 74,000 in Nagasaki.", "Although they had initially courted Soviet intervention, by July the United States had successfully tested the atomic bomb and began to hope Japan would surrender before the Soviet Union arrived. With the Soviet Union preparing to invade through China, the U.S. government dropped the first bomb on August 6 on Hiroshima, killing 80,000 people instantaneously. President Truman, who ordered the bomb, defended it as a way to bring about surrender and save U.S. military lives that would have been lost in a ground invasion of Japan.", "Following victory in Europe, the Allies turned their attention to the South Pacific. After securing control of Iwo Jima, the Philippines, and Okinawa, the Allies made plans for invading Japan. To avoid the heavy casualties predicted to result from such an invasion, President Harry S. Truman (1945–1953), who took office following President Roosevelt's death, authorized the dropping of two atomic bombs. On August 6, 1945, the first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima , and three days later the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki . Japan unconditionally surrendered on September 2.", "Upon assuming the presidency, Harry Truman, who had met privately with Roosevelt only a few times before his death and had never been informed by the president about the construction of the atomic bomb, faced a series of monumental challenges and decisions. During Truman’s initial months in office, the war in Europe ended when the Allies accepted Nazi Germany’s surrender on May 8; the United Nations charter was signed; and the president participated in the Potsdam Conference to discuss postwar treatment of Germany with Great Britain’s Winston Churchill (1874-1965) and the Soviet Union’s Joseph Stalin (1878-1953). In an effort to end the war in the Pacific and prevent the massive U.S. casualties that could result from an invasion of Japan, Truman approved the dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima (on August 6) and Nagasaki (on August 9). Japan’s surrender was announced on August 14, 1945; however, Truman’s use of the atomic bomb continues to be one of the most controversial decisions of any American president.", "In what amounted to the last act of World War II, US forces dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and another on Nagasaki three days later. Ever since, controversy has swirled around the decision to drop those bombs and annihilate those two cities. But exactly who made that decision, and how did it come about? Conventionally, of course, the decision is ascribed to President Harry Truman, but there is in fact very little documentary evidence that he ever made an affirmative decision to drop the bombs. Instead, the most that can be said with certainty is that he did not intervene to stop a process that had already acquired enormous momentum even before he became president on Franklin Roosevelt’s death in April 1945.", "The official U.S. development of the atomic bomb began with the establishment of the Manhattan Project in August 1942. The project brought together scientists from the United States, Great Britain, and Canada to study the feasibility of building an atomic bomb capable of unimaginable destructive power. The project proceeded with no small degree of urgency, since the American government had been warned that Nazi Germany had also embarked on a program to develop an atomic weapon. By July 1945, a prototype weapon was ready for testing. Although Germany had surrendered months earlier, the war against Japan was still raging. On July 16, the first atomic bomb was detonated in the desert near the Los Alamos research facility. Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer, director of the project, watched the mushroom cloud rise into the New Mexico sky. “Now I am become death, destroyer of worlds,” he uttered, reciting a passage from an ancient Hindu text. News of the successful test was relayed to President Harry S. Truman, who was meeting with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Potsdam to discuss the postwar world. Observers at the meeting noted that the news “tremendously pepped up” the president, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill believed that Truman almost immediately adopted a more aggressive tone in dealing with Stalin.", "Every American president makes decisions with enormous repercussions for the future. Some of these decisions prove successful; others turn out to be blunders. In virtually every case, presidents must act with contradictory advice and limited information. At 8:15 a.m., August 6, 1945, an American B-29 released an atomic bomb over Hiroshima, Japan. Within minutes, Japan’s eighth largest city was destroyed. By the end of the year, 140,000 people had died from the bomb’s effects. After the bombing was completed, the United States announced that Japan faced a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which had never been seen on this earth.\" Background: In 1939, Albert Einstein, writing on behalf physicist Leo Szilard and other leading physicists, informed President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Nazi Germany was carrying on experiments in the use of atomic weapons. In October, 1939, the federal government began a modest research program which and later became the two-billion-dollar Manhattan Project. Its purpose was to produce an atomic bomb before the Germans. On December 2, 1942, scientists in Chicago succeeded in starting a nuclear chain reaction, demonstrating the possibility of unleashing atomic power.", "A 2006 textbook, The Americans, suggests that the decision to drop the bomb occurred largely outside moral concerns: “Should the Allies use the bomb to bring an end to the war? Truman did not hesitate. On July 25, 1945, he ordered the military to make final plans for dropping two atomic bombs on Japan.” The paragraph on the decision concludes with a compelling quote from the President himself: “Let there be no mistake about it. I regarded the bomb as a military weapon and never had any doubt it should be used.”", "Following Roosevelt's death on 12 April 1945, President Harry S. Truman was told about the atomic bomb (code‐named “S‐1”) twelve days later. With Germany nearing surrender and the construction of a test device only three months away, Truman created an Interim Committee to study the use of atomic bombs against Japan .", "After Truman had served only 82 days as vice president, Roosevelt died suddenly on April 12, 1945. Though staggered by the burdens thrust on him, Truman quickly took command and in his first address to Congress promised to continue Roosevelt's policies. That July he attended the Potsdam Conference of the Great Powers on urgent international problems. It was his ominous task to authorize the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima on Aug. 6, 1945, and to approve the surrender of the Japanese government on Allied terms in a treaty signed on the battleship Missourion Sept. 2, 1945. After the surrender of Japan, he replaced the model of a heavy gun on his desk with the replica of a shiny new plow. His desk also bore a firm motto of executive decision: \"The Buck Stops Here!\"", "1939: President Franklin D. Roosevelt is presented with a letter signed by Albert Einstein urging the United States to rapidly develop an atomic bomb program.", "The Allies' atomic bomb program was considered to be so sensitive that not even the Vice President of the United States was told of its existence. As a result, Harry S. Truman only learned about the Manhattan Project and its purpose after becoming President upon Franklin Roosevelt's death on April 12. In May, Truman approved the formation of an \"Interim Committee\", an advisory group that would report on the atomic bomb. It consisted of George L. Harrison, Vannevar Bush, James Bryant Conant, Karl Taylor Compton, William L. Clayton, and Ralph Austin Bard, advised by scientists Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, Ernest Lawrence, and Arthur Compton. In a June 1 report, the Committee concluded that the bomb should be used as soon as possible against a war plant surrounded by workers' homes, and that no warning or demonstration should be given. ", "The decision to drop the bombs was not made by Roosevelt, but by the man who followed him, President Harry S. Truman (1884–1972). Although Roosevelt was elected to a fourth term in 1944, he died before World War II ended. He had gone to Warm Springs in 1945, completely exhausted after having returned from a conference of Allied leaders to set the terms for final peace. At the conference, he had forced other leaders to accept his scheme for a United Nations. On April 12, 1945, he suffered a fatal stroke when an artery ruptured in his brain.", "News of the successful test was rushed to President Harry S. Truman , then at the Potsdam Conference , who authorized the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan. Oppenheimer later became an important figure in the debates on the repercussions of this act.", "As a dapper U.S. Army Air Corps officer, Gen. Tibbets was given the monumental task of dropping the world’s first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. And drop it he did, at exactly 8:16 a.m. on Aug. 6, 1945, from a height of 26,000 feet in good weather, accompanied by a crew of 11.", "President Roosevelt, never lived to see the atomic blast. On April 12, 1945, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage and Vice President Harry Truman became the 33rd President. Truman was not aware of the Manhattan Project until the afternoon of Roosevelt’s death, and didn’t receive a full briefing until June 25th. By the time the A-bomb was tested at Trinity Site at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, the Allied powers had defeated Germany. Japan, however, vowed to fight on. ", "Harry S. Truman was elected the thirty-third president. President Truman made the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japan. World War 2 ended five days later.", "way, critics argue, it does not reflect well on the President. If the former is true, evidence suggests Hiroshima and Nagasaki quickly educated the president.  On August 10, having received reports and photographs of the effects of the Hiroshima bomb, Truman ordered a halt to further atomic bombings. That night, Secretary of Commerce Henry Wallace recorded in his diary, \"Truman said he had given orders to stop atomic bombing. He said the thought of wiping out another 100,000 people was too horrible. He didn't like the idea of killing, as he said, 'all those kids'.\" Argument 7: The Atomic Bomb Was Inhumane", "Some people urged the president not to use the atomic bomb on Japan. General Dwight Eisenhower was the commander of the Allied forces in Europe, and would eventually succeed Truman as president. Eisenhower opposed the bomb for two reasons. “First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn’t necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon.\"", "Truman learned of the successful test while at the Potsdam Conference in Germany. After mentioning cryptically to Stalin that the United States had a new weapon, Truman on 24 July ordered preparations for use against Japan. On the 26th, he issued the Potsdam Declaration, a vague modification of unconditional surrender. When Tokyo declined to consider the offer because it did not guarantee retention of the emperor, Truman, on 30 July, ordered the Army Air Forces to use America's two atomic bombs—one uranium‐cored, the other plutonium‐cored—against Japan. On 6 and 9 August, solitary American B‐29s carried out the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The bombings, combined with the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan on 8 August, led Tokyo to surrender on 14 August 1945. World War II ended; the atomic age had begun.", "In August 1943, President Roosevelt decided to create the Manhattan Project to build the atomic bomb. He needed a way to set aside a large sum of money without it becoming obvious what was being done. Roosevelt asked Senate Budget Committee Chairman McKellar if this could be done. McKellar is said to have replied, “Yes, Mr. President, I can do that for you ... now just where in Tennessee are you going to put that thang?”", "\"Little Boy\" was the codename for the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 by the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay, piloted by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets, Jr., commander of the 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces. It was the first atomic bomb to be used as a weapon. The second, the \"Fat Man\", was dropped three days later on Nagasaki.", "He took over the presidency during World War II with the death of Roosevelt. He was called by many the \"average man's average man\" for his appearance and personality, and he was one of the only presidents without a college education. He was an artillery officer in World War One. He was responsible for the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japan to end World War II.", "Top pair of photos: The first atomic bomb lights up the desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico, in a test on July 16, 1945, and Colonel Paul Tibbetts waves from the cockpit of the B-29 Enola Gay, which he would pilot over Hiroshima, Japan, to make history’s first atomic-bomb drop. NATIONAL ARCHIVES  ", "Instead of invading Japan, the United States unleashed the results of the Manhattan Project, which it had begun secretly 1942. Before dropping the atomic bomb, the Allies issued one more plea for the Japanese to surrender, and when they did not, the American B-29 bomber Enola Gay dropped a bomb on the city of Hiroshima . Despite the devastation wrought by this, the first use of a nuclear weapon in warfare, the Japanese still refused to surrender. On August 9, the United States dropped a second bomb, this one on Nagasaki . At this point, Hirohito urged the nation's leaders to surrender. Tojo and several others committed suicide, and on September 2, 1945, Japanese representatives formally surrendered.", "When in late July 1945 the Japanese cabinet rejected the Potsdam Declaration, a renewed Allied demand that Japan surrender unconditionally or face utter destruction, the United States decided to use its new atomic weapons (see Potsdam Conference). On August 6 the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Two days later the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and on August 9 the United States dropped a second bomb on the city of Nagasaki. Faced with such an utterly hopeless situation, the Japanese leadership finally agreed to surrender on August 14 (August 15 in Japan). Japanese emperor Hirohito, speaking for the first time on the radio, broadcast the news to the nation.", "On January 14, 1943 Roosevelt became the first President of the United States to travel via airplane while in office with his flight from Miami, Florida to Morocco to meet with Winston Churchill to discuss World War II. The meeting was concluded on January 24. ", "Top Army Air Force commanders may not have wanted to take responsibility for the first use of nuclear weapons on urban targets and sought formal authorization from Chief of Staff Marshall who was then in Potsdam. [55] On 22 July Marshall asked Deputy Chief of Staff Thomas Handy to prepare a draft; General Groves wrote one which went to Potsdam for Marshall’s approval. Colonel John Stone, an assistant to commanding General of the Army Air Forces Henry H. “Hap” Arnold, had just returned from Potsdam and updated his boss on the plans as they had developed. On 25 July Marshall informed Handy that Secretary of War Stimson had approved the text; that same day, Handy signed off on a directive which ordered the use of atomic weapons on Japan, with the first weapon assigned to one of four possible targets—Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, or Nagasaki. “Additional bombs will be delivery on the [targets] as soon as made ready by the project staff.”", "Within one month, two atomic bombs were dropped on Japan. The event almost instantly ended the war, after which Oppenheimer was made the chairperson of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.", "The physicist known as “the father of the atomic bomb” served as the first director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory beginning in 1943. The first atomic bomb test in New Mexico was on July 16, 1945 and on August 6, 1945 Little Boy was detonated above Hiroshima. After WWII he became chief adviser to the newly-created Atomic Energy Commission.", "The President accepted the S-1 Committee's recommendations. The effort to construct the weapon was turned over to the War Department, which assigned the task to the Army Corps of Engineers. In September 1942, the Corps of Engineers established the Manhattan Engineer District to oversee the development of a nuclear weapon. This effort was code-named the \"Manhattan Project\" (12).", "Became president of the United States in the final year of World War II. He played a major role in the war's outcome by making the decision to use the atomic bomb against Japan." ]

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[ "Florence Nightingale, nicknamed Lady of the Lamp, was a famous English nurse in the Crimean war which was held in Russia.", "Florence Nightingale (1820 – 1910) was a British nurse who was among some of the first women to serve in the army. She was appointed to help during the Crimean war at Scutari Barracks alongside 38 other nurses. The appalling conditions she found in the barracks later led her to the conclusion that there was a need for greater sanitation within the armed forces.", "Florence Nightingale is probably most famous for her work during the Crimean War (1854-1856). Responding to unpopular newspaper reports of the horrendous situation in the English war camp hospitals, Secretary of War Sidney Herbert, a personal friend of Nightingale, consented to let her organize and manage a group of female nurses to go to Turkey. On November 4, 1854, Nightingale and 38 nurses arrived in Scutari, the location of the British camp outside Constantinople. The doctors originally did not welcome the incoming female nurses, but as the number of patients escalated, their help was needed in the overcrowded, undersupplied, and unsanitary hospital (4). Under Florence’s leadership, the nurses brought cleanliness, sanitation, nutritious food and comfort to the patients. Nightingale was known for providing the kind of personal care, like writing letters home for soldiers, that comforted them and improved their psychological health. Her group of nurses transformed the hospital into a healthy environment within six months, and as a result, the death rate of patients fell from 40 to 2 percent (5). In 1857, Florence returned home a heroine. It was the soldiers in Crimea that initially named her the \"Lady with the Lamp\" because of the reassuring sight of her carrying around a lamp to check on the sick and wounded during the night, and the title remained with her (6).", "Florence Nightingale was a famous nurse. She is best known for the work she did to care for the wounded soldiers during the Crimean War , but she also made a big contribution to changing the way in which hospitals were run. She was a celebrity in Victorian times and she has continued to be spoken and written about to this day.", "3. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), English nurse and hospital reformer who organized hospital units during the Crimean war (1853-1856).", "Florence Nightingale was born in Florence, Italy on May 12, 1820. During the Crimean War, she and a team of nurses improved the unsanitary conditions at a British base hospital, reducing the death count by two-thirds. Her writings sparked worldwide health care reform. In 1860 she established St. Thomas’ Hospital and the Nightingale Training School for Nurses. She died August 13, 1910, in London.", "1854 - Florence Nightingale and a staff of 38 nurses were sent to the Crimean War.", "Nightingale came to prominence during the 1850s’ Crimean War for her pioneering work in nursing, and was dubbed “The Lady with the Lamp” after her habit of making rounds at night to tend injured soldiers.", "Florence Nightingale is best known for her work at Scutari hospital, Turkey, during the Crimean War and then afterwards for her role in developing nursing as a profession. She is also known as ‘the lady with the lamp’ and this quotation relates to an article published about her in the Times newspaper on Thursday 8 February 1855, which reads: ‘She is a “ministering angel” without any exaggeration in these hospitals, and as her slender form glides quietly along each corridor every poor fellow’s face softens with gratitude at the sight of her. When all the medical officers have retired for the night, and silence and darkness have settled down upon these miles of prostrate sick, she may be observed alone, with a little lamp in her hand, making her solitary rounds.’ The mention of the miles of sick relates to contemporary reports that the wards at Scutari stretched for four miles.", "The Crimean War was fought from 1853 to 1856 between Imperial Russia and an alliance of France, the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire. The service of Nightingale and her trained staff of 38 volunteer nurses to wounded soldiers in this war made her famous in Britain. Death rates among soldiers due to hospital infection had been very high, and the experience eventually led her to the conviction that the lack of sanitary practices was the cause. This conviction inspired her passionate work in hospital sanitary reform.", "In 1854, the the United Kingdom was brought into the Crimean War (1854-56) on the side of the Ottoman Empire and against Russia. One of the best known figure of that war was Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), who fought for the improvement of the women's condition and pioneered modern nursing (see Claydon House ).", "Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) worked as a nurse at the Institute of Protestant Deaconesses in Kaisersworth, Germany. In 1852, she was appointed Superintendent of the Institution for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen in Distressed Circumstances in London. In 1854, when Britain was fighting the Crimean War, Sir Sidney Herbert, Secretary of War, obtained approval to appoint Miss Nightingale the Superintendent of the Female Nursing Establishment in Turkey. Later that year, she was the leader of a group of 38 nurses who left London for the Barracks Hospital in Scutari. The nurses improved the meals provided to the injured and cared for the approximately 12,000 casualties in the hospital.", "Florence Nightingale's most famous contribution came during the Crimean War, which became her central focus when reports got back to Britain about the horrific conditions for the wounded. On 21 October 1854, she and the staff of 38 women volunteer nurses that she trained, including her aunt Mai Smith, and 15 Catholic nuns (mobilised by Henry Edward Manning) were sent (under the authorisation of Sidney Herbert) to the Ottoman Empire. Nightingale was assisted in Paris by her friend Mary Clarke. They were deployed about 295 nmi across the Black Sea from Balaklava in the Crimea, where the main British camp was based.", "In 1840 Fry opened a training school for nurses. Her programme inspired Florence Nightingale, who took a team of Fry's nurses to assist wounded soldiers in the Crimean War.", "Her gravestone reads simply �F.N. Born 12 May 1820, Died 13 August 1910�; the first-ever military nurses were 24 women under Miss Nightingale, who arrived at Scutari in the Crimea on 4 November 1854 [Source: Robertson/Shell ]; Florence Nightingale�s concern for the troops endured as a British tradition of good medical care in the military sphere; for example, during the Second World War", "As Nightingale was preparing to leave the Harley Street position, she was appointed by the Victorian government to lead a group of thirty-eight women to Ottoman, Turkey, to provide nursing care for British soldiers fighting the Crimean War ( Bostridge, 2008 ; Woodham-Smith, 1983 ). Nightingale’s singular motivation was to improve the plight of the wounded. She stated, “...I did not think of going to give myself a position, but for the sake of common humanity” (as cited in Goldie, 1987 , p.21). Her administrative skills allowed her to negotiate the male worlds of both the military and medicine. She successfully solved the issues of supply purveyance, resolved interpersonal squabbles between nursing factions, and designed care modalities in the face of massive overcrowding, incompetence, uncaring physicians, and a military structure that was outdated and inept. In a letter to her uncle, Nightingale stated that the Purveyor had intentionally withheld supplies for his own gain, noting, “This little Fitzgerald [Purveyor] has starved every hospital when his store was full- & not, as it appears from ignorance, like some of the honorable men who have been our murderers, but from malice prepense.” (Nightingale, March 6, 1856, as cited in Goldie ( 1987 , p. 225).", "During the Crimean War, the British Army went to Crimea without a medical corps or medical service. In the barracks hospital at Scutari the spread of cholera, gangrene and dysentry raged uncontrolled. The Secretary for War persuaded Florence Nightingale to organize a corps of nurses to go to the Crimea. She did so and brought the death rate down by 40%. Her nursing corps became the foundation of modern nursing.", "Some recent commentators have asserted Nightingale's achievements in the Crimean War were exaggerated by the media at the time, to satisfy the public's need for a hero. Nevertheless, critics agree on the decisive importance of her follow-up achievements in professionalising nursing roles for women. In 1860, Nightingale laid the foundation of professional nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of King's College London. In recognition of her pioneering work in nursing, the Nightingale Pledge taken by new nurses, and the Florence Nightingale Medal, the highest international distinction a nurse can achieve, were named in her honour, and the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms include improving healthcare for all sections of British society, advocating better hunger relief in India, helping to abolish laws that were over-harsh to women, and expanding the acceptable forms of female participation in the workforce.", "There are, of course, very few veterans of the war of the Crimea still alive, yet there have been in late years some who remembered the sweet and sympathetic face of Florence Nightingale, and who were never tired of telling about her noble work in the hospitals. It was not only in the details of nursing, but in the gentle and watchful care for his comfort that Miss Nightingale made herself a beautiful memory to the soldier. She lent her aid to the surgeons when strong men turned away in horror, and sustained the courage of the wounded by her appeals to the ties which bound them to home.", "The Crimean War of 1853 catapulted Nightingale and her methods to fame. During the war a scandal broke out about the lack of sufficient medical attention and the unsanitary and inhumane conditions to which injured soldiers were being subjected. The poor reputation earned by previous female nurses was the main cause of the lack of adequate staff.  In an effort to better the treatment of the injured soldiers, Secretary of War Sidney Herbert asked Nightingale to organize a corps of nurses to tend to and assist the sick and injured. On arrival in Scutari, the British base hospital in Constantinople, Nightingale found patients lying on their own excrement, rodents and other pests scurrying among them, and a complete lack of sanitary conditions, which made infectious diseases the number one killer of soldiers rather than battle wounds.", "The Florence Nightingale Museum - Florence Nightingale was a legend in her lifetime but the Crimean War years which made her famous were just two out of a life of ninety years. If you want to find out more than please visit this museum. Exhibitions info | Map", "By her unceasing care of the wounded and sick in the English camps at Crimea, Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) became known as the ‘Lady of the Lamp’. Back in England, she published her reform measures in Notes on Hospitals (1859) and Notes on Nursing (1859), and in 1860 established a school for nurses at St Thomas’s Hospital in London. With her friend Elizabeth Gaskell, Nightingale endeavoured to improve the social and economic situation of those less fortunate in Britain. She knew Dickens, and distributed his books to nurses and soldiers. She also worked with him on the Committee of the Association for Improving Workhouse Infirmaries.", "The war was also famous for the work of nurse Florence Nightingale, who was drawn into the conflict after reading horrific newspaper reports of the suffering of the Allied soldiers.", "From 1854-56, Florence Nightingale headed nursing efforts in English military hospitals in Scutari, Turkey. She established more sanitary conditions and ordered supplies, beginning with clothing and bedding. She gradually won over -- at least enough to get cooperation -- the military doctors. She used significant funds raised by the London Times.", "When the war began, Edith contacted the editor of the Nursing Mirror and Midwives Journal and wrote an article headed ‘Nursing in War Time’ which was published on 22 August 1914. In March 1915, she repeated the process, and sent both a covering letter to the Editor and an article about Brussels under German rule. This in itself contravened German military law. She did not identify herself by name but signed the missive ‘from your Nurse Correspondent’ [2]", "The war became infamously known for military and logistical incompetence. However, it is important to note the work of women who served as army nurses. The scandalous treatment of wounded soldiers in the desperate winter that followed was reported by war correspondents for newspapers, prompting the work of Florence Nightingale and others and introducing modern nursing methods.", "A discussion about nurses of World War I cannot start without the introduction of probably the most prominent nurse of the entire war - Edith Cavell.  Edith Cavell was a British nurse born in 1865.  She trained in a London hospital and in 1907 was appointed as matron of a newly established nursing school in Brussels, Belgium.  By 1910 she had gained so much professional respect and had so advanced the nursing profession in Belgium that she began a nursing professional journal, L'infirmiere.  In 1911 she was a training nurse for three hospitals, 24 schools, and 13 kindergartens.", "Nearly 80% of soldiers admitted to these hospitals died from infections from being in the hospitals, not from their original wounds. Florence Nightingale helped to dramatically change these issues with improvement in hygiene and sanitation in hospitals, which helped drop the rates of infections. After the war, Nightingale set out on a campaign to modernize hospitals. She had a large influence on hospital design and nursing practices used today.", "Florence Nightingale developed modern nursing techniques while treating the wounded. She led a group of 38 volunteer nurses that she had trained to İstanbul, to the Selimiye Barracks in Üsküdar on the Asian side of the Bosphorus. They found overworked medical personnel, overcrowding, a lack of medication and food, and bad hygiene leading to widespread fatal infections. In the first winter, the number of soldiers dying from typhus, typhoid, cholera, and dysentery was ten times the number dying from battle wounds.", "In the Victorian era, nursing was considered a lowly and menial profession in England, and Florence Nightingale’s refusal to marry at age 17 to pursue it disappointed her parents. In July 1850 Nightingale enrolled for 2 weeks of training and enrolled again in July 1851 for 3 more months at the Institution of Protestant Deaconesses at Kaiserswerth, Germany. There she learned basic nursing skills such as the value of patient observation and good hospital organization.", "When World War I erupted in August 1914, Edith Cavell was in her seventh year as the head matron of the Berkendael Medical Institute, a nurse training school in Brussels, Belgium. The grey-haired nurse was visiting family in England on the eve of Germany’s invasion of Belgium, but she immediately packed her bags and rushed back to her students. “At a time like this I am more needed than ever,” she told her worried mother. Cavell’s school was converted into a Red Cross hospital, and as the wounded began pouring in from the front, she treated all soldiers regardless of nationality. “Each man is a father, husband or son,” she reminded her nurses. “The profession of nursing knows no frontiers.”", "She joined Queen Alexandra�s Imperial Military Nursing Service (Reserve) in December, 1914, serving in England (at Netley Hospital and on ambulance trains , etc,), until October, 1916. She then went to France and served in hospitals at Boulogne, Lillers, St. Omer, Le Treport and Dieppe." ]

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